bio1130 keywords

8/17/2019 BIO1130 Keywords

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Biology Key Words- Exam

Organizing the Living World

Adaptive radiation - Diversification of a species or single ancestral type into several forms

that are each adaptively specialized to a specific environmental niche. o radiate means tospread o!t"ard# it refers to one or a fe" species "hich diversify $%spread o!t%& and generate

m!ltiple da!ghter species. he most common sit!ations "hich res!lt in adaptive radiation

occ!r follo"ing mass extinctions# or "hen species move into ne"# !nocc!pied regions.

Dar"in 'inches

When (harles Dar"in "as in the )alapagos *slands# one of the first things he noticed is the

variety of finches that existed on each of the islands. All in all# there "ere many different

species of finch "hich differed in +ea, shape and overall size. his is adaptive radiation and

nat!ral selection at "or,.

hese finches# +etter ,no"n as Dar"ins 'inches ill!strated adaptive radiation. his is

"here species all deriving from a common ancestor have over time s!ccessf!lly adapted to

their environment via nat!ral selection.

revio!sly# the finches occ!pied the /o!th American mainland# +!t someho" managed to

occ!py the )alapagos islands# over 011 miles a"ay. hey occ!pied an ecological niche "ith

little competition.

As the pop!lation +egan to flo!rish in these advantageo!s conditions# intraspecific

competition +ecame a factor# and reso!rces on the islands "ere s2!eezed and co!ld not

s!stain the pop!lation of the finches for long.

- D!e to the mechanisms of nat!ral selection# and changes in the gene pool# thefinches +ecame more adapted to the environment# ill!strated +y the diagram +elo".

As competition gre"# the finches managed to find ne" ecological niches that "o!ld present

less competition and allo" them# and their genome to +e contin!ed.


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As indicated +y the diagram a+ove# the finches adapted to ta,e advantage of the vario!s

food so!rces availa+le on the island# "hich "ere +eing !sed +y other species. Over the long

term# the original finch species may have disappeared# +!t +y diversifying# "o!ld stand a

+etter chance of s!rvival.

All in all# the finches had adapted to their environment via nat!ral selection# "hich in t!rn#

has allo"ed the species to s!rvive in the longer term# the prime directive of any species.

Advanced characters 3 similarities +et"een organisms that "ere not in the last common

ancestor of the taxa +eing considered +!t rather evolved separately. $/imilarity of f!nction

and s!perficial resem+lance of str!ct!res that have different origins.&

'or example# the "ings of a fly# a moth# and a +ird are analogo!s +eca!se they developed

independently as adaptations to a common f!nction4flying. he presence of the analogo!s

str!ct!re# in this case the "ing# does not reflect evol!tionary closeness among the

organisms that possess it.

Another important example "o!ld +e the development of a camera-type eye in +oth

moll!s,s and verte+rates. his example of analogo!s str!ct!res is especially !sef!l +eca!seone of most common claims made +y religio!s creationists is that something as complex as

an eye co!ldnt possi+ly have evolved nat!rally - they insist that the only via+le explanation

is a s!pernat!ral designer $"hich is al"ays their god# tho!gh they rarely admit this o!tright&.

he fact that eyes in different species are analogo!s str!ct!res proves not only that the eye

co!ld evolve nat!rally# +!t that it in fact evolved several times# independently# and in

slightly different "ays. he same is tr!e of other analogo!s str!ct!res as "ell# and this is

+eca!se certain f!nctions $li,e +eing a+le to see& are 5!st so !sef!l that its inevita+le they

"ill evolve event!ally. 6o s!pernat!ral +eings# "hether gods or not# are necessary to

explain or !nderstand ho" eyes evolved m!ltiple times.

Apomorphy 3

A derived characteristic of a clade# or derived state is a characteristic +elieved to have

evolved "ithin the tree. 'or example# all tetrapods have fo!r lim+s7 th!s# having fo!r lim+s

is an apomorphy for verte+rates +!t a plesiomorphy for tetrapods.


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8a"s for example# "o!ld +e an apormophy descri+ed in the cladogram a+ove.

A!toapomorphy#

*n cladistics# an a!tapomorphy is a distinctive anatomical feat!re# ,no"n as a derived trait#

that is !ni2!e to a given terminal gro!p. hat is# it is fo!nd only in one mem+er of a clade#

+!t not fo!nd in any others or o!tgro!p taxa# not even those most closely related to the

gro!p $"hich may +e a species# family or in general any clade&. *t can therefore +e

considered an apomorphy in relation to a single taxon

Binomen#

he com+ination of t"o names# the first +eing a generic name and the second a specific

name# that together constit!te the scientific name of a species. Example Canis lupus wolf

Both names are typed in italics# +!t only the generic name is capitalised.

(amera eye#

Descri+ed in advanced characters

(haracter convergence#

process "here+y t"o relatively evolved species interact so that one converges to"ard the

other "ith respect to one or more traits.

(haracter polarity#

(haracter polarity is the iss!e of the evol!tionary history of a character9 given t"o character

states# "hich "e call a and a # "e need to ,no" "hether a evolved from a or the other

"ay ro!nd. Discerning character polarity is a f!ndamental tas, of phylogeny.

(haracter reversal#


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he re-esta+lishment of an ancestral character state thro!gh the loss of an evol!tionary

novelty $apomorphy&. 'or example# "inged insects $terygota& evolved from a "ingless

ancestor7 ho"ever# some pterygote lineages have s!+se2!ently lost their "ings# e.g.# fleas#

lice# some grasshoppers and +eetles.

(ladistics#

(ladistics emerged in the :;


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the taxonomic categories applied to the +ranches in a clade sho!ld +e monophyletic# or

cover an ancestor and all its descendants. (ladograms sho!ld not +e seen as evol!tionary

fact# +!t only as a possi+le path for speciation.

(lassical taxonomy#

he oldest form of taxonomy is "hat is no" called classical taxonomy and it is concernedprimarily "ith the description# naming# and classification of organisms +ased on their

morphological characteristics. An adaptation of classical taxonomy is no" ta,ing into

acco!nt molec!lar and +iochemical $chemosystematics& data that is no" availa+le.

(lassification#

A classification is an arrangement of organisms into hierarchical gro!ps that reflect their

relatedness. @ost systematists "ant classifications to mirror phylogenetic history and# th!s#

the adaptive radiation $evol!tionary history& of the gro!p of organisms in 2!estion.

(ommon ancestor#

an ancestor that t"o or more descendants have in common. Biological evol!tion also

incl!des the idea that all of life is connected and can +e traced +ac, to one common

ancestor.

(onvergent evol!tion# >enning#

(onvergent evol!tion represents a phenomenon "hen t"o distinct species "ith differing

ancestries evolve to display similar physical feat!res. Environmental circ!mstances that

re2!ire similar developmental or str!ct!ral alterations for the p!rposes of adaptation can

lead to convergent evol!tion even tho!gh the species differ in descent. hese adaptation

similarities that arise as a res!lt of the same selective press!res can +e misleading to

scientists st!dying the nat!ral evol!tion of a species. 'or example# the "ings of all flying

animals are very similar +eca!se the same la"s of aerodynamics apply. hese la"s

determine the specific criteria that govern the shape for a "ing# the size of the "ing# or the

movements re2!ired for flight. All these characteristics are irrespective of the animal

involved or the physical location. *n vario!s species of plants# "hich share the same

pollinato

Dendrogram#

is a tree diagram fre2!ently !sed to ill!strate the arrangement of the cl!sters prod!ced +y

hierarchical cl!stering. Dendrograms are often !sed in comp!tational +iology to ill!strate

the cl!stering of genes or samples.

'or a cl!stering example# s!ppose this data is to +e cl!stered

!sing E!clidean distance as the distance metric.

Derived characters#

Among a given gro!p of organisms# the shared derived


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characters are generally the less common characters. he evol!tionary interpretation is that

these characters of organisms are more recently evolved. hey are contrasted "ith primitive

characters. /hared derived characters sho!ld have the same str!ct!re and f!nction.

Derived characters are present mem+ers of : gro!p of the line +!t not in the common

ancestor. 'ro Example9 comparing fish mammals. fish have scales and mammals have

hair. so having hair is a derived character for mammals +eca!se only the mammals have

ancestors "ith hair.

Dichotomy#

A dichotomy is a split into t"o parts "hich are considered to +e either contradictory or

m!t!ally excl!sive. 'or example# the colors +lac, and "hite represent a classic dichotomy9

either something is +lac,# or it is "hite# "ith no room for overlap or alternatives.

Dichotomies are !sed in a n!m+er of "ays and in an assortment of fields# from philosophy to

+iology# and learning to thin, a+o!t dichotomies can +e important. *t is also a good idea to

learn to identify a false dichotomy7 a dichotomy "hich is not# in other "ords# a tr!e

dichotomy

Divergent evol!tion#

Divergent evol!tion occ!rs "hen a gro!p from a specific pop!lation develops into a ne"

species. *n order to adapt to vario!s environmental conditions# the t"o gro!ps develop into

distinct species d!e to differences in the demands driven +y the environmental

circ!mstances. A good example of ho" divergent evol!tion occ!rs is in comparing ho" a

h!man foot evolved to +e very different from a mon,eys foot# despite their common

primate ancestry. *t is spec!lated that a ne" species $h!mans& developed +eca!se there

"as no longer "as a need for s"inging from trees. pright "al,ing on the gro!nd re2!ired

alterations in the foot for +etter speed and +alance. hese differing traits soon +ecame

characteristics that evolved to permit movement on the gro!nd. Altho!gh h!mans and

mon,eys are genetically similar# their nat!ral ha+itat re2!ired different physical traits to

evolve for s!rvival.

Evol!tionary taxonomy#

Evol!tionary taxonomy can +e considered a mixt!re of phenetics and cladistics. *t classifies

organisms partly according to their evol!tionary +ranching pattern and partly according to

the overall morphological similarity. Evol!tionary taxonomy is +asically the method !sed +y

the early evol!tionary taxonomists and is also called classical taxonomy.

'ol, taxonomy#

A fol, taxonomy is a vernac!lar naming system# and can +e contrasted "ith scientific

taxonomy. 'ol, taxonomies are generated from social ,no"ledge and are !sed in everyday

speech. Anthropologists have o+served that taxonomies are generally em+edded in local

c!lt!ral and social systems# and serve vario!s social f!nctions.

'!ngi#

'!ngi are heterotrophic e!,aryotes that o+tain car+on +y +rea,ing do"n organic molec!les

synthesized +y other organisms. Altho!gh all f!ngi are heterotrophs# f!ngi can +e divided

into t"o +road gro!ps +ased on ho" they o+tain car+on. *f a f!ng!s o+tains car+on from


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nonliving material# it is a saprotroph . '!ngi that decompose dead plant and animal tiss!es#

for example# are saprotrophs. *f a f!ng!s o+tains car+on from living organisms# it is a

sym+iont . /ym+iosis is the living together of t"o $or sometimes more& organisms for

extended periods7 sym+iotic relationships range along a contin!!m from parasitism # in

"hich one organism +enefits at the expense of the other# to m!t!alism # in "hich +oth

organisms +enefit. Altho!gh "e often thin, of f!ngi as decomposers# f!lly half of all

identified f!ngi live as sym+ionts "ith another organism.

>ierarchical#

Arranged in a hierarchy# in "hich the items are represented as +eing %a+ove#% %+elo"#% or

%at the same level as% one another. A+stractly# a hierarchy is simply an ordered set or an

acyclic graph.

>omologo!s#

>aving the same typical str!ct!re and position. *nBiology homologo!s may refer to t"o anatomical

str!ct!res or +ehavioral traits "ithin different organisms

"hich originated from a str!ct!re or trait of their

common ancestral organism. he str!ct!res or traits in

their c!rrent forms may not necessarily perform the

same f!nctions in each organism# nor perform the

f!nctions it did in the common ancestor. An example9

the "ing of a +at# the fin of a "hale and the arm of a man are homologo!s str!ct!res.

>omology#

A homology is a character shared +et"een species that "as also present in their commonancestor.

his can +e contrasted "ith homoplasy# "hich is a convergent character shared +et"een

species +!t not present in their common ancestor.

>omologies are divided into derived homologies and ancestral homologies9 a derived

homology is one that is !ni2!e to a partic!lar gro!p of species $and their ancestor& and an

ancestral homology is one that is fo!nd in the ancestor of a gro!p of species and some# +!t

not necessarily all# of its descendants.

he "ord homology has also +een !sed in other senses. 'or example# +efore the theory ofevol!tion "as developed# homology referred to deep similarities of characters +et"een

species# as opposed to more s!perficial similarities called homoplasies.

>omoplasy#

A homoplasy is a character shared +y a set of species +!t not present

in their common ancestor. A good example is the evol!tion of the eye

"hich has originated independently in many different species. When


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this happens it is sometimes called a convergence. >omoplasies can +e compared "ith

homologies# "hich are characters shared +y a set of species and are present in their

common ancestor.

'ig!re9 the "ings of +irds and +ats are homoplasies. hey are str!ct!rally different9 the +ird

"ing is s!pported +y digit n!m+er C# the +at "ing +y digits C-


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organismsaraphyletic -gro!p organisms that incl!des ancestral

species-incl!des some +!t not all descendants-donHt "ant on phylogenetic tree

arsimony -also ,no"n as K*// principle

-simplest "ay to organize organisms-in ma,ing phylogenetic tree# gro!ping thatre2!ires smallest n!m+er evol!tionarychanges

henetic $n!meric& taxonomy -!ses n!m+ers and meas!rements to sho"!nderlying genetics-no sta+ility ca!se co!ld !se differentn!m+ers-!s!ally !sed for plants

hylogenetic taxonomy -created +y >emming to get rid of +ias-loo,s at changes in shared traits-!se traits that are primitive and advanced-also ,no"n as cladistics

hylogenetic tree -+ranching diagram-depicts evol!tionary relationships of gro!psof organisms->emmingHs attempt to get a"ay from allpro+lems-also ,no"n as cladogram

hylogeny -evol!tionary history of gro!ps of organisms-connections +et"een all gro!ps organismsas !nderstood +y ancestorIdescendantrelationships-relationships can +e monophyletic#polyphyletic or paraphyletic

lesiomorphy -an ancestral or primitive character

-feat!res shared more "idely than in a gro!pof interest-character state present in +oth o!t gro!pand ancestors

olyphyletic -gro!p organisms +elong to differentevol!tionary lineages and donHt share recentcommon ancestor-C organisms loo, similar so m!st +e related+!t t!rns o!t they arenHt-convergent evol!tion plays a role

olytomy -section of a phylogeny in "hich evol!tionaryrelationships canHt +e f!lly resolved todichotomies

-in phylogenetic tree represented as node"hich has more than C immediatedescending +ranches-means many temporal +ased +ranches

rimitive characters -attri+!tes of "hich all mem+ers of gro!ppossess-also ,no"n as plesiomorphies-"hen shared +et"een gro!ps calledsymplesiomorphies

/ister gro!p -also ,no"n as o!t gro!p


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-has all ma5or characteristics-!sed as comparison point

/ymplesiomorphy -shared primitive characters that are shared+et"een gro!ps-not evidence that gro!ps are related-character inherited from ancestors older

than last common ancestor/ynapomorphy -derived characters shared +et"een gro!ps-derived character originated in gro!ps lastcommon ancestor-can +e !sed as evidence that gro!ps arerelated

/ystematics -a +ranch of +iology-st!dy of the diversity of life and itsevol!tionary relationships-r!le !sed is evol!tionary related

axon -name designating a gro!p of organismsincl!ded "ithin category of Linnaeantaxonomic hierarchy

-!s!ally a taxon is given a name and ran,-a good taxon reflects evol!tionaryrelationships

axonomy -science of classification of organisms intoordered system that indicates nat!ralrelationships-"hen apply r!les to collection in "hichorganize things $eg. Linnae!s J morphology&-!ses taxa $taxons&

riassic# 8!rassic and (retaceo!s eriods

Key erm @ain pointsAmniote animals -gro!p of tetrapod verte+rates

-have a terrestrially adapted egg-incl!de mammals# reptiles and +irds

Anapsid -mem+er of the gro!p of amnioteverte+rates-have no temporal arches and no spaces onsides of s,!ll-incl!des t!rtles

Angiosperm -seed prod!cing plants-also are flo"ering plants "hich are the mostdiverse gro!p of land plants-more highly evolved than algae# mosses#

f!ngi and fernAnther -pollen-+earing part of stamen in flo"er

-terminal part of stamen-place "here the pollen grains are prod!ced

Bird hipped dinosa!rs -type of dinosa!r classified +y pelvis +one-have hip str!ct!re similar to that of +irds-did not lead to +irds

(arpel -reprod!ctive organ of flo"er-ho!ses an ov!le and its associated


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str!ct!res-leafli,e seed-+earing str!ct!re

(artilageno!s fish -s,eleton made of cartilage rather than +one-incl!des shar,s and rays-verte+rates-also ,no"n as (hondrichthyes

(ephalopods -category of moll!scs-incl!des octop!s and s2!ids-live in marine environment-have t"o "ell-developed eyes for h!nting

(o-evol!tion -can occ!r at m!ltiple levels of +iology-change of +iological o+5ect triggered +ychange of related o+5ect-each thing involved exerts selectivepress!re on the other

(retaceo!s -period "ith relatively "arm climate-ended "ith one of the largest massextinctions-"as after the 8!rassic period

-there "ere ne" gro!ps of mammals# +irdsand flo"ering plants that appearedDiapsids -mem+er of a gro!p "ithin amniote

verte+rates-has s,!ll "ith t"o temporal arches-incl!des lizards# sna,es# crocodiles and +irds

Do!+le fertilization -characteristic feat!re of sex!al reprod!ctionin flo"ering plants-process involves 5oining of one femalegametophyte$em+ryo sac& "ith t"o malegametes$sperm&-complex fertilization mechanism that hasevolved in flo"ering plants# angiosperms

End riassic extinction -th

ran,ed in severity of the < massextinctions-allo"ed dinosa!rs to +ecome dominant landanimals-affected a lot of marine and land life

Endosperm

• iss!es derived from that ?n cell. hey no!rish the em+ryo and# in monocots# theseedling# !ntil its leaves form and photosynthesis has +eg!n. Em+ryo-no!rishingendosperm forms only in flo"ering plants# and its evol!tion coincided "ith ared!ction in the size of the female gametophyte.

•

Endosperm offers an advantage over female gametophyte tiss!e as a n!trient so!rcefor em+ryos +eca!se its development is tied to that of the em+ryo9 if no em+ryoforms# the plant does not commit reso!rces to endosperm.

• And if an angiosperm em+ryo is a+orted# "hich can happen if environmentalconditions +ecome !nfavo!ra+le for em+ryo development $e.g.# in the case ofdro!ght endosperm development also ceases# saving the plant energy andreso!rces.


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• Endosperm is the tiss!e prod!ced inside the seeds of most flo"ering plants aro!ndthe time of fertilization. *t s!rro!nds the em+ryo and provides n!trition in the form ofstarch# tho!gh it can also contain oils and protein.

Extinct

• A species is said to +e extinct "hen there are no living representatives ,no"n onEarth.

•@ass extinctions occ!rred at the end of the Ordovician and the +eginning of theDevonian# at the end of the Devonian# at the end of the ermian# at the end of the

riassic# and at the end of the (retaceo!s.

• he ermian extinction "as the most severe# and more than G


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the iridi!m layer are tho!ght to +e the res!lt of either impact of an asteroid or cometthat crashed into the N!catn enins!la# perhaps com+ined "ith a period of intensevolcanism on the continent of *ndia.

Keratin

•

Ectoderm cells synthesize mainly ,eratin# a different protein.

• Keratin is a component of s!rface str!ct!res s!ch as s,in# hair# feathers# scales# and

horns.

• *n response to ind!ction +y the optic vesicle# genes of ectoderm cells coding for

crystalline are activated# +!t genes coding for ,eratin are not.

• /ome epithelial cells# partic!larly in the epidermis of verte+rates# contain a net"or,

of fi+res of ,eratin# a family of to!gh proteins. Keratin monomers assem+le into

+!ndles to form intermediate filaments# "hich are to!gh and insol!+le and form

strong !nmineralized tiss!es

• Keratin forms the scales of fish and reptiles $incl!ding the shells of t!rtles the

feathers of +irds# and the hair# cla"s# hooves# horns# and fingernails of mammals.

• 'irst# "aterproof s,in9 ,eratin and lipids in the cells ma,e s,in relatively

impermea+le to "ater.

@egasporangi!m#

• rod!ces megaspores

• Are the compara+le %female% str!ct!reson these plants# associated "ith the

flo"er carpel and the megasporangialcone.

• megasporangi!m is s!rro!nded +y extralayers of sporophyte tiss!e# "hich "o!ldadd additional protection for gametesand em+ryos#

• /!rro!nded +y layers of sporophytetiss!e called the integ!ment. heinteg!ment and str!ct!res "ithin$megasporangi!m# megaspore& are theov!le.

@egaspore

• One of the t"o types of haploid sporesprod!ced +y a heterosporo!s plant

• A plant spore that develops into a female gametophyte7 !s!ally larger than amicrospore.

• *nside the cell mass# a diploid megasporocyte $also called a megaspore mother cell&divides +y meiosis# forming fo!r haploid megaspores. *n most plants# three of thesemegaspores disintegrate. he remaining megaspore enlarges and develops into thefemale gametophyte

@esozoic


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• he @esozoic Era is a period from a+o!t C


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• he gro!p is characterized +y a m!sc!lar foot on "hich the animals creep7 acalcareo!s shell secreted +y the !nderlying fleshy mantle7 and a feeding str!ct!re#the rad!la# consisting of a mem+rane# +earing sharp c!sps# thr!sting o!t from themo!th $fo!nd in all ma5or gro!ps except Bivalvia&.

6ectar#•

A s"eet li2!id secreted +y flo"ers of vario!s plants# cons!med +y pollinators# s!ch ash!mming+irds and insects# and gathered +y +ees for ma,ing honey.• rod!ced either +y the flo"ers# in "hich it attracts pollinating animals# or +y

extrafloral nectarines# "hich provide a n!trient so!rce to animal m!t!alists providinganti-her+ivore protection.

• *t is prod!ced in glands called nectarines. (ommon nectar-cons!ming pollinatorsincl!de +ees# +!tterflies and moths# h!mming+irds and +ats.

Ornithischia

• he largely her+ivoro!s ornithischian dinosa!rs hadlarge# ch!n,y +odies. his lineage incl!ded armo!red or

plated dinosa!rs $An,ylosa!r!s and /tegosa!r!s d!c,-+illed dinosa!rs $>adrosa!r!s horned dinosa!rs$/tyracosa!r!s and some "ith remar,a+ly thic, s,!lls$achycephalosa!r!s&.

• he ornithischian p!+is +one points do"n"ard andto"ard the tail $+ac,"ards parallel "ith the ischi!m#"ith a for"ard-pointing process to s!pport thea+domen. his ma,es a fo!r-pronged pelvic str!ct!re.*n contrast to this# the sa!rischian p!+is pointsdo"n"ard and to"ard the head $for"ards as in ancestral lizard types

• hey "ere more n!mero!s than the sa!rischians. hey "ere prey animals for thetheropods and "ere smaller than the sa!ropods.

Oviparo!s• Amniotes that reprod!ces +y laying an enclosed egg on land

• he animals lay eggs# "hereas viviparo!s and ovoviviparo!s animals +ear live yo!ng. he eggs of oviparo!s animals contain all of the n!trients necessary for developmentof the em+ryo o!tside the mothers +ody.

• his is the reprod!ctive method of most fish# amphi+ians# reptiles# all +irds# themonotremes# and most insects and arachnids. Birds and most inverte+rates incl!dingsnails are oviparo!s

Ov!le

• he lo"er part of a carpel is the ovary# "here inside it contains one or more ov!les#in "hich an egg develops and fertilization ta,es place.

• A seed is a mat!re ov!le. *n many flo"ers that have more than one carpel# thecarpels f!se into a single# common ovary containing m!ltiple ov!les.

• @ean"hile# in the ovary of a flo"er# one or more dome-shaped masses form on theinner "all. Each mass +ecomes an ov!le# "hich "ill develop into a seed afterfertilization# if all goes "ell.

• Only one ov!le forms in the carpel of some flo"ers# s!ch as the cherry. A n!mero!samo!nt form in the carpels of other flo"ers. At one end# the ov!le has a smallopening# called the micropyle.


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angea#

•

A+o!t C


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• lesiosa!rs appeared at the start of the 8!rassic eriod and thrived !ntil the K-extinction# at the end of the (retaceo!s eriod. he animal "as less fish-li,e in formthan the ichthyosa!rs# +!t "as still adapted for life in the oceans.

• (r!ised slo"ly +elo" the s!rface of the "ater# !sing their long flexi+le nec, to move

their head into position to snap !p !n"ary fish or cephalopods.

• heir fo!r-flippered s"imming adaptation may have given them exceptionalmanoe!vra+ility# so that they co!ld s"iftly rotate their +odies as an aid to catching

prey.

here "ere t"o ,inds of plesiosa!rs9

• lesiosa!rids# "hich had long sna,e-li,e nec,s "ith tiny heads and a large physical

frame.

• liosa!roids# "hich had large heads "ith strong 5a"s. hey had short nec,s and

cons!med larger sea creat!res.

ollen#

•

he male gametophyte of a seed plant.• ollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells d!ring the process of

their movement +et"een the stamens to the pistil of flo"ering plants or from themale cone to the female cone of conifero!s plants.

• When pollen lands on a compati+le pistil of flo"ering plants# it germinates andprod!ces a pollen t!+e that transfers the sperm to the ov!le of a receptive ovary.

ollen t!+e#

• his male gametophyte consists of three cells4t"o sperm cells pl!s a third cell that"ill form a pollen t!+e. When pollen lands on a stigma# this t!+e gro"s thro!gh thetiss!es of a carpel and carries the sperm cells to the ovary.

• A mat!re male gametophyte consists of the pollen t!+e and sperm cells4the malegametes.

• he "alls of pollen grains are to!gh eno!gh to protect the male gametophyte d!ringthe some"hat precario!s 5o!rney from anther to stigma.

• hese "alls are so distinctive that the family to "hich a plant +elongs !s!ally can +eidentified from pollen alone4+ased on the size and "all sc!lpt!ring of the grains# as"ell as the n!m+er of pores in the "all.

• Beca!se they "ithstand decay# pollen grains fossilize "ell and can provide revealingcl!es a+o!t the evol!tion of seed plants# as "ell as help +iologists reconstr!ctancient plant comm!nities and determine ho" climates have changed over time.

ollination#

• he transfer of pollen to a flo"ers reprod!ctive parts +y air c!rrents or on the +odiesof animal pollinators.

• he process +y "hich plants prod!ce seeds4"hich have the potential to give rise tone" individ!als4+egins "ith pollination# "hen pollen grains ma,e contact "ith thestigma of a flo"er.

• ollination and fertilization can ta,e place only if the pollen and stigma arecompati+le. 'or example# if pollen from one species lands on a stigma from another#chemical incompati+ilities !s!ally prevent pollen t!+es from developing.

terosa!rs#


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• /a!ropods $meaning %Lizard-'ooted%& "ere an infraorder of large# fo!r-legged#her+ivoro!s dinosa!rs.

• hey had very long nec,s# small heads "ith +l!nt teeth# a small +rain# and long tailsfor co!nter+alancing their nec,s. hey had large g!ts# "hich "ere necessary fordigesting h!ge amo!nts of plant material.

• hey "al,ed relatively slo"ly on fo!r short# thic,# five-toed legs. heir nostrils "ere

located on the !pper parts of their s,!lls# sometimes very close to the eyes. A fe" ofthe later /a!ropods had some +ody armor $e.g.# itanosa!ridae&.

• he /a!ropoda "ere large her+ivores s!ch as Apatosa!r!s and Diplodoc!s.

• /a!ropods# s!ch as Diplodoc!s sho"n here# appeared in the Late riassic and +eganto diversify in the @iddle 8!rassic# a+o!t :G1 million years ago.

/tamen#

• A QmaleR reprod!ctive organ in flo"ers# consisting of an anther $pollen prod!cer& anda slender filament.

• *nside the petals are the stamens# in "hich male gametophytes form.

• *n almost all living flo"ering plant species# a stamen consists of a slender filament$stal,& capped +y a +ilo+ed anther.

• Each anther contains fo!r pollen sacs# in "hich pollen develops.

/ynapsids#

• A gro!p of small predators "ere the first offshoot fromancestral amniotes.

• /ynapsids had one temporal arch on each side of the head andemerged late in the ermian# and mammals are their livingdescendants.

• /ynapsids evolved in the late ermian eriod and "erecharacterized +y carrying their lim+s !nder their +ody anddeveloping front teeth that "ere different from their +ac, teeth.

emporal fenestra

•

he temporal fenestrae are anatomical feat!res of the s,!lls of several types ofamniotes# characterised +y +ilaterally symmetrical holes $fenestrae& in the temporal+one.

• Depending on the lineage of a given animal# t"o# one# or no pairs of temporalfenestrae may +e present# a+ove or +elo" the postor+ital and s2!amosal +ones.

• he !pper temporal fenestrae are also ,no"n as the s!pratemporal fenestrae# andthe lo"er temporal fenestrae are also ,no"n as the infratemporal fenestrae.

• he presence and morphology of the temporal fenestra is critical for taxonomicclassification of the synapsids# of "hich mammals are part.Ex. he /ynapsids $mammal-li,e reptiles& and the Diapsids $most reptiles and later+irds&.

heropods#• hey incl!de the largest terrestrial carnivores ever to have made the earth trem+le.

• Dinosa!rs +elonging to the s!+order theropoda "ere primarily carnivoro!s# altho!gha n!m+er of theropod gro!ps evolved her+ivory# omnivory# and insectivory.

• heropods first appeared d!ring the (arnian age of the late riassic period a+o!t C?1million years ago $@a& and incl!ded the sole large terrestrial carnivores from theEarly 8!rassic !ntil at least the close of the (retaceo!s# a+o!t 0< @a.

• *n the 8!rassic# +irds evolved from small specialized coel!rosa!rian theropods# andare today represented +y ;#;11 living species. Among the feat!res lin,ing theropod


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dinosa!rs to +irds are the three-toed foot# a f!rc!la $"ish+one air-filled +ones and$in some cases& feathers and +rooding of the eggs.

Merte+rate• Merte+rate s,eletal m!scles connect to the +ones of the s,eleton. he cells forming

s,eletal m!scles are typically long and cylindrical and contain many n!clei $see(hapter ?C&.

• /,eletal m!scle is controlled +y the somatic nervo!s system $see (hapter ??&. *naddition# the internal s,eleton and attached m!scles allo" most verte+rates to moverapidly.

• Merte+rates are the only animals that have +one# a connective tiss!e in "hich cellssecrete the mineralized matrix that s!rro!nds them $see (hapter ?0&. Oneverte+rate lineage# cartilagino!s fishes $class (hondrichthyes may have lost its+one over evol!tionary time.

• We s!spect that verte+rates arose from a cephalochordate-li,e ancestor thro!ghd!plication of genes that reg!late development.

• Merte+rates appear to +e more closely related to cephalochordates than to!rochordates. he change from cephalochordate-li,e creat!re to verte+rate "as

mar,ed +y the emergence of ne!ral crest# +one# and other verte+rate traits.

aleogene and 6eogene periods

Amniote Animals

• Amniotes are a gro!p of tetrapod verte+rates that lay eggs that are specially adapted

to s!rvive in a terrestrial environment -these eggs are referred to as amniotic eggs

• Amniotes incl!de all present day reptiles# +irds# and mammals - yhey arose from a

gro!p of lizard-li,e amphi+ians called the amphi+ian reptiliomorphs

• Amniotes evolved a+o!t ?1 million years ago d!ring the (ar+onifero!s eriod

She amniote em+ryo is protected +y a set of mem+ranes that shelter it from the harsh

conditions of a terrestrial environment. hese mem+ranes ens!re the follo"ing fo!r things9

• Ens!re that the em+ryos do not dry-o!t

• Ena+le gas exchange +et"een the em+ryo and its environment as its develops

• Allo" "aste materials to +e disposed of "hile the em+ryo develops - this prevents"aste prod!cts from +!ilding !p to toxic levels "ithin the egg

• Ena+le the em+ryo to receives the n!trition it needs to develop

SSSAdditional information9 he development of the amniotic egg is a significant milestone in

the evol!tionary history of the verte+rates +eca!se it freed them from the necessity to lay

their eggs in "ater. Altho!gh amphi+ians are +oth verte+rates and tetrapods# they are not

amniotes. As a res!lt# they do not lay amniotic eggs and are# to this day# +o!nd to a2!atic

ha+itats for reprod!ction. heir eggs dry o!t and die if they are not laid in moist

environments. Amniotic eggs ena+led the verte+rates that possessed them to +ecome the

most dominant land verte+rates alive today.


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• *nvented the spear thro"er# "hich allo"ed them to h!rl spears m!ch f!rther than+efore - !sed +o"s and arro"s - also fished !sing harpoons tipped "ith +one points

• >ighly s,illed at ma,ing efficient tools from stone# +one# "ood and antler

• hysically they "ere exactly the same as modern h!mans - they loo,ed 5!st li,e !s

• he (ro-@agnons made "arm clothes s!ch as tro!sers# coats and +oots from animal

s,ins !sing +one needles

Endothermy

• Warm-+looded

• An animal ,eeps its +ody "arm +y prod!cing heat "ithin its +ody - internally heated

• he heat is made +y the chemical reactions "hich digest food and some is also made"hen m!scles contract d!ring movement

• @odern endotherms incl!de mammals and +irds

• @ost endotherms are also homeotherms $they are a+le to control their temperat!reto "ithin degrees centigrade of a given val!e&

• 'or example# if "e get too hot "e start to s"eat# "hich cools !s do"n and if "e gettoo cold "e start to shiver "hich ma,es o!r m!scles contract and heats !s !p.

Glandular skin

• Pelating to glands# the main secretory organs oforganisms7 gland!lar s,in has many glands# "hereasagland!lar s,in has fe" or none

• Example9 amphi+ians

S/ee (h. ?C.C $Animal tiss!es& for toxic secretion

Great apes

• he great apes +elong to the taxonomic family >omindae $incl!des chimpanzees#

• +ono+os# orang!tans# gorillas and h!mans&

• All mem+ers of this family share possi+ly more than ;F of their D6A

• he great apes have all +een doc!mented !sing tools# and comm!nicating "ithamazing complexity

• 'o!nd primarily in (entral Africa "ith the exception of orang!tans# "hich are nativeto the islands of Borneo and /!matra in Asia

• All of the great apes face serio!s threats and are all endangered# some criticallyendangered

• >a+itat loss# climate change# infectio!s disease and illegal h!nting for +oth meatand the live pet trade have com+ined to p!sh these species to the +rin, of extinction

Hominids

S/ame in mage in text+oo,


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• Pefers to mem+ers of the family of h!mans# >ominidae# "hich consists ofall species on o!r side of the last common ancestor of h!mans and living apes

• >ominids are incl!ded in the s!perfamily of all apes# the >ominoidea# themem+ers of "hich are called hominoids

• pright post!re and +ipedal locomotion are adaptations that disting!ishhominids from apes.

• Evol!tionaryrefinements in graspinga+ility allo" hominids tohold o+5ects tightly "ith a

power grip or manip!latethem precisely "ith a

precision gripS Mie" CF.:!mans in text+oo,

Hominins

• he term hominin is !sed to descri+e mem+ers of the h!man family# disting!ishing!s and o!r ancestors from the non-h!man primates

• *n the past# researchers !sed the term hominid in this "ay# +!t recent research haschanged the "ay scientist !se this terminology- >ominin is the preferred term inc!rrent research

• oday# h!mans are the only living hominins

• Over the past F million years# there have +een dozens of species of h!mans# some of"hich are o!r o"n ancestors and others "hich "ere evol!tionary dead-ends that"ent extinct

Mammary gland

• An organ in mammals that prod!ces mil, for the s!stenance of yo!ng offspring

• *t is an exocrine gland that is an enlarged and modified s"eat gland# and givesmammals their name

• @ammary glands are derived from a modification of s"eat glands- hey first appearin em+ryonic life as cl!mps of cells proliferating from a longit!dinal ridge ofectoderm $the o!termost of the three germ layers of the em+ryo& along the so-calledmil, line# from the +!ds# or +eginnings# of the lo"er lim+s to those of the !pperlim+s.

Neanderthal

• An extinct mem+er of the >omo gen!s that is ,no"n from leistocene specimensfo!nd in E!rope and parts of "estern and central Asia

• 6eanderthals are either classified as a s!+species $or race& of modern h!mans $>omosapiens neanderthalensis& or as a separate h!man species $>omo neanderthalensis&

• 6eanderthal cranial capacity is tho!ght to have +een as large as that of >omosapiens# perhaps larger

• On average# the height of 6eanderthals "as compara+le to contemporaneo!s >omosapiens- 6eanderthal males stood a+o!t :0


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having partic!larly strong arms and hands- 'emales stood a+o!t :


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• Homo sapiens arose in one place# pro+a+ly Africa $geographically this incl!des the

@iddle East&

• Homo sapiens !ltimately migrated o!t of Africa and replaced all other h!man

pop!lations# "itho!t inter+reeding

• modern h!man variation is a relatively recent phenomenon

• he replacement hypothesis s!ggests that the genes in f!lly modern h!mans all

came o!t of Africa

• As these peoples migrated they replaced all other h!man pop!lations "ith little or

no inter+reeding

Oviparous

• Animals that lay eggs# "ith little or no other em+ryonic development "ithin themother

• his is the reprod!ctive method of most fish# amphi+ians# reptiles# all +irds# themonotremes# and most insects and arachnids

• Land-d"elling animals that lay eggs# often protected +y a shell# s!ch as reptiles andinsects# do so after having completed the process of internal fertilization

• Water-d"elling animals# s!ch as fish and amphi+ians# lay their eggs +eforefertilization# and the male lays its sperm on top of the ne"ly laid eggs in a processcalled external fertilization

• Almost all non-oviparo!s fish# amphi+ians and reptiles are ovoviviparo!s# i.e. theeggs are hatched inside the mothers +ody $or# in case of the sea horse inside thefathers&. he tr!e opposite of oviparity is placental viviparity# employed +y almost allmammals $the exceptions +eing mars!pials and monotremes&

Shere are only five ,no"n species of oviparo!s mammals9 fo!r species of Echidnaand the latyp!s.

aleogene

• 0< -C @a

• (omprises the first part of the (enozoic Era

• Lasting C million years• ime in "hich mammals evolved from relatively small# simple forms into a large

gro!p of diverse animals in the "a,e of the (retaceo!s3ertiary extinction event thatended the preceding (retaceo!s eriod

• /ome of these mammals "o!ld evolve into large forms that "o!ld dominate the land#"hile others "o!ld +ecome capa+le of living in marine# specialized terrestrial and

even air+orne environments• Birds also evolved considera+ly d!ring this period# changing into ro!ghly-modern

forms. @ost other +ranches of life on earth remained relatively !nchanged incomparison to +irds and mammals d!ring this period

• /ome continental motion too, place• (limates cooled some"hat over the d!ration of the aleogene and inland seas

retreated from 6orth America early in the period.• his period consists of the aleocene# Eocene# and Oligocene Epochs


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>ighlights

• 01 @a - rimates

•


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• With the exception of h!mans# "ho inha+it every continent on Earth# most primateslive in tropical or s!+tropical regions of the Americas# Africa and Asia.

• According to fossil evidence# the primitive ancestors of primates may have existed inthe late (retaceo!s period aro!nd 0< million years ago# and the oldest ,no"nprimate is the Late aleocene Plesiadapis# c. ave slo"er rates of development than other similarly sized mammals# and reachmat!rity later +!t have longer lifespans

!e"aceous gland

• @icroscopic glands in the s,in that secrete anoilyI"axy matter# called se+!m# to l!+ricate thes,in and hair of mammals

• *n h!mans# they are fo!nd in greatesta+!ndance on the face and scalp# tho!gh theyare distri+!ted thro!gho!t all s,in sites exceptthe palms and soles.

• *n the eyelids# mei+omian se+aceo!s glandssecrete a special type of se+!m into tears.

!ternal keel

• he +reast+one has a deep ,eel "hich increasesthe area for the attachment of the large flight m!scles $Birds&- A ,eel in +ird anatomyis an extension of the stern!m

• >!man- a long flat +one $he stern!m is composed of three f!sed +ones.& shapedli,e a capital located in the center of the thorax $chest&

• *t connects to the ri+ +ones via cartilage# forming the anterior section of the ri+ cage"ith them# and th!s helps to protect the l!ngs# heart and ma5or +lood vessels fromphysical tra!ma

!#eat gland

• Are endocrine glands fo!nd !nder the s,in in most mammal species "hich are !sedfor +ody temperat!re reg!lation $thermoreg!lation&

• *n h!mans# apocrine and merocrine s"eat glands form the primary method ofcooling# tho!gh many other mammals# s!ch as cats# dogs and pigs# rely on panting or

other means as a primary so!rce of cooling. /"eat also serves to increase friction onthe palms of hands or the pads of pa"s

• Both apocrine and merocrine s"eat glands contain myoepithelial cells $from )ree,myo-# %m!scle% specialized epithelial cells located +et"een the gland cells and the!nderlying +asal lamina.

• @yoepithelial cell contractions s2!eeze the gland and discharge the acc!m!latedsecretions.


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• he secretory activities of the gland cells and the contractions of myoepithelial cellsare controlled +y +oth the a!tonomic nervo!s system and +y the circ!latinghormones.

• Additionally# cer!mino!s glands# "hich prod!ce ear "ax# and mammary glands#"hich prod!ce mil,# are fre2!ently considered to +e modified s"eat glands.

$iviparous

• >as t"o different meanings9 *n animals# it means development of the em+ryo insidethe +ody of the mother# event!ally leading to live +irth $as opposed to laying eggs&-*n plants# it means reprod!ction via em+ryos# s!ch as spores or +!ds# that developfrom the o!tset "itho!t interr!ption $as opposed to germinating externally from aseed&.

• Miviparo!s offspring live independently and re2!ire an external food s!pply from+irth - contrasting "ith some egg laying animals# s!ch as fish the recently hatchedyo!ng of "hich +ear yol, sacs

• Miviparo!s plants prod!ce seeds that germinate +efore they detach from the parent-*n many mangroves# for instance# the seedling germinates and gro"s !nder its o"n

energy "hile still attached to its parent +efore dropping into the "ater in order totransport a"ay

/il!rian and Devonian periods

Agnatha %foc!s mainly on lampreys and the hagfish

• A s!perclass of 5a"less fish in the phyl!m (hordata# s!+phyl!m Merte+rata• he gro!p excl!des all verte+rates "ith 5a"s# ,no"n as gnathostomes.

• he oldest fossil agnathans appeared in the (am+rian# and t"o gro!ps still s!rvivetoday9 the lampreys and the hagfish# "ith a+o!t :11 species in total

• *n addition to the a+sence of 5a"s# modern agnathans are characterised +y a+senceof paired fins7 the presence of a notochord +oth in larvae and ad!lts7 and seven ormore paired gill po!ches

• All living and most extinct Agnatha do not have an identifia+le stomach or anyappendages

• 'ertilization and development are +oth external. here is no parental care in theAgnatha class. he Agnatha are ectothermic or cold +looded# "ith a cartilagino!ss,eleton# and the heart contains C cham+ers

Alternation of generations

• Descri+es the life cycle of plants# f!ngi and protists

• A m!lticell!lar diploid phase alternates "ith a m!lticell!lar haploid phase.

• A more !nderstanda+le name "o!ld +e %alternation of phases of a single generation%

+eca!se "e !s!ally consider a generation of a species to encompass one complete

life cycle


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• he life cycle of organisms "ith %alternation of generations% is characterized +y each

phase consisting of one of t"o distinct organisms9 a gametophyte $thall!s $tiss!e& or

plant "hich is genetically haploid# and a sporophyte $thall!s or plant "hich is

genetically diploid

• A haploid plant of the gametophyte generation prod!ces gametes +y mitosis

• "o gametes $originating from different organisms of the same species or from the

same organism& com+ine to prod!ce a zygote# "hich develops into a diploid plant of

the sporophyte generation.

• his sporophyte prod!ces spores +y meiosis# "hich germinate and develop into a

gametophyte of the next generation.

• his cycle# from gametophyte to gametophyte# is the "ay in "hich all land plants and

many algae !ndergo sex!al reprod!ction.

Antheridia

• A haploid str!ct!re or organ prod!cing and containing male gametes $calledantherozoids or sperm&

• *t is present in the gametophyte phase of lo"er plants li,e mosses and ferns# andalso in the primitive vasc!lar psilotophytes.

• @any algae and some f!ngi# for example ascomycetes and "ater mo!lds# also haveantheridia d!ring their reprod!ctive stages.

• An antheridi!m typically consists of sterile cellsand spermatogeno!s tiss!e

• he sterile cells may form a central s!pportstr!ct!re or s!rro!nd the spermatogeno!s tiss!eas a protective 5ac,et.

•

he spermatogeno!s cells give rise to spermatidsvia mitotic cell division.

• he female co!nterpart to the antheridi!m is thearchegoni!m $prod!cing and containing the ov!mor female gamete&

Archegonia

• @!lticell!lar str!ct!re or organ of the gametophytephase of certain plants# prod!cing and containing theov!m or female gamete

• >as a long nec, and a s"ollen +ase

• ypically located on the s!rface of the plant thall!s#altho!gh in the horn"orts they are em+edded

• *n the moss Physcomitrella patens# archegonia are notem+edded +!t are located on top of the leafygametophore

• Example9 )ymnosperms have their archegoni!mformed after pollination inside female pine cones$megastro+ili&


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Arthropoda

• An inverte+rate animal having an exos,eleton $external s,eleton a segmented+ody# and 5ointed appendages

• @em+ers of the phyl!m Arthropoda $from )ree, ρθρονἄ arthron# % 5oint%# and Tοδός podos %foot%# "hich together mean %5ointed feet%&

• *ncl!de the insects# arachnids# cr!staceans# and others• Arthropods are characterized +y their 5ointed lim+s and c!ticles# "hich are mainly

made of -α chitin7 the c!ticles of cr!staceans are also +io mineralized "ith calci!mcar+onate

• arthropods replace it periodically +y molting.

• he arthropod +ody plan consists of repeated segments# each"ith a pair of appendages- so versatile that they have +eencompared to /"iss Army ,nives

• have over a million descri+ed species# ma,ing !p more than G1of all descri+ed living animal species

• >ave open circ!latory systems

• *nternal organs of arthropods are generally +!ilt of repeated

segments• heir nervo!s system is %ladder-li,e%# "ith paired ventral nerve

cords r!nning thro!gh all segments and forming paired gangliain each segment

• heir heads are formed +y f!sion of varying n!m+ers ofsegments# and their +rains are formed +y f!sion of the ganglia ofthese segments and encircle the esophag!s.

• he versatility of the arthropod mod!lar +ody plan has made itdiffic!lt for zoologists and paleontologists to classify them and"or, o!t their evol!tionary ancestry# "hich dates +ac, to the(am+rian period. 'rom the late :;


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• Differ from most of the cartilagino!s fishes in having a terminal mo!th and aflap $operc!l!m& covering the gills.

• *n addition# most have a s"im +ladder# "hich is ordinarily !sed to ad5!st their+!oyancy# altho!gh among the air-+reathing fishes it is attached to the pharynxand serves as a simple l!ng

• he s,in has many m!c!s glands and is !s!ally adorned "ith dermal scales

• heir 5a"s are "ell developed# artic!lated "ith the s,!ll# and armed "ith teeth

• Altho!gh the s,eleton of most is +one# that of st!rgeons and a fe" others islargely made of cartilage. hey have a t"o-cham+ered heart +!ilt on the sameplan as the (hondrichthyes $t"o-cham+ered "ith a con!s arterios!s and a sin!svenos!s&

• he sexes are separate# most are oviparo!s# and fertilization is !s!allyexternal

SExample9 Atlantic >erring

Cartilagenous fish

• (artilagino!s fish s!ch as shar,s# s,ates# and rays are verte+rates "hose internals,eleton is made entirely of cartilage and contains no ossified +one

• (artilagino!s fish are also ,no"n as (hondrichthyes and have one or t"o dorsal fins#

a ca!dal fin# an anal fin# and ventral fins "hich are s!pported +y girdles of theinternal s,eleton

• (artilagino!s fish are divided into t"o s!+classes on the +asis of gill slits and othercharacteristics

• he first is the Elasmo+ranchs# "hich have at least five gill slits and gills on eachside# one spiracle +ehind each eye# dermal teeth on the !pper +ody s!rface# a tooth

5a"# and an !pper 5a" not firmly attached to the s,!$/elachii rays# and s,ates$Pa5iformes& +elong to this gro!p ll

• /har,s


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33/38

:F - ?


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• An individ!al of the haploid generation prod!ced "hen a spore germinatesand gro"s directly +y mitotic divisions in organisms that !ndergo alternationof generations

• he phase in the plant life cycle that +ears gametes

• Each of its cells contains one set of chromosomes

•

he f!sion of male and female gametophytes res!lts in the formation ofzygote "hich prod!ces a sporophyte

)astropod9

• A mem+er of the largest class of phyl!m moll!sca

• (haracteristics are7 a foot "hich the +ody sits on# a "ell developed head# aone piece shell and +ody torsion

• Examples are snails# sea sl!gs

)emma and gemma c!ps9

• /mall cell masses that forms in c!pli,e gro"ths on a thall!s• Develops into a ne" organism $a leaf +!d&

• A means of asex!al propagation in plants

• (ommonly fo!nd in f!ngi and mosses

• )emmae are dispersed from gemma c!ps d!ring rainfall.

)ill arches9

• One of the series of c!rved s!pporting feat!res +et"een the slits in thepharynx of a chordate

• hese arches s!pport the gills on fish

• Each arch has a cartilagino!s stic,# a m!scle component an artery and acranial nerve

)ill slits9

• One of the openings in the pharynx of a chordate thro!gh "hich "ater passeso!t of the pharynx

• (haracteristic of cartilagino!s fish $shar,s# rays&

• Anterior edge is motile# letting "ater o!t and closing to prevent reverse flo"

)nathostomes9

• )ro!p of verte+rates "ith mova+le 5a"s

• >ave an advantage of catching prey more easily

• Bro,en into ? gro!pings $(hondrichthyes9 cartilagino!s fish# lacodermi9anextinct armo!red fish# eleostomi9 mammals# +ony fish#+irds#reptiles#amphi+ians&

• Believed the 5a" evolved from anterior gill arches


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8a"9

• An opposa+le artic!lated str!ct!re at the entrance of the mo!th

• Derived from the em+ryonic pharyngeal $and in some case gill& arches.

• Evolved as a means of catching prey and holding on to it

Lignin9

• A to!gh inert polymer that strengthens the secondary "alls of vario!s plantcells# comprised most of the first plants

• rotected plants against degradation +y microorganisms

• layed a cr!cial role in developing the plant vasc!lar system

@esozoic9

• One of three geologic eras in the hanerozoic eon

• he time in "hich reptiles prevailed in vast n!m+er and size

• he period of time "here the continents rifted into +asically their presentstates

• (ontained the K extinction# one of the ma5or extinctions# "here thedinosa!rs and other large reptiles +ecame extinct

6e!tral +!oyancy9

• A condition in "hich a physical +odyHs mass e2!als the mass it displaces in as!rro!nding medi!m

• 'ish o+tain nat!ral +!oyancy !sing a s"im +ladder# +y controlling the amo!ntof "ater and air in the s"im +ladder

• his is achieved +y having a average density that is lo"er then thes!rro!nding "ater# "ith the density of the fish +eing co!nteracted +y thedensity of the air in the +ladder

Operc!lar gill9

• A lid or flap of +one serving as the gill cover in some fishes

• 'o!nd in +ony fish

• Mital in o+taining oxygen7 as the fishes mo!th closes they open# "ater thenflo"s thro!gh the gills allo"ing some oxygen to +e a+sorped

Ostracoderm9

• One of an assortment of extinct 5a"less fishes that "ere covered in +onyarmo!r

• 'o!nd in the ordivician and Devonian periods

• >ave separate pharyngeal gill arches that "ere al"ays open "ith nooperc!lar gill


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• sed their m!sc!lar pharynx to create a s!ction and p!ll small prey into theirmo!th

ectoral fin9

•

Located on each side of the fish +ehind the operc!lar gill• >omologo!s to the forelim+s of tetrapods

• *n many fish the fins aiding in "al,ing $ex m!ds,ipper&

• *t is also highly developed in some fish $shar,s& as a dynamic lifting force inmaintaining depth

ectoral girdle9

• A +ony or cartilagino!s str!ct!re in verte+rates that s!pports and is attachedto the forelim+s

• @any similarities "ith the pelvic girdle

• *n h!mans it consists of the clavicle and scap!la

elvic fin9

• Located ventrally +elo" the pectoral fins

• >omologo!s to the hindlim+s of tetrapods

• Assists the fish in going !p or do"n thro!gh the "ater# t!rning sharply orstopping

elvic girdle9

• A +ony or cartilagino!s str!ct!re in verte+rates that s!pports and is attached

to the hindlim+s• 'irst developed in amphi+ians# so that the legs faced o!t"ards from the +ody

• Later perfected so that a +odies "eight "o!ld +e directly over the legs

lacoderm9

• A class of extinct# armo!red prehistoric fish "hich lived from the late /il!rianinto the Devonian period

• >ead and thorax "ere covered +y armo!red plates# "ith the rest of the +odyna,ed or scaled

• One of the first 5a"ed fish

lacoid scale9

• /cales fo!nd on cartilagino!s fish

• Also called denticles

• /imilar in str!ct!re to a tooth

rimary plant cell "all9


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• he initial cell "all laid do"n +y a plant cell

• A thin# flexi+le and extensi+le layer formed "hen the cell is gro"ing

• (omposed of cell!lose and pectin

Phizoids9

• A modify hypha that anchors a f!ng!s to its s!+strate and a+sor+s moist!re

• A noncell!lar thread li,e extension of some plants "hich have evolved fora+sorption and conservation of "ater d!ring the evol!tion of plants to landha+itats

• (haracteristic feat!re of +royophytes

/econdary plant cell "all9

• A layer added to the cell "all of plants that is more rigid and may +ecomemany layers thic,er then the primary cell "all

• /trengthens and "aterproofs the "all

• (omposed mostly of lignin

/il!rian period9

• A geological period "hich extends from the end of the Ordovician to the+eginning of the Devonian

• /et at a ma5or extinction event in "hich 01 of marine life "as "iped o!t

• (ontinents represented in one land mass $)"andana& d!ring this time

• Pelatively sta+le and "arm temperat!res

• 'irst +ony fish appear

• 'irst fossil records of vasc!lar plants

/porangia9

• A single celled or m!lticell!lar str!ct!re in plants and f!ngi in "hich sporesare prod!ced

• Ex sporophyte ferns

• (onsists of microsporangia $male str!ct!res& and megasporangia $femalestr!ct!res&

/pores9

• A haploid reprod!ctive str!ct!re $!s!ally a single cell and haploid& that candevelop into a ne" individ!al "itho!t f!sing "ith another cell

• 'o!nd in plants# f!ngi and certain protists

• Adapted for dispersal and s!rvive long periods of time

• nit of asex!al reprod!ction

/porophyte9


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• An individ!al of the diploid generation prod!ced thro!gh fertilization inorganisms that !ndergo alternation of generations

• rod!ces haploid spores thro!gh meiosis

• he f!sion of male and female gametes res!lts in a diploid zygote# "hichdevelops into a ne" sporophyte

/tomata9

• A tiny pore in a plant leaf s!rro!nded +y a pair of g!ard cells that reg!late itsopening and clos!re and serves as a point for gas exchange

• resent in the sporophyte generation of all land plants

• Water vapo!r exits the plant thro!gh the stomata

/"im +ladder9

• A gas filled internal organ that helps fish maintain +!oyancy

• Also a sta+ilizing agent as it +alances o!t the fishes +ody

• Originated in the same "ay as l!ngs

etrapod9

• A monophyletic lineage of verte+rates that incl!des animals "ith fo!r feet#legs or legli,e appendages

• *ncl!des amphi+ians# reptiles# +irds# mammals# and even sna,es and otherlim+less reptiles +y descent

• Earliest tetrapods evolved from lo+e finned fishes in the Devonian

hall!s9

• A plant +ody not differentiated into stems# roots or leaves

• Ex the gametophytes of liver"orts

• >ave analogo!s str!ct!res that resem+le those of vasc!lar plants $ex thall!sof a f!ng!s is called a myceli!m&

racheids9

• A cond!cting cell of xylem# !s!ally elongated and tapered

• '!nctions primarily in the cond!ction of "ater and mineral salts collected +ythe roots to other parts of the plants.

• Also provides str!ct!ral s!pport to plants

bio1130 keywords

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