Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis) is an infection caused by a species of parasitic blood flukes (trematodes) and is one of the most common and widespread diseases among many tropical nations:

• 200 million people in the tropics• 160 million people in Africa

If brought back by travelers into colder climates, further spread of the infection is unlikely. The life cycle requires fresh warm water and specific species of snail that act as the host for parasitic worms; tropical areas provide suitable conditions for the parasite to survive (8).

Symptoms: All classes of Schistosomiasis begin with “Katayama Disease,” which induces these flu-like symptoms (8):

Ecological Impact:

Population growth rates enhances the transmissivity, morbidity and mortality rates of water-borne illnesses. Decrease in fresh water resources contribute heavily to transmissivity as people share water for necessary domestic purposes such as drinking and bathing.

Social Impact:

Access to safe water is a prerequisite for human health and success in alleviating the presence of infectious diseases. The UN Social and Economic Council recognized water as a human right to exemplify this notion in 2002. Unsafe water, insubstantial sanitation, and unhygienic environments are a leading cause of illness and death among children in Africa; population growth increases the demand from domestic and agricultural sectors, despite low funds and priority given to water sanitation investments (7).

Ethical Impact:

Developing nations such as Africa endure the greatest burden of both health and economic costs associated with parasitic diseases. It is difficult to determine which nations ought to provide medical and financial assistance; intergovernmental groups, however, have begun making provisions for improvement.

Malaria is a serious and sometimes fatal disease caused by a parasite that commonly infects a certain human biting mosquito (a female Anopheles mosquito.) The parasites multiply inside the red blood cells, which then rupture within 48 to 72 hours, infecting more red blood cells (3).

Symptoms:

Ecological Impact:

Life cycle of malaria causing parasite is extremely sensitive to changes in temperature the rising average temperatures are making conditions more favorable for mosquitoes and pathogen development. Global warming has caused an increase in malaria cases especially in Guinea. Only a small increase in temperature can lead to a much larger increase in the abundance of mosquitoes (3).

Social Impact:

•Among the poorest countries of the world •Their GDP per capita is $1,100 in 2009, whereas the United States is $46,400 (4)•The life expectancy is approximately 57 years (4)•Education low, literacy rates under 30% (4)•Guinea has 75,386 malaria cases per 100,000 people, making it number one on the list of countries affected by malaria (2)

Ethical Impact:

One of the most controversial research that is going on right now is finding a vaccine for malaria. This is because the testing of new products is dangerous, particularly to test subjects (infants, children and pregnant women) whom are the most vulnerable (1).

Neisseria Meningitidis is an infection of the lining that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. This contagious disease first occurs in the upper respiratory tract and then enters the bloodstream. This disease can affect people of all ethnicities in all regions of the world. The highest percentage of people affected live on the “Meningitis Belt” which is all areas between western Senegal and Ethiopia to the east. There are several reasons for Africa being hardest hit with this disease. They have very little money, poor access to doctors and vaccines, as well as tremendous overcrowding and poor living condition (6).

Symptoms:

Ecological Impact:

In Africa large outbreaks occur during the dry season. When temperatures fall at night, people huddle together to stay warm (thus contaminating one another). In addition to falling night temperatures, the dry season is when dust winds blow from the north which damage mucous membranes causing respiratory infections. Desertification and dust storms might increase as our climate changes. Rather then occurring every 8-12 years they will most likely occur every four years (5).

Social Impact:

Overcrowding and poor living conditions are two key reasons why Africa is at such high risk for epidemics. The deteriorating socioeconomic condition of many countries makes healthcare almost completely inaccessible to the poor; often the people are who need it most. In1996, the biggest wave of Neisseria Meningitidis outbreaks ever recorded hit West Africa. An estimated 250,000 cases and 25,000 deaths. In America, college students, particularly those who live in dormitories or residence halls are at the highest risk of becoming infected (5).

Ethical Impact:

During a Meningitis out break in Africa all the activity of the health system is blocked by Meningitis patients. The cases of Aids and Malaria do not go away. Healthcare professionals face the ethical problem of who is treated first. The child dying of Aids or the child dying of Meningitis?

RESOURCES:

Malaria:1. Kilama, W. L. "Ethical perspective on malaria research for Africa." Acta Tropica Sept. 2005: 276- 84.

ScienceDirect. 7 June 2005. Web. 17 Feb. 2010. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1R-4GMS9D5-&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1211197516&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion =0&_userid=10&md5=e1b2897c1c47ecfbf3e243c7230a11a4>

2. "Malaria Cases per 100,000 by country." NationMaster - World Statistics, Country Comparisons. Web. 18 Feb. 2010. <http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/hea_mal_cas_per_100-malaria-cases-per-100-000>

3. United States. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Frequently Asked Questions. Web. 17 Feb. 2010. <http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html>.

4. CIA World Fact Book. 2010.<https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world factbook/geos/gv.html>

Neisseria Meningitidis:

5. "Sentinel surveillance - Rotavirus and Paediatric Bacterial Meningitis." World Health Org. . 2009. World Health Orginization, Web. 23 Feb 2010. <http://www.afro.who.int/en/divisions-a-programmes/ddc/immunization-and-vaccines-development/programme-components/sentinel-surveillance-rotavirus-and-paediatric-bacterial-meningitis.html>.

6. "Meningococcal Disease Fact Sheet." Acute and Communicable Disease Prevention. March 2009. The Oregon Department of Human Services, Web. 23 Feb 2010. <http://www.oregon.gov/DHS/ph/acd/diseases/nmenin/facts.shtml#howspread>.

Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis):7. Beekman, Hans and Kevin Pietersen, et. al. “Environmental State-and-Trands: 20-Year Retrospective.” 119-154.

<http://www.unep.org/dewa/africa/docs/en/aeo-2/chapters/aeo-2_ch04_FRESHWATER.pdf?>8. Gryseels, Prof. Bruno. “Human Schistosomiasis.” The Lancet 368.9541 (2006); 1106-1118.

<http://www.sciencedirect.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4KY3RPDM&_user=582538&_coverDate=09%2F29%2F2006&_alid=1221444434&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=4886&_sort=r&docanchor=&view=c&_ct=4718&_acct=C000029718&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=582538&md5=481deadcdd23e0b1192d9ed25669b0d0>

Infectious Diseases

Female Anopheles mosquito infecting human with malaria parasite©http://raggiemaser.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/mosquito-malaria1.jpg

• Fever• Shaking chills • Headache• Muscle ache • Tiredness • Nausea• Vomiting• Diarrhea

• Anemia• Jaundice• Seizures• Mental confusion• Coma• Death (3)

By: Ara Jo

• High fever• Stiff neck• Sensitivity to

light• Headaches• Vomiting

• Treatments include either being vaccinated prior to having Meningitidis or antibiotics can be administered

Even if treatment is started, 5%-10% of people die within forty-eight hours.

• People lucky enough to survive are often left with life-long side effects including brain damage and hearing loss (6).

A child in Africa having the Meningitis vaccine administered to her. © <http://planetearthlooksblue.today.com/files/2009/03/meningitis-

outbreak.jpg>

• Chronic fever• Cough• Headache plus meningeal &

neurological symptoms• If left untreated, the following

complications will occur: nodular changes and complications, cystitis and ureteric and bladder calcification

Foot infected by Schistosomiasis ©http://abyssaldepths.files.wordpress.com/2008/

04

Schistosomiasis: 2008

©http://gamapserver.who.int/mapLibrary/Files/Maps/

Global_ShistoPrevalence_ITHRiskMap.png

©http://www.africanoverlandtours.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/africa-

malaria

Malaria in Africa: 2002

The Meningitis Belt in Africa

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