1

Biodiversity and its conservation. In situ conservation of biodiversity.

Threats to biodiversity. Endangered and endemic species of India,

germplasm conservation

Definition:

‘Biological diversity’ or biodiversity is that part of nature which includes the

differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all

the plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally, in a region, in the

country and the world, and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic,

within a defined area.

The word BIODIVERSITY Originates from the Greek word BIOS = LIFE and

Latin word DIVERSITAS = VARIETY or DIFFERENCE. The whole word BIO

DIVERSITY generally therefore means: VARIETY OF LIFE.

Why is biodiversity important?

Everything that lives in an ecosystem is part of the web of life, including humans.

Each species of vegetation and each creature have a place on the earth and play a vital

role in the circle of life. Plant, animal, and insect species interact and depend upon one

another for what each offers, such as food, shelter, oxygen, and soil

enrichment. Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each ecosystem is necessary to

preserve the web of life that sustains all living things. In his 1992 best-seller, "The

Diversity of Life," famed Harvard University biologist Edward O. Wilson known as

the "father of biodiversity," -- said, "It is reckless to suppose that biodiversity can be

diminished indefinitely without threatening humanity itself."

2

Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. The

term differs from biodiversity, which refers to variation in species rather than

ecosystems.

� Includes diversity above the species level. Biologists have viewed

diversity above the species level in various ways. Some alternative ways to

categorize it include: Community diversity, Habitat diversity, Landscape

diversity

Species diversity is the effective number of different species that are represented in a

collection of individuals

species = a particular type of organism; a population or group of populations whose

members share certain characteristics and can freely breed with one another and

produce fertile offspring

› Species diversity = the number or variety of species in a particular region

› Species richness = number of species

› Evenness, or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of different species

are equal or skewed

Genetic diversity, the level of biodiversity refers to the total number

of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species.

• Includes the differences in DNA composition among individuals within a given

species.

• Adaptation to particular environmental conditions may weed out genetic

variants that are not successful.

• But populations benefit from some genetic diversity, so as to avoid inbreeding

or disease epidemics.

3

Biodiversity in India

• India is known for its rich heritage of biodiversity.

• India is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world.

• With only 2.4 % of the world’s area, India accounts for 7–8 % of the world’s

recorded plant and animal species.

• India’s ten biogeographic zones possess an exemplary diversity of ecological

habitats like alpine forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine

ecosystems, and desert ecosystems.

• Amongst the existing biota, 91,307 species of animals of which 2,557 Protista,

12,470 general invertebrates, 69,903 arthropods, 4,994 vertebrates, and 45,500

species of plants as well as 5,650 microbial species have been documented in

its 10 bio-geographic regions.

• India has four out of thirty-four global biodiversity hotspots, which is an

indicator of high degree of endemism (of species) in India.

• About 5,150 plant species and 1,837 animal species are endemic to India.

• India’s biodiversity includes wild relatives of agricultural crops and

domesticated animals.

• India has 16 major types and 251 subtypes of forests.

• Indigenous medicine systems utilize nearly 6,500 native plants for both human

and animal healthcare.

• India’s diverse preponderance of native tribal and ethnic groups has contributed

significantly in the conservation and diversification of biodiversity. Its cultural

and ethnic diversity includes over 550 tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups

spread over 5,000 forested villages. India proudly upholds the tradition of

nature conservation.

• In 252 B.C., the Emperor Asoka established protected areas (PAs) for

mammals, birds, fish and forests through a proclamation. Jim Corbett National

Park covering an area of 325 sq km came into being as the India’s first and

world’s third National Park in 1936.

• India has currently 4.79 % of total geographic area under an elaborate network

of PAs, which includes 99 National Parks, 513 wildlife sanctuaries, 43

conservation reserves, 4 community reserves and 3 biodiversity heritage sites.

• India has a National Wildlife Action Plan, which envisages 10 % of the

geographical area of the country under PA coverage.

BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY

Consumptive value:

� Food/Drink

� Fuel

� Medicine

� Batter crop varieties

4

� Industrial Material

Non-Consumptive Value:

� Recreation

� Education and Research

� Traditional value

Ecological services:

� Balance of nature

� Biological productivity

� Regulation of climate

� Degradation of waste

� Cleaning of air and water

� Cycling of nutrients

� Control of potential pest and disease causing species

� Detoxification of soil and sediments

� Stabilization of land against erosion

� Carbon sequestration and global climate change

� Maintenance of Soil fertility

� Flora and fauna diversity depends on-Climate, Altitude, soils, Presence of other

species.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS:

� A region with high biodiversity with most of spices being Endemic.

� India has two Biodiversity Hotspots- East Himalayan Region and Western

Ghat.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Natural causes:

� Narrow geographical area

� Low population

� Low breeding rate

� Natural disasters

Anthropogenic causes:

� Habitat modification

� Overexploitation of selected species

� Innovation by exotic species.

� Pollution

� Hunting

� Global warming and climate change

� Agriculture

� Domino effect

Conservation approaches: International treaties

5

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the Rio Conference in 1992,

aims to:

•Conserve biodiversity

•Use it sustainably

•Ensure fair distribution of its benefits

The CBD has been signed by 188 nations, but not by the United States.

� Biodiversity is the variety of life forms on earth and the essential

interdependence of all living things.

� As defined in convention on Biological diversity singed at Rio De Jenerio

(Brazil) in 1992 by 154 countries, the Biodiversity defined as “the variability

among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,

marine and other aquatic eco-systems and the ecological complexes of which

the area part- this include diversity within species, between species and of

ecosystem.”

� According to IUCN in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their

population, the variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the

complex association with species with their interaction and their ecological

process which influences perform.”

� The first convention on biodiversity organized at Rio De Janerio, capital of

Brazil from June 5 to 16, 1992 named as United Nation Conference On

Environment and Development (UNCED), better known as Rio Summit to

maintain ecological balance and enrich biodiversity. The agreement on

biodiversity signed by 150 countries including three programmes-

� To ensure conservation of biodiversity

� Sustainable use of biodiversity

� Rational and equitable share of profit to accrue from use of genetic resources.

� The second convention organized at Johannesburg in 2002 called World

Summit On Sustainable Development (WSSD) where the Biodiversity and

Sustainable Ecosystem Management was the issue.

� The International Conference held on Biodiversity in Relation to Food &

Human Security in a warming planet 15-17 February, 2010 in Chennai.

� International Conference on Wildlife & Biodiversity Conservation held on 3 to

5 June, 2010 at Dal lake, Srinagar, Kashmir.

� Indian Biodiversity Congress (IBC) & Indian Biodiversity Expo(IBE) will be

held on 27-31 December at Thriuvananthapuram, Kerala

Endangered and endemic species of India

6

The endangered species are those living organisms which are almost on the verge of

extinction. Thousands of species of plants and animals are endangered and the number

increases each year.

Causes for species becoming endangered

• Destruction of habitat

• Wildlife trade

• Overhunting

Effects on Nature

� Disruption of food chains and food webs.

� Their absence hampers national wealth.

� Affects national biodiversity.

� Ecological Imbalance.

Endangered medicinal plants of India

1. Aconitum heterophyllum- critically Endangered

Family: Ranunculaceae

Vernacular names: Atis, Aconite, Ativish

Parts traded: Rhizomes

Qty. traded: 200 – 300 MT/Yr.

Threats: Loss of Habitat, Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts.

In situ: Uttaranchal – Tungnatu, Kar Ki dun valley.

Habitat: Alpine to Sub-alpine open slopes. Common on grassy Meadows, upper Oak/

Coniferous forest (2500 – 4500 mASL).

2. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam – vulnerable

Family: Myrsinaceae

Vernacular names: Vidanga (Sanskrit), Babrang, Wawrung (Hindi), Vidang Bhed,

Vibidang (Trade)

Parts traded: Fruits

Qty. traded: 1000 – 2000 MT/Yr.

Habitat: Subtropical forest edges, Foot hills.

Threats: Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts.

Remarks: Widely used in Ayurvedic Preparations

3. Ephedra gerardiana – Endangered

Family: Ephedraceae

Vernacular names: Chhi (Spiti), Somlata (Trade)

Parts traded: Entire Plant

Qty. traded: 200 – 500 MT/Yr.

Habitat: North limit of vegetation; in open slopes amongst rocks. Dry riverine, loose

sandy situations.

Locations: Kumaon, Garhwal

Threats: Harvest for medicine, Overexploitation, Traded for parts.

7

Remarks: Entire plant is uprooted for fuel in large quantities. Traded as SOMA. E.

intermedia is an adulterant. Used as hedge plant in Mana & Niti villages.

4. Swertia chirayita- Endangered

Family: Gentianaceae

Vernacular names: Chirayita, Kirata-tikta, Bhunimba, Chirata.

Parts traded: Whole plants

Qty. traded: 500 – 1000 MT/Yr.

Habitat: Temperate Himalaya

Locations: Chakrata hills, Dayara bugiyal, Didtal, Valley of flowers, Kedar valley,

Nainital.

Threats: Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts, Loss of habitat due to weeds &

fragmentation.

Remarks: All species of Swertia except Swertia speciosa are sold in the market as

‘Chirayita’. Sometimes Andrographis paniculata is also used as Chirayita.

5. Taxus wallichiana - Endangered

Family: Taxaceae

Vernacular names: Thuna / Brahmi / Rakhal, Yew, Birmi tallish, Birmi telwali.

Parts traded: Leaf, Bark

Qty. traded: 100 – 200 MT/Yr.

Habitat: Under storey tree in Fir / Spruce & Kharsu forests.

Locations: Kumaon, Garhwal.

Threats: Heavy destructive exploitation, Habitat loss, Insect & pathogens.

Remarks: Very slow growing.

6. Commiphora wightii - critically endangered

Family: Burseraceae

Vernacular name: Guggul

Trade name: Dhoop, Guggal, Guggalwati

Parts traded: Oleo gum resin

Qty. traded: 500-1000 MT/Yr.

Uses: Arthritis, indigestion, skin disease, piles, paralysis, constipation, heart diseases,

cough and urinary calculi.

Equivalents: Boswellia serrata (Salai guggul), C. myrrha, C. roxburghii.

Threats: Loss of Habitat, Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts.

Habitat: Saharo-Arabian region to deserts of Rajasthan.

7. Rauvolfia serpentina - Critically Endangered

Family: Apocynaceae

Vernacular names: Sarpagandha, Chotachand, Chandrika.

Qty. traded: Roots. 200 – 500 MT/Yr.

Uses: Mental disorders, poisoning and cholera.

Habitat: Indo-Malaysia & Sri Lanka. Tropical and subtropical areas. 400-1600 m.

8

Threats: Harvest for medicine, Loss of habitat, Trade.

Remarks: Included in Negative List of Exports (1998).

Trade: During 2004-2005, India exported 1.3 MT of Serpentina roots, valued at Rs 99,

361 and 28 MT were imported for a value of Rs. 8.7 Lakhs.

Adulterants: R. densiflora, R. micrantha, R. tetraphylla & Tabernaemontana

divaricata.

8. Oroxylum indicum

Family: Bignoniaceae

Vernacular names: Fari, Tentu, Falla

Trade name: Tetumool

Parts traded: Roots, Bark

Qty. traded: 1200 MT/Yr.

Uses: Diarrhoea, abdominal diseases and diseases of nose and ear. An ingredient of

Dasamoola arishtam.

Equivalents: Ailanthes excelsa (Arluka / Arlu) - as substitute in parts of Rajasthan and

Gujarat.

Threats: Loss of Habitat, Harvest for medicine, Traded for parts.

Habitat: Indo-Malesia. Foot hills & hill slopes (up to 500 m).

9. Stereospermum chelonoides - Near Threatened (in CHH)

Family: Bignoniaceae

Vernacular names: Padal

Trade name: Patala

Parts traded: Roots

Qty. traded: 1000-2000 MT/Yr.

Uses: Roots: “Dashamoola”. Wounds, loss of taste, thirst, diarrhoea, piles, cough,

respiratory disorders etc.

Equivalents: S. colais

Threats: Harvest for medicine, Loss of Habitat, Traded for parts.

Habitat: Indo-Malesia to Indo-China.

Endemic Species

When a species is found only in a particular geographical region because of its

isolation, soil and climatic conditions, it is said to be endemic.

Causes for Endemism

• Narrow ecological amplitude.

• Poor adaptability.

• Geographical barriers.

• Changing climatic conditions.

Endemic species

1. Hydnocarpus pentandra family: flacourtiaceae

9

Vernacular names: Tamil: Maravetti, Maravattai, Marotti Malayalam: Kodi,

Maravatty, Marotti, Nirvatta, Nirvetti

Chaulmoogra oil, extracted from H. wightiana was an early treatment for leprosy.

Ecology: Common understorey trees in wet evergreen forests and along streams,

generally up to 1000 m sometimes extends up to 1700 m.

Distribution : Endemic to the Western_Ghats- very common in South and Central

Sahyadris.

2. Cinnamomum wightii- lauraceae

Regional name: vellakodala, kattukaruva

Use: for the extraction volatile oil

Ecology: Under storey trees in high elevation to montane evergreen forests

between 1400 and 2400 m.

Distribution :Endemic to the Western_Ghats- Anamalai, Palani and Nilgiris.

3. Artocarpus hirsutus- moraceae

Regional name : Anjili, aini maram, wild jack tree.

The fruit, leaves and bark are used for diarrhoea, pimples and indigestion.

Canopy trees in disturbed evergreen forests up to 900 m.

Distribution: Endemic to the Western_Ghats- South, Central and Maharashtra

Sahyadris

4. Garcinia indica- Clusiaceae

Regional names: Kokum

Medicinal use: anti oxidant, anxiolytic properties

Garcinia indica is indigenous to the Western Ghats region of India located along the

western coast of the country. Of the 35 species found in India, 17 are endemic.

5. Trichopus zeylanicus subsp. Travancoricus- dioscoreaceae

Regional name: arogya pacha

Isolated of 12 active compounds and developed a drug "Jevaani". an immune-

enhancing, restoractive_ anti-fatigue and anti-stres agent. ln 1996 the Indian Tropical

Botanical Garden Research lnstitute (TBGRI) filed a patent application for a process

of manufacturing a herbal sport medicine, which was based on the compounds

isolated from arogyapacha.

Endemic to the north Western Ghats.

10

In situ conservation of biodiversity, germplasm conservation

Introduction

Ever since primitive man learned the art of learning and realised the economic utility

of plants, he started saving selected seeds or vegetative propagules from one season to

next. Conservation of forest resources was taught and decreed in part of India and

China as far back as (700 B.C).

The concept of physical basis of heredity expressed by the 19th-century

Biologist August Weismann. According to his theory, germplasm, which is

independent from all other cells of the body (somatoplasm), is the essential element

of germ cells (eggs and sperm) and is the hereditary material that is passed from

generation to generation. Weismann first proposed this theory in 1883, it was later

published in (1892; The Germplasm: A Theory of Heredity ). Bajaj 1995 and Staristky

1997 reported that some of the valuable gene pools might be lost unless co-ordinated

efforts are made towards the conservation of genetic stock all over the world.

Realising the danger of genetic resources the U.N Conference on Human

Environment held in Stockholm in 1972, recommended conservation of the habitat

that are rich in genetic diversity.

What is Germplasm?

Germplasm broadly refer to the hereditary material (total content of gene) transmitted

to the offspring through germ cell. It is also used to describe a collection of genetic

resources for an organism. For plants, the germplasm may be stored as a seed

collection or, for trees, in a nursery.

Plant germplasm is the genetic source material used by the plant breeders to develop

new cultivars.

They may include :-

• Seeds

Other plant propagules such as

• Leaf

• Stem

• Pollen

• Cultured cells

Which can be grown into mature plant.

Germplasm provide the raw material (genes) which the breeder used to develop

commercial crop varieties.

Need for Conservation of plant Germplasm

• Loss of genetic diversity among crop plant species.

• Human dependence on plant species for food and many different uses. E.g. :

Basic food crops, building materials, oils, lubricants, rubber and other latexes,

resins, waxes, perfumes, dyes fibres and medicines.

11

• Species extinction and many others are threatened and endangered –

deforestation.

• Great diversity of plants is needed to keep the various natural ecosystems

functioning stably – interactions between species.

• Aesthetic value of natural ecosystems and the diversity of plant species.

Mode of conservation

In situ conservation:- is on-site conservation or conservation of genetic resources in a

natural population of plants, such as forests genetic resources in natural population of

tree species.

It is the process of protecting an endangered plant in its natural habitat either by

protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators.

It is applied to conservation of agriculture biodiversity in agro ecosystem by farmers,

especially those using unconventional farming practice.

Ex-situ conservation :- means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the process of

protecting an endangered species of plant or animal outside of its natural habitat; for

example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it

in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans.

Ex situ conservation can be carried out by using several methods:-.

� Seed gene bank

� In vitro storage

� DNA storage

� Pollen storage

� Field gene bank

12

� Botanical gardens

In vitro method for germplasm conservation

In vitro method employing shoots, meristems and embryos are ideally suited for the

conservation of germplasm. The plant with recalcitrant seeds and genetically

engineered can also be preserved by this in vitro approach.

There are several advantages associated with in vitro germplasm conservation

� Large quantities of material can be preserved in small space

� The germplasm preserved can be maintained in an environment free from

pathogens.

� It can be protected against the nature’s hazards

� From the germplasm stock large number of plants can be obtained whenever

needed.

There are three main approaches for the In vitro conservation of germplasm

1. Cryopreservation

2. Cold storage

3. Low – pressure and low oxygen - storage

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation (Greek, krayos-frost) literally mean in the frozen state. The

principal involved in cryopreservation to bring the plant cells and tissue cultures to a

zero metabolism or non-dividing state by reducing the temperature in the presence of

caryoprotectants.

Cryopreservation broadly means the storage of germplam at very low temperature.

• Over solid carbon dioxide (at 79⁰C)

• Low temperature deep freezers (at -80⁰C)

• In liquid nitrogen (at -196⁰C)

• Among these the most commonly used cryopreservation is by employing liquid

nitrogen. At the temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196⁰C), the cell stay in a

completely inactive state and thus can be conserved for longer period. Infact

cryopreservation has been successfully applied for germplasm conservation .

Plant species e.g. rice, wheat, peanut, sugarcane ,coconut.

The technique of freeze preservation is based on the transfer of water present in the

cells from a liquid to solid state. Due to the presence of salts and organic molecules in

the cells, the cell water requires much more lower temperature to freeze (even up to -

68°C) compared to the freezing point of pure water (around 0°C) . When stored at

low temperature , the metabolic processes and biological deteriorations in the

cells/tissues almost come to standstill.

13

Technique of cryopreservation

The cryopreservation of plant cell culture followed the regeneration of plants broadly

involves the following stages

1. Development of sterile tissue culture.

2. Addition of cryoprotectant and pretreatment

3. Freezing

4. Storage

5. Thawing

6. Reculture

7. Measurement of survival/viability

8. Plant regeneration

1. Development of sterile tissue culture.

The selection of plant species and the tissue with particular reference to the

morphological and physiological characters largely influence the ability of the

explants to survive in cryopreservation . Any tissue from a plant can be used

for cryopreservation e.g. meristems, embryos, endosperm, ovules, seeds,

culture plants cells, protoplast, callus.

2. Addition of cryoprotectant.

14

Cryoprotectant are the compound that can be prevent the damage caused to cells by

freezing or thawing. There are several cryoprotectant which include (DMSO),

glycerol, ethylene, propylene , sucrose, mannose, glucose , proline and acetamide.

Among these DMSO, sucrose and glycerol are most widely used.

3. Freezing

The sensitivity of the cell to low temperature is variable and largely depends on the

plant species. Four different types of freezing method are used:

Slow freezing method : The tissue is slowly frozen at 0.5-5°C/min from 0°C to -

100°C,and then transferred to liquid nitrogen.

Rapid freezing method : Decrease in temperature up to -300 to -1000°C.

Stepwise freezing method: Intermediate temperature for 30 min. and rapidly cool.

Dry freezing method :Reported that non- germinated dry seeds can survive freezing at

low temperature in contrast to water imbibing seeds which are susceptible to

cryogenic injuries.

4. Storage

Maintenance of the frozen cultures at the specific temperature is as important as

freezing . In general the frozen cells/tissues are kept for storage at temperatures in the

range of -72 to -196°C. Storage is ideally done in liquid nitrogen refrigerator – at

150°C in the vapour phase, or at -196°C in the liquid phase.

The ultimate objective of storage is to stop all the cellular metabolic activities and

maintain their viability. For long term storage temperature at -196°C in liquid nitrogen

is ideal.

5. Thawing

Thawing is usually carried out by plunging the frozen samples in ampoules into a

warm water (temp 37 – 45°C) bath with vigorous swirling. By this approach, rapid

thawing (at the rate of 500-750°C min¯ ¹) occurs, and this protects the cells from the

damaging effects ice crystal formation.

As the thawing occurs (ice completely melts ) the ampoules are quickly transferred to

a water bath at temperature 20-25°C. This transfer is necessary since the cells get

damaged if left for long in warm (37-45°C) water bath.

6. Reculture

15

In general thawned germplasm is washed several times to remove cryoprotectant. The

material is then recultured in a fresh media.

7. Plant regeneration

The ultimate purpose of cryopreservation of germplasm is to regenerate the desired

plant. For appropriate plant growth and regeneration, the cryopreserved cell/tissues

have to be carefully nursed, grown. Addition of certain growth promoting substances,

besides maintenance of appropriate environmental conditions is often necessary for

successful plant regeneration

Applications of germplasam conservation

� Plant materials (cell/tissue) of several species can be cryopreserved and

maintained for several years, and used as and when needed.

� Cryopreservation is an ideal method for long term conservation of cell culture

which produce secondary metabolites e.g. medicines

� Disease (pathogen) free plant material can be frozen and propagated whenever

required.

� Recalcitrant seeds can be maintained for long .

16

� Conservation of somaclonal and gametoclonal variation in culture.

� Plant material from endangered species can be conserved.

� Cryopreservation is a good method for the selection of cold resistant mutant

cell lines which could develop into frost resistant plant .

Limitations of germplasm conservation

� The expensive equipment needed to provide controlled and variable rates of

cooling/warming temperatures can however be a limitation in the application of

in vitro technology for large scale germplasm conservation.

� Formation of ice crystal inside the cell should be prevented as they cause injury

to the cell.

� Sometimes certain solutes from the cell leak out during freezing.

� Cryoprotectants also affect the viability of cells.

Saju Thomas

Assistant professor

Cps, Medical College Alappuzha