Biology A3: Chromosomes*

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Printed: May 7, 2015

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Contents www.ck12.org

Contents

1 Cell Division and the Cell Cycle* 1

2 Chromosomes and Mitosis* 11

3 Reproduction and Meiosis** 21

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www.ck12.org Concept 1. Cell Division and the Cell Cycle*

CONCEPT 1 Cell Division and the CellCycle*

Points to Consider

1. What do you think controls the growth of cells?

2. Do you think all cells divide in the same way?

Lesson Objectives

• Contrast cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.• Identify the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle.• Explain how the cell cycle is controlled.• Define cancer, and relate it to the cell cycle.

Vocabulary

• binary fission: type of cell division that occurs in prokaryotic cells in which a parent cell divides into two identicaldaughter cells• cancer: disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated and cells divide out of control• cell cycle: repeating series of events that a cell goes through during its life, including growth, DNA, synthesis, andcell division• cell division: process in which a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells• cytokinesis: splitting of the cytoplasm to form daughter cells when a cell divides• DNA replication: process of copying of DNA prior to cell division• interphase: stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle when the cell grows, synthesizes DNA, and prepares to divide• mitosis: process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides• tumor: abnormal mass of cells that may be cancerous

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.1. Cancer is a disease that occurs when the ____________ is no longer regulated.

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2. During ____________, the nucleus of the cell divides.3. ____________ consists of the G1, S, and G2 phases of the cell cycle.4. During the ____________ phase, the cell’s DNA is copied in the process of DNA replication.5. Cell division in ____________ occurs by binary fission.6. During mitosis, the ____________ are sorted and separated to ensure that each daughter cell receives a completeset.7. During cytokinesis, the ____________ divides.8. ____________ in the cell cycle ensure that the cell is ready to proceed before it moves on to the next phase of thecycle.9. After cell division, the new cells are referred to as ____________ cells.10. Chromosome ____________ refers to the two chromosomes separating and moving to opposite ends of the cell.11. In eukaryotes, the first step in cell division is ____________, and the second step is cytokinesis.12. The cell cycle is controlled by regulatory ____________ at three key checkpoints.

Introduction

You consist of a great many cells, but like all other organisms, you started life as a single cell. How did youdevelop from a single cell into an organism with trillions of cells? The answer is cell division. After cells grow totheir maximum size, they divide into two new cells. These new cells are small at first, but they grow quickly andeventually divide and produce more new cells. This process keeps repeating in a continuous cycle.

Cell Division

Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to asdaughter cells. How this happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryoticcells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, havemultiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus and many other organelles. All of these cell parts must beduplicated and then separated when the cell divides.

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Most prokaryotic cells divide by the process of binary fission. A bacterial cell dividing this way is depicted inFigure 1.1.

Binary fission can be described as a series of steps, although it is actually a continuous process. The steps aredescribed below and also illustrated in Figure 1.2. They include DNA replication, chromosome segregation, andfinally the separation into two daughter cells.

• Step 1: DNA Replication. Just before the cell divides, its DNA is copied in a process called DNA replication.This results in two identical chromosomes instead of just one. This step is necessary so that when the celldivides, each daughter cell will have its own chromosome.

• Step 2: Chromosome Segregation. The two chromosomes segregate, or separate, and move to opposite ends(known as “poles”) of the cell. This occurs as each copy of DNA attaches to different parts of the cellmembrane.

• Step 3: Separation. A new plasma membrane starts growing into the center of the cell, and the cytoplasm splitsapart, forming two daughter cells. As the cell begins to pull apart, the new and the original chromosomes areseparated. The two daughter cells that result are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell. Newcell wall must also form around the two cells.

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www.ck12.org Concept 1. Cell Division and the Cell Cycle*

FIGURE 1.1Binary Fission in a Bacterial Cell. Celldivision is relatively simple in prokaryoticcells. The two cells are dividing by binaryfission. Green and orange lines indicateold and newly-generated bacterial cellwalls, respectively. Eventually the parentcell will pinch apart to form two identicaldaughter cells. Left, growth at the centerof bacterial body. Right, apical growthfrom the ends of the bacterial body.

FIGURE 1.2Steps of Binary Fission. Prokaryotic cellsdivide by binary fission. This is alsohow many single-celled organisms repro-duce.

Cell Division in Eukaryotes

Cell division is more complex in eukaryotes than prokaryotes. Prior to dividing, all the DNA in a eukaryotic cell’smultiple chromosomes is replicated. Its organelles are also duplicated. Then, when the cell divides, it occurs in twomajor steps:

• The first step is mitosis, a multi-phase process in which the nucleus of the cell divides. During mitosis, thenuclear membrane breaks down and later reforms. The chromosomes are also sorted and separated to ensurethat each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. Mitosis is described in greater detail in the

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lesson “Chromosomes and Mitosis.”• The second major step is cytokinesis. As in prokaryotic cells, during this step the cytoplasm divides and two

daughter cells form.

Pause to Reflect

1. Describe binary fission.

2. What is mitosis?

3. Contrast cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

4. Why is cell division in prokaryotes different from eukaryotes?

The Cell Cycle

Cell division is just one of several stages that a cell goes through during its lifetime. The cell cycle is a repeatingseries of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division. The cell cycle in prokaryotes is quite simple:the cell grows, its DNA replicates, and the cell divides. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle is more complicated.

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www.ck12.org Concept 1. Cell Division and the Cell Cycle*

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

The diagram in Figure 1.3 represents the cell cycle of a eukaryotic cell. As you can see, the eukaryotic cell cyclehas several phases. The mitotic phase (M) actually includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. This is when the nucleusand then the cytoplasm divide. The other three phases (G1, S, and G2) are generally grouped together as interphase.During interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide. These phases are discussedbelow.

FIGURE 1.3Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. This diagram rep-resents the cell cycle in eukaryotes. TheFirst Gap, Synthesis, and Second Gapphases make up interphase (I). The M(mitotic) phase includes mitosis and cy-tokinesis. After the M phase, two cellsresult.

Interphase

Interphase of the eukaryotic cell cycle can be subdivided into the following three phases, which are represented inFigure 1.3:

• Growth Phase 1 (G1): during this phase, the cell grows rapidly, while performing routine metabolic pro-cesses. It also makes proteins needed for DNA replication and copies some of its organelles in preparation forcell division. A cell typically spends most of its life in this phase. This phase is also known as gap phase 1.

• Synthesis Phase (S): during this phase, the cell’s DNA is copied in the process of DNA replication.• Growth Phase 2 (G2): during this phase, the cell makes final preparations to divide. For example, it makes

additional proteins and organelles. This phase is also known as gap phase 2.

Control of the Cell Cycle

If the cell cycle occurred without regulation, cells might go from one phase to the next before they were ready.What controls the cell cycle? How does the cell know when to grow, synthesize DNA, and divide? The cell cycle iscontrolled mainly by regulatory proteins. These proteins control the cycle by signaling the cell to either start or delaythe next phase of the cycle. They ensure that the cell completes the previous phase before moving on. Regulatoryproteins control the cell cycle at key checkpoints, which are shown in Figure 1.4. There are a number of maincheckpoints.

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FIGURE 1.4Checkpoints in the eukaryotic cell cycle ensure that the cell is ready to proceed before it moves on to the nextphase of the cycle.

• The G1 checkpoint, just before entry into S phase, makes the key decision of whether the cell should divide.• The S checkpoint determines if the DNA has been replicated properly.• The mitotic spindle checkpoint occurs at the point in metaphase where all the chromosomes should have

aligned at the mitotic plate.

Pause to Reflect

1. Identify the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle.

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2. What happens during interphase?

3. Cells go through a series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division. Why are these eventsbest represented by a cycle diagram?

4. Explain how the cell cycle is regulated.

5. Why is DNA replication essential to the cell cycle?

Cancer and the Cell Cycle

Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. This may happen because a cell’s DNAbecomes damaged. Damage can occur due to exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic chemicals. Cancerouscells generally divide much faster than normal cells. They may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor (seeFigure 1.5). The rapidly dividing cells take up nutrients and space that normal cells need. This can damage tissuesand organs and eventually lead to death.

Pause to Reflect

1. Define cancer.

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FIGURE 1.5These cells are cancer cells, growing outof control and forming a tumor.

2. How might the relationship between cancer and the cell cycle be used in the search for causes of cancer?

Lesson Summary

• Cell division is part of the life cycle of virtually all cells. It is a more complicated process in eukaryotic thanprokaryotic cells because eukaryotic cells have multiple chromosomes and a nucleus.

• The cell cycle is a repeating series of events that cells go through. It includes growth, DNA synthesis, and celldivision. In eukaryotic cells, there are two growth phases, and cell division includes mitosis.

• The cell cycle is controlled by regulatory proteins at three key checkpoints in the cycle. The proteins signalthe cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle.

• Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. Cancer cells grow rapidly and mayform a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor.

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www.ck12.org Concept 1. Cell Division and the Cell Cycle*

Lesson Review Questions

True or False

___ 1. Cell division is basically the same in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells._____ 2. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm._____ 3. Mitosis is the process in which the nucleus of the cell divides._____ 4. DNA replication results in identical chromosomes._____ 5. A cell spends most of its life in growth phase 1 of the cell cycle._____ 6. The S checkpoint, just before entry into S phase, makes the key decision of whether the cell should divide._____ 7. The correct order of phases of the cell cycle is G1!S !G2 !M._____ 8. Interphase consists of mitosis and cytokinesis._____ 9. In prokaryotic cells, all organelles, such as the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, divide priorto cell division._____ 10. Bacteria divide cells by binary fusion._____ 11. A mass of abnormal cells is called a tumor._____ 12. Organelles are made during growth phase 2._____ 13. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is replicated during the S phase of the cell cycle._____ 14. If the cell cycle is not regulated, cancer may develop._____ 15. Mitosis occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Multiple Choice

16. Which cells undergo cell division?

a. prokaryotic cells onlyb. eukaryotic cells onlyc. cancer cells onlyd. both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

17. Cell division in eukaryotic cells is a complex process because of

a. the multiple chromosomes.b. the nucleus.c. the many organelles.d. all of the above

18. Most routine metabolic processes occur during which phase of the cell cycle?

a. growth phase 1b. the S phasec. growth phase 2d. the M phase

19. The correct order of the eukaryotic cell cycle is

a. G1 -> G2 -> S -> M.b. S -> G1 -> G2 -> M.c. M ->G1 -> S -> G2.d. G1 -> S -> G2 -> M.

5. The correct order of prokaryotic cell division is

a. cytokinesis -> DNA replication -> chromosome segregation.b. DNA replication -> chromosome segregation -> cytokinesis.c. growth -> DNA replication -> mitosis.

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d. DNA replication -> mitosis -> cytokinesis.

6. Which cell cycle checkpoint determines whether the DNA has been replicated correctly?

a. the cell growth checkpointb. the DNA synthesis checkpointc. the mitosis checkpointd. the G2 checkpoint

7. What happens during mitosis?

a. The nucleus of the cell divides.b. The cytoplasm of the cell divides.c. The cell divides.d. The DNA replicates.

8. Cell division in prokaryotic cells is called

a. binary fission.b. binary fusion.c. mitosis.d. cytokinesis.

References

1. Zachary Wilson. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.02. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.03. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK1-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.04. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.05. Ed Uthman, MD. http://web2.airmail.net/uthman/specimens/images/tvp.html . Public Domain

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www.ck12.org Concept 2. Chromosomes and Mitosis*

CONCEPT 2 Chromosomes and Mitosis*

Points to Consider

1. What do you think happens during mitosis?

2. How do you think mitosis and binary fission are different?

Lesson Objectives

• Describe chromosomes and their role in mitosis.• Outline the phases of mitosis.

Vocabulary

• anaphase: third phase of mitosis, during which sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell• centromere: region of sister chromatids where they are joined together• chromatid: one of two identical copies of a chromosome that are joined together at a centromere before acell divides• chromatin: grainy material that DNA forms when it is not coiled into chromosomes• chromosome: coiled structure made of DNA and proteins containing sister chromatids that is the form in whichthe genetic material of a cell goes through cell division• gene: unit of DNA on a chromosome that is encoded with the instructions for a single protein• homologous chromosomes: pair of chromosomes that have the same size and shape and contain the same genes• metaphase: second phase of mitosis, during which chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell• prophase: first phase of mitosis, during which chromatin condense into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaksdown, centrioles separate, and a spindle begins to form• telophase: last stage of mitosis, during which chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin, the spindle breaks down,and new nuclear membranes form

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

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1. Chromosomes are coiled structures made of ____________ and proteins.2. ____________ is the division of the nucleus.3. During ____________, sister chromatids line up at the equator, or center, of the cell.4. ____________ is the division of the cytoplasm.5. There may be hundreds or even thousands of genes on a single ____________.6. A ____________ contains genetic the instructions for making proteins.7. During anaphase, sister ____________ separate and the centromeres divide.8. The four phases of mitosis, in order, are ____________, ____________, ___________, ____________.9. Human cells normally have ____________ chromosomes.10. A new nuclear membrane forms during ____________.

11. The ____________ fibers ensure that sister chromatids will separate when the cell divides.12. When a chromosome first forms, it actually consists of two sister ____________.

Introduction

In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus divides before the cell itself divides. The process in which the nucleus divides iscalled mitosis. Before mitosis occurs, a cell’s DNA is replicated. This is necessary so that each daughter cell willhave a complete copy of the genetic material from the parent cell. How is the replicated DNA sorted and separatedso that each daughter cell gets a complete set of the genetic material? To understand how this happens, you need toknow more chromosomes.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes are the form of the genetic materialof a cell during cell division. During other phases of the cell cycle, DNA is not coiled into chromosomes. Instead, itexists as a grainy material called chromatin.

Chromatids and the Centromere

DNA condenses and coils into the familiar X-shaped form of a chromosome, shown in Figure 2.1, only after it hasreplicated. (You can watch DNA coiling into a chromosome at the link below.) Because DNA has already replicated,each chromosome actually consists of two identical copies. The two copies are called sister chromatids. They areattached to one another at a region called the centromere.

Chromosomes and Genes

The DNA of a chromosome is encoded with genetic instructions for making proteins. These instructions areorganized into units called genes. Most genes contain the instructions for a single protein. There may be hundredsor even thousands of genes on a single chromosome.

Human Chromosomes

Human cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. There are 23 chromosomesin each set, for a total of 46 chromosomes per cell. Each chromosome in one set is matched by a chromosome of thesame type in the other set, so there are actually 23 pairs of chromosomes per cell. Each pair consists of chromosomesof the same size and shape that also contain the same genes. The chromosomes in a pair are known as homologouschromosomes.

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www.ck12.org Concept 2. Chromosomes and Mitosis*

FIGURE 2.1Chromosome. After DNA replicates, itforms chromosomes like the one shownhere.

Pause to Reflect

1. What are chromosomes?

2. When do chromosomes form?

3. Identify the chromatids and centromere of a chromosome.

4. Explain how chromosomes are related to chromatin.

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5. Why are chromosomes important for mitosis?

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

During mitosis, when the nucleus divides, the two chromatids that make up each chromosome separate from eachother and move to opposite poles of the cell. This is shown in Figure 2.2.

FIGURE 2.2Mitosis is the phase of the eukaryotic cellcycle that occurs between DNA replica-tion and the formation of two daughtercells. What happens during mitosis?

Mitosis actually occurs in four phases. The phases are called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Theyare shown in Figure 2.3 and described in greater detail in the following sections.

Prophase

The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase. During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, andthe nuclear envelope, or membrane, breaks down. In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin to separateand move to opposite poles of the cell. As the centrioles move, a spindle starts to form between them. The spindle,shown in Figure 2.4, consists of fibers made of microtubules.

Metaphase

During metaphase, spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids (see Figure 2.5). Thesister chromatids line up at the equator, or center, of the cell. The spindle fibers ensure that sister chromatids will

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www.ck12.org Concept 2. Chromosomes and Mitosis*

FIGURE 2.3Mitosis in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. Mitosis is the multi-phase process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic celldivides.

separate and go to different daughter cells when the cell divides.

Anaphase

During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres divide. The sister chromatids are pulled apart bythe shortening of the spindle fibers. This is like reeling in a fish by shortening the fishing line. One sister chromatidmoves to one pole of the cell, and the other sister chromatid moves to the opposite pole. At the end of anaphase,each pole of the cell has a complete set of chromosomes.

Telophase

During telophase, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin. This prepares the genetic material fordirecting the metabolic activities of the new cells. The spindle also breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form.

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FIGURE 2.4Spindle. The spindle starts to form duringprophase of mitosis. Kinetochores on thespindle attach to the centromeres of sisterchromatids.

FIGURE 2.5Chromosomes, consisting of sister chro-matids, line up at the equator or middle ofthe cell during metaphase.

Pause to Reflect

1. List the phases of mitosis.

2. What happens during prophase of mitosis?

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www.ck12.org Concept 2. Chromosomes and Mitosis*

3. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate?

4. If a cell skipped metaphase during mitosis, how might this affect the two daughter cells?

5. Explain the significance of the spindle in mitosis.

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasmsplits in two and the cell divides. Cytokinesis occurs somewhat differently in plant and animal cells, as shown inFigure 2.6. In animal cells, the plasma membrane of the parent cell pinches inward along the cell’s equator untiltwo daughter cells form. In plant cells, a cell plate forms along the equator of the parent cell. Then, a new plasmamembrane and cell wall form along each side of the cell plate.

Pause to Reflect

1. Describe what happens during cytokinesis in animal cells.

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FIGURE 2.6Cytokinesis is the final stage of eukaryoticcell division. It occurs differently in animal(left) and plant (right) cells.

Lesson Summary

• Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. They form after DNA replicates and are theform in which the genetic material goes through cell division. Chromosomes contain genes, which code forproteins.

• Cell division in eukaryotic cells includes mitosis, in which the nucleus divides, and cytokinesis, in which thecytoplasm divides and daughter cells form.

• Mitosis occurs in four phases, called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Lesson Review Questions

True or False

_____ 1. A chromatid is made of two identical chromosomes._____ 2. There may be thousands of genes on a single chromosome._____ 3. Prophase is the first phase of mitosis._____ 4. Female human cells have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes._____ 5. Mitosis occurs in the following order: prophase - metaphase - telophase - anaphase._____ 6. The process in which the cell divides is called mitosis._____ 7. During mitosis, DNA exists as chromatin._____ 8. A gene contains the instructions to make a protein._____ 9. Chromosomes form during metaphase._____ 10. Mitosis is the phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle that occurs between DNA replication and the sec-ond growth phase._____ 11. Sister chromatids are identical._____ 12. Chromatids separate during anaphase._____ 13. Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins._____ 14. Human cells have 64 chromosomes._____ 15. Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division.

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Multiple Choice

16. Why is it necessary for the DNA to replicate prior to cell division?

a. so that each daughter cell will have 23 chromosomesb. so that each daughter cell will have a complete copy of the genetic materialc. so that each daughter cell will have 46 homologous chromosomesd. so that each daughter cell will have 2 sister chromatids

17. Why do chromosomes have an X-shape?

a. because they are made of two sister chromatinsb. because they are made of two sister centromeresc. because they are made of two sister chromosomes

d. because they are made of two sister chromatids

18. Chromosomes form during what part of the cell cycle?

a. prophase of mitosisb. the end of the G2 phasec. right after S phase and DNA replicationd. during cytokinesis

19. The correct order of phases during mitosis is

a. telophase -> prophase -> metaphase -> anaphaseb. prophase -> anaphase -> metaphase -> telophasec. prophase -> metaphase -> telophase -> anaphased. prophase -> metaphase -> anaphase -> telophase

20. How many chromosomes are in a normal human cell?

a. 23b. 32c. 46d. 64

21. When do the sister chromatids line up at the equator of the cell?

a. metaphaseb. anaphasec. prophased. telophase

22. Which of the following statements concerning cytokinesis is correct? (1) cytokinesis occurs in both prokaryotesand eukaryotes, (2) cytokinesis is when the cytoplasm splits in two, (3) in plant cells, cytokinesis involvesthe formation of a cell plate.

a. 1 onlyb. 2 onlyc. 1 and 2d. 1, 2, and 3

23. During which phase of mitosis do the sister chromatids separate?

a. prophaseb. telophasec. anaphased. metaphase

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References

1. Zappy’s. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.02. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.03. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.04. Courtesy of Nogales group and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic

les/Archive/sabl/2007/Oct/onering.html . Public Domain5. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.06. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

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www.ck12.org Concept 3. Reproduction and Meiosis**

CONCEPT 3 Reproduction and Meiosis**

Points to Consider

1. What role do you think cell division plays in bacteria reproduction?

2. What role do you think cell division plays in human reproduction?

Lesson Objectives

• Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.• Give an overview of sexual reproduction, and outline the phases of meiosis.• Explain why sexual reproduction leads to variation in offspring.• Define life cycle, and identify different types of sexual life cycles.

Vocabulary

• asexual reproduction: reproduction that involves a single parent and results in offspring that are all geneti-cally identical to the parent• crossing-over: exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes when they are closely paired dur-ing meiosis I• diploid: having two of each type of chromosome• egg: female gamete• fertilization: union of two gametes that produces a diploid zygote• gamete: reproductive cell produced during meiosis that has the haploid number of chromosomes• gametogenesis: development of haploid cells into gametes such as sperm and egg• haploid: having only one chromosome of each type• independent assortment: independent segregation of chromosomes to gametes during meiosis• life cycle: series of stages a sexually reproducing organism goes through from one generation to the next• meiosis: type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half and four haploid cells result• sexual reproduction: type of reproduction that involves the fertilization of gametes produced by two parents andproduces genetically variable offspring

• sperm: male gamete• zygote: diploid cell that forms when two haploid gametes unite during fertilization

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Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.1. When cells divide during meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells, and dif-ferent chromosomes segregate ____________ of each other.2. Crossing-over is the exchange of ____________ material between homologous chromosomes.3. A human egg cell has ____________ chromosomes.4. Binary fission, fragmentation, and ____________ are types of asexual reproduction.5. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by ____________.6. A human zygote has ____________ chromosomes.7. The ____________ life cycle is the simplest life cycle.8. Meiosis begins with one cell, and ends with ____________ cells.9. Male gametes are called ____________, and female gametes are a(n) ____________ cell.10. During ____________, spindle fibers attach to the paired homologous chromosomes.

Introduction

Cell division is how organisms grow and repair themselves. It is also how they produce offspring. Many single-celled organisms reproduce by binary fission. The parent cell simply divides to form two daughter cells that areidentical to the parent. In many other organisms, two parents are involved, and the offspring are not identical to theparents. In fact, each offspring is unique. Look at the family in Figure 3.1. The children resemble their parents, butthey are not identical to them. Instead, each has a unique combination of characteristics inherited from both parents.In this lesson, you will learn how this happens.

FIGURE 3.1Family Portrait: Mother, Daughter, Father, and Son. Children resembletheir parents, but they are never identical to them. Do you know why thisis the case?

Reproduction: Asexual vs. Sexual

Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to offspring. It is one of the defining characteristics ofliving things. There are two basic types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction involves a single parent. It results in offspring that are genetically identical to each otherand to the parent. All prokaryotes and some eukaryotes reproduce this way. There are several different methods ofasexual reproduction. They include binary fission, fragmentation, and budding.

• Binary fission occurs when a parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells of the same size ( Figure 3.2).This process was described in detail in the lesson “Cell Division and the Cell Cycle.”

• Fragmentation occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or pieces, and each fragment developsinto a new organism. Starfish, like the one in Figure 3.3, reproduce this way. A new starfish can develop froma single ray, or arm.

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FIGURE 3.2Binary fission in various single-celled or-ganisms (left). Cell division is a relativelysimple process in many single-celled or-ganisms. Eventually the parent cell willpinch apart to form two identical daughtercells. In multiple fission (right), a multinu-cleated cell can divide to form more thanone daughter cell. Multiple fission is moreoften observed among protists.

FIGURE 3.3Starfish reproduce by fragmentation. Starfish, however, are also capableof sexual reproduction.

• Budding occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud stays attached to the parent cell whileit grows and develops. When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away from the parent cell and forms a neworganism. Budding in yeast is shown in Figure 3.4.

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FIGURE 3.4Yeast reproduces by budding. Both are types of asexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction can be very rapid. This is an advantage for many organisms. It allows them to crowd outother organisms that reproduce more slowly. Bacteria, for example, may divide several times per hour. Under idealconditions, 100 bacteria can divide to produce millions of bacterial cells in just a few hours! However, most bacteriado not live under ideal conditions. If they did, the entire surface of the planet would soon be covered with them.Instead, their reproduction is kept in check by limited resources, predators, and their own wastes. This is true ofmost other organisms as well.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves two parents. As you can see from Figure 3.5, in sexual reproduction, parents producereproductive cells—called gametes—that unite to form an offspring. Gametes are haploid cells. This means theycontain only half the number of chromosomes found in other cells of the organism. Gametes are produced by a typeof cell division called meiosis, which is described in detail below. The process in which two gametes unite is calledfertilization. The fertilized cell that results is referred to as a zygote. A zygote is diploid cell, which means that ithas twice the number of chromosomes as a gamete.

FIGURE 3.5Cycle of Sexual Reproduction. Sexualreproduction involves the production ofhaploid gametes by meiosis. This is fol-lowed by fertilization and the formation ofa diploid zygote. The number of chromo-somes in a gamete is represented by theletter n. Why does the zygote have 2n, ortwice as many, chromosomes?

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Pause to Reflect

1. What are three types of asexual reproduction?

2. Define gamete and zygote.

3. What number of chromosomes do gametes have? What number of chromosomes do zygotes have?

4. What happens during fertilization?

5. Compare & contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.

Compare (Same)

Contrast (Different)

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Meiosis

The process that produces haploid gametes is meiosis (see Figure 3.5). Meiosis is a type of cell division in whichthe number of chromosomes is reduced by half. It occurs only in certain special cells of the organisms. Duringmeiosis, homologous chromosomes separate, and haploid cells form that have only one chromosome from each pair.Two cell divisions occur during meiosis, and a total of four haploid cells are produced. The two cell divisions arecalled meiosis I and meiosis II. The overall process of meiosis is summarized in Figure 3.6. It is also described indetail below.

FIGURE 3.6Overview of Meiosis. During meiosis,homologous chromosomes separate andgo to different daughter cells. This dia-gram shows just the nuclei of the cells.Notice the exchange of genetic materialthat occurs prior to the first cell division.

Phases of Meiosis

Meiosis I begins after DNA replicates during interphase. In both meiosis I and meiosis II, cells go through the samefour phases as mitosis. However, there are important differences between meiosis I and mitosis. The flowchart inFigure 3.7 shows what happens in both meiosis I and II. You can follow the changes in the flowchart as you readabout them below.

Meiosis I

1. Prophase I: The nuclear envelope begins to break down, and the chromosomes condense. Centrioles startmoving to opposite poles of the cell, and a spindle begins to form. Importantly, homologous chromosomespair up, which is unique to prophase I. In prophase of mitosis and meiosis II, homologous chromosomes donot form pairs in this way. During prophase I, crossing-over occurs (see below).

2. Metaphase I: Spindle fibers attach to the paired homologous chromosomes. The paired chromosomes line upalong the equator of the cell. This occurs only in metaphase I. In metaphase of mitosis and meiosis II, it issister chromatids that line up along the equator of the cell.

3. Anaphase I: Spindle fibers shorten, and the chromosomes of each homologous pair start to separate from eachother. One chromosome of each pair moves toward one pole of the cell, and the other chromosome movestoward the opposite pole.

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FIGURE 3.7Phases of Meiosis. This flowchart ofmeiosis shows meiosis I in greater detailthan meiosis II. Meiosis I—but not meiosisII—differs somewhat from mitosis. Com-pare meiosis I in this flowchart with theearlier figure featuring mitosis. How doesmeiosis I differ from mitosis?

4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. The cytoplasm ofthe cell divides, and two haploid daughter cells result. The daughter cells each have a random assortment ofchromosomes, with one from each homologous pair. Both daughter cells go on to meiosis II.

Meiosis II

1. Prophase II: The nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle begins to form in each haploid daughter cellfrom meiosis I. The centrioles also start to separate.

2. Metaphase II: Spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of each chromosome along the equator of the cell.3. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.4. Telophase II and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. The cytoplasm of

each cell divides, and four haploid cells result. Each cell has a unique combination of chromosomes.

Pause to Reflect

1. Outline the phases of meiosis.

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2. Create a diagram to chow how crossing-over occurs and how it creates new gene combinations on each chromo-some.

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3. Explain why sexual reproduction results in genetically unique offspring.

4. Explain how meiosis I differs from mitosis.

Gametogenesis

At the end of meiosis, four haploid cells have been produced, but the cells are not yet gametes. The cells need todevelop before they become mature gametes capable of fertilization. The development of haploid cells into gametesis called gametogenesis.

Gametogenesis may differ between males and females. Male gametes are called sperm. Female gametes are calledeggs. In human males, for example, the process that produces mature sperm cells is called spermatogenesis. Duringthis process, sperm cells grow a tail and gain the ability to “swim,” like the human sperm cell shown in Figure 3.8.In human females, the process that produces mature eggs is called oogenesis. Just one egg is produced from the fourhaploid cells that result from meiosis. The single egg is a very large cell, as you can see from the human egg inFigure 3.8.

FIGURE 3.8A human sperm is a tiny cell with a tail. A human egg is much larger. Bothcells are mature haploid gametes that are capable of fertilization. Whatprocess is shown in this photograph?

Sexual Reproduction and Genetic Variation

Sexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically unique. They differ from both parents and also fromeach other. This occurs for a number of reasons.

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• When homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis I, crossing-over can occur. Crossing-over is theexchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. It results in newcombinations of genes on each chromosome.

• When cells divide during meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells, anddifferent chromosomes segregate independently of each other. This called is called independent assortment.It results in gametes that have unique combinations of chromosomes.

• In sexual reproduction, two gametes unite to produce an offspring. But which two of the millions of possiblegametes will it be? This is likely to be a matter of chance. It is obviously another source of genetic variationin offspring.

All of these mechanisms working together result in an amazing amount of potential variation. Each human couple,for example, has the potential to produce more than 64 trillion genetically unique children. No wonder we are alldifferent!

Sexual Reproduction and Life Cycles

Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop into diploidadults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing organism goes throughis called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have different types of life cycles. Three are describedin the following sections.

Haploid Life Cycle

The haploid life cycle ( Figure 3.9) is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled organisms. Organismswith a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid gametes fuse, theyform a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes that repeat the life cycle.

FIGURE 3.9Haploid Life Cycle. The letter N indicateshaploid stages of the life cycles, and 2Nindicates diploid stages.

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Diploid Life Cycle

Organisms with a diploid life cycle ( Figure 3.10) spend the majority of their lives as diploid adults. When they areready to reproduce, they undergo meiosis and produce haploid gametes. Gametes then unite in fertilization and forma diploid zygote. The zygote develops into a diploid adult that repeats the life cycle. Can you think of an organismwith a diploid life cycle? (Hint: What type of life cycle do humans have?)

FIGURE 3.10Diploid Life Cycle. The letter N indicateshaploid stages of the life cycles, and 2Nindicates diploid stages.

Alternation of Generations

Organisms that have a life cycle with alternating generations ( Figure 3.11) switch back and forth between diploidand haploid stages. Organisms with this type of life cycle include plants, algae, and some protists. These life cyclesmay be quite complicated. You can read about them in later chapters.

Pause to Reflect

1. What is a life cycle?

2. What is gameotogenesis, and when does it occur?

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FIGURE 3.11Alternation of Generations. The letter Nindicates haploid stages of the life cycles,and 2N indicates diploid stages.

3. An adult organism produces gametes that quickly go through fertilization and form diploid zygotes. The zygotesmature into adults, which live for many years. Eventually, the adults produce gametes and the cycle repeats. Whattype of life cycle does this organism have?

Lesson Summary

• Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical to each otherand to the parent. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces offspring that are genetically unique.

• During sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes join in the process of fertilization to produce a diploidzygote. Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes. It involves two cell divisions and producesfour haploid cells.

• Sexual reproduction has the potential to produce tremendous genetic variation in offspring. This variationis due to independent assortment and crossing-over during meiosis and random union of gametes duringfertilization.

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• A life cycle is the sequence of stages an organisms goes through from one generation to the next. Organismsthat reproduce sexually can have different types of life cycles, such as haploid or diploid life cycles.

FIGURE 3.12Summary of all three life cycles.

Lesson Review Questions

True or False

_____ 1. The basic types of reproduction are asexual reproduction, binary reproduction and sexual reproduction._____ 2. Sexual reproduction always involves two parents._____ 3. Asexual reproduction always involves two parents._____ 4. Meiosis starts with one cell and ends with four._____ 5. “Crossing-over” can occur in meiosis I but not meiosis II._____ 6. Prokaryotes go through meiosis I and eukaryotes go through meiosis II._____ 7. A zygote is the first cell of a new organism._____ 8. Meiosis I and mitosis are very similar._____ 9. In humans, a gamete will have 23 chromosomes._____ 10. In binary fission, parent and offspring are identical._____ 11. In sexual reproduction, parents and offspring are never identical._____ 12. Gametes are diploid, a zygote is haploid._____ 13. Egg and sperm are diploid gametes._____ 14. Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes._____ 15. Starfish can reproduce by fragmentation - that is, a whole new fish can grow from just a single arm.

Multiple Choice

16. After meiosis there are

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a. two haploid cells.b. two haploid gametes.c. four haploid cells.d. four haploid gametes.

17. Which of the following is a form of asexual reproduction?

a. fragmentationb. meiosisc. binary fusion

d. bubbling

18. Which of the following is true about a zygote? (1) A zygote is the first cell of a new organism. (2) A humanzygote has 23 pairs of chromosomes. (3) A zygote is produced through fertilization.

a. 1 onlyb. 1 and 3c. 2 and 3d. 1, 2, and 3

19. Differences between meiosis I and meiosis II include:

a. how the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell during meiosis I or meiosis II.b. the pairing of chromosomes in meiosis I but not meiosis II.c. the amount of DNA in a cell at the end of meiosis I or meiosis II.d. all of the above

20. Because of when the chromosomes pair up during meiosis, crossing-over must occur during

a. prophase II.b. metaphase II.c. prophase I.d. anaphase I.

21. Homologous chromosomes separate during

a. metaphase I.b. anaphase I.c. anaphase II.d. telophase II.

22. A life cycle in which organisms switch back and forth between diploid and haploid stages

a. is a haploid life cycle.b. is a diploid life cycle.c. is an alternation of generations life cycle.d. does not exist.

23. The random distribution of homologous chromosomes during cell division is known as

a. meiosis.b. independent assortment.c. genetic variation.d. crossing-over.

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References

1. Image copyright Juan Carlos Tinjaca, 2014. http://www.shutterstock.com . Used under license from Shutter-stock.com

2. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.03. Flickr:ShyViolet09. http://www.flickr.com/photos/allthestarsthatshine/7356697446/ . CC BY 2.04. Zappy’s. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.05. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.06. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.07. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.08. Courtesy of www.PDImages.com. http://www.pdimages.com/03709.html-ssi . Public Domain9. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

10. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.011. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.012. Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

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