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THE QUEST FOR A TRUE HUMANITY

An exhibition commemorating the 30th anniversary

of the death of Bantu Stephen Biko

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May this exhibition contribute to replenishing our national memory.

May it serve to bring to the fore of our consciousness thecontribution of those who paid the ultimate price.

It is the dictate of history to bring to the fore the kind of leaders

who seize the moment, who cohere the wishes and aspirations

of the oppressed. Such was Steve Biko, a fitting product of his time;

a proud representative of the re-awakening of a people.Nelson Mandela

Thirty years ago, on 12 September 1977, Bantu Stephen Biko,

one of South Africas greatest leaders and philosophers,

was murdered in detention by the apartheid regime.

The Apartheid Museum, in partnership with the Department

of Education and the Steve Biko Foundation, seek to honour Bikos

memory by staging this major exhibition to commemorate his

contribution to lifting the veil of oppression in our country.

Unlike Biko, many others who died in detention for their opposition to

apartheid have sunk into obscurity. We take this opportunity to pay tributeto all 115 people who died in South Africa prisons from

1963 - 1990 in their quest for a better world.

As Nkosinathi Biko, son of Steve Biko

and the CEO of the Steve Biko Foundation, puts it,

Christopher TillDirector

Apartheid MuseumSeptember 2007

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CONTENTSCredits

Biko - The Quest for a True Humanity

The African Intellect ual Tradition

Sowing the Seeds of Self-reliance

The Move to Africanism

Pan Africanism to Black Consciousness

The Negritude Movement

The Spirit of Revolution

The Black Power Movement

1946-1965 Bikos Early Life

The Extension of University Education Act of 1959

1966 -1970 The Birth of SASO

Love and Marriage

An Attitude of Mind, a Way of Life

1972 - 1976 The Development of the Black Consciousness Movement

A Spirit of Self-Reliance

A Cultural Renaissance

Breaking the Silence

1973 - 1976 Banned and Banished

Viva Frelimo

1976 - 1977 Resistance and Repression

Bikos Last Days

Deaths in Detention 1963 - 1990

Burying Biko

Biko - Peter Gabriel

Official Cause of Death

No One to Blame

Guilty as Charged

Black Wednesday

No Truth at the TRC

Black Consciousness after Biko

Is Biko Dead

Forget We Will Not

Liberate Your Min d

Biko Lives!

What is the Quest for a True Humanity Today?

Stir It Up!

Memory and Monuments

Bibliography

2

3

6

8

9

10

12

13

14

16

18

20

22

24

27

29

30

31

32

33

34

36

39

41

42

44

45

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49

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51

52

53

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CREDITS

The Steve Biko Foundationstrengthens democracy by

championing dialogue, scholarship and programmes on the

relationship between identity, agency,

citizenship and social action.

Tel: 011 403 0310

www.sbf.org.za

Developed and presented by

the Apartheid Museum

Curated byEmilia Potenza

Commissioned bythe Department of Education

Content advisorDr Sifiso Ndlovu,

South African Democracy Education Trust

Research and script development byMarc Suttner

and Steve Mokwena

Picture research byMarie Human and Rita Potenza

Design by Megan Futter

Production byScan Shop

The Apartheid Museumis committed to popularising

20th century South African history, with a particular emphasis

on the apartheid period. It has a programme of travelling

exhibitions, like this one, which are designed to

take the museum to the community.

Tel: 011 309 4700

www.apartheidmuseum.org

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In Sesotho there is a saying that motjheka sediba ha

a se nwe he who digs a well does not drink from it.

Only those who come after him will quench their thirst

from its cool water. When the forebears formulated

this adage they had Bantu Stephen Biko in mind.Zakes Mda , Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, 2001

Bantu Stephen Biko will be remembered for

many things. He was a leader, a philosopher,

a visionary and a revolutionary. Biko was

one of our country s outstanding intellectuals,

whose ideas contributed immeasurably

to the freedom struggle in South Africa.

THE QUEST FOR A TRUE HUMANITY

An exhibition commemorating the 30th anniversary

of the death of Bantu Stephen Biko

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The African child learns to hate hisheritage in his days at school. So

negative is the image of African society

presented to him that he tends to find

solace only in close identification with

white society. Part of the approach in

bringing about black consciousness

has to be directed to the past, to seek

to rewrite the history of the black man

and to produce in it the heroes who

form the core of the African background.Steve Biko, I write what I like

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Photo:BruceHaigh

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THE AFRICAN

INTELLECTUAL

TRADITION

In subsequent travels

overseas, he was fortunate

to meet with such dynamic

leaders, Marcus Garvey and

W.E.B. Du Bois, with whom hehad a robust exchange

of ideas about the role of

black people in overcoming

their own oppression.

Biko, the intellectual, was the product of a rich African intellectual tradition that dates back

hundreds of years. Early black intellectuals came from a time when knowledge was developed

and transferred to future generations through izibongo(praise poems) and the oral tradition.

Later a new generation of intellectuals emerged through contact with missionary education

and exposure to Christianity. These intellectuals grappled with the often contradictory value

systems of the African tradition and the colonial world view.

TIYO SOGA

(1829 - 1871)

The Eastern Cape,

where Biko was born, had a

rich African intellectual

heritage. One of the earliest

intellectuals from this area was

Tiyo Soga, the first Xhosa to be

ordained as a Christian

minister and one of the first

Africans to study abroad.

Solomon T. Plaatje

(1876 - 1932)

Solomon T. Plaatje

another great South African

intellectual, was a man of many

talents. He was a journalist, a linguist,

an interpreter, a novelist,

a historian, a translator

and a political leader.

Plaatje was a

founder member and first

General Secretary of the

South African Native

National Congress (SANNC),

which would later become

the African National

Congress (ANC).

With other leaders of

the SANNC, he travelled to England

to protest against the 1913 Native

Land Act. This Act set aside 8,7 %

of South Africas land for blackpeople. All the remaining land was

reserved for white ownership.

Plaatje chronicled the shocking

effects of the Land Act in his book

Native Life in South Africa.

Plaatje founded

two newspapers Tsala ea

Becoana(The Friend of

Bechuana) and

subsequently Tsala eaBatho(The Friend

of the People).

Soga was

known for collecting

fables, legends and

proverbs, fragments

of history ... and, the

ancient habits and

customs of his

countrymen ...N. Masilela, New African Intellectuals

MuseumAfrica

WitsHistoricalP

apers

NationalLibraryofSouthAfrica

JohannesburgPublicLibrary

Sol Plaatje (front

row, second from

left) with the staff

ofTsala ea

Becoana

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The deceased child had to be buried, but where,

when and how? Even criminals dropping straight from the

gallows can claim six feet of ground on which to rest their criminal

remains, but under the cruel operation of the Land Act little

children, whose only crime is that God did not make them white,

are sometimes denied that right in their ancestral home.Sol Paatje, Native Life in South Africa, 1913

Photo:WitsHistoricalPapers

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SOWING

THE SEEDS OF

SELF-RELIANCE

Dube embraced

this idea of self-reliance,

creating a similar-styled

institute at Ohlange in

Natal in 1899. Steve Biko

was later to champion this

spirit of self-reliance but

with greater emphasis

on blacks becoming

agents of their

own destinies.

Charlotte Maxeke

(1874 - 1939)

Charlotte Maxeke (top left),

one of the most accomplished

African women of her day, toured

North America in the 1890s as a

member of a choir. She attended

university there and was one of

the first African women to earn a

university degree. When she

returned to South Africa, she

introduced the African Methodist

Episcopal (AME) Church

into the country.

Maxeke pushed

strongly for African

unity not only in South

Africa, but in the whole of

Africa. She is best

remembered for leading the

march against passes for

women in Bloemfontein in

1913, in which she forced the

authorities to back down. In

a time of womens

subservience, Maxeke

embodied the spirit of

African assertiveness

and self-reliance.

John Langalibalele Dube

(1871 - 1946)

John Langalibalele Dube, like so

many of South Africas great

intellectuals, came under theinfluence of the missionaries in

his early years.

One who comes

once in many

centuries ... no oneelse in his generation

has accomplished so

much with such

meagre economic

means. He was a

scholar, gentleman,

leader, farmer,

teacher, politician,

patriot and

philanthropist.B.W. Vilakazi, poet and author

Dube, who was to

become the first President-

General of the SANNC in

1912, founded the

Zulu/English newspaper

Ilanga lase Natal(Sun of

Natal). He used the

newspaper to call for

African unity and to expose

the negative effects of

white rule.

Dube obtained

his doctorate in the

United States. He spent

time at Booker T.

Washingtons Tuskegee

Institute, which focused

on self-reliance by

providing African

Americans with

vocational training.

Unknown

SouthAfricanHistoryArchives

NationalLibraryofSouthAfrica

CullenLibrary

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We are not anti-white.

We do not hate the European

because he is white! We hate

him because he is an oppressor.

And it is plain dishonesty to

say I hate the sjambok

and not the one who

wields it. Robert Sobukwe

Herbert I. E. Dhlomo

(1903 - 1956)

Herbert I. E. Dhlomo wrote plays

and poetry about African history

and customs. His thinking

influenced the young lions, who

formed the ANC Youth League in

1944, and later Steve Biko and his

contemporaries in the Black

Consciousness Movement.

In Dhlomos play, Cetshwayo, the

field marshal of the Zulu army,Dabulamanzi, calls on the black

man to rage against the notion

of his own inferiority.

Black man!

Black man! Trust

yourself. Serve yourself.

Know yourself ... Had the

black himself known and

that power exploited, we

would be our own lord ...

Black man you are your

own enemy!H.I.E. Dhlomo

Black man! You are

on your own! Steve Biko

Anton Muziwakhe

Lembede (1914 - 1947)

Anton Lembede will be

remembered as one of the most

outstanding African intellectuals,

who died an untimely death at the

age of 33. As first president of the

ANC Youth League, he inspired a

tradition of Africanism, a creed of

African nationalism for

black South Africa.

Nature has

endowed the black man

with all the elements of

power, of creation and

of nobility, and it is his

duty not to allow

himself to be swamped

by the doctrines ofinferiority.

Anton Lembede

Robert Mangaliso

Sobukwe (1924 - 1978)

Robert Sobukwe (back row,

right) was a man of great

intellect and charisma. A

fervent Africanist, Sobukwe

saw the struggle against whiteoppression as an African

struggle. It was in this context

that he broke away from the

ANC in 1959 to form the Pan

Africanist Congress (PAC).

BaileysA

fricanHistoryArchive

CullenLibrary

Skottaville

WitsHistoricalPapers

BenjaminPogrund

THE MOVE TO

AFRICANISM

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The birth of Black Consciousness in South Africa in the late 1960s was a product

of local conditions and a creative synthesis of ideas from a variety of sources.

A number of intellectual movements preceded Black Consciousness.

The first of these was Pan Africanism which called for the unity of all the people

in Africa and those who are descended from Africa. The roots of Pan Africanism

could be found in both the United States and in Africa.

PAN AFRICANISM

TO BLACK

CONSCIOUSNESS

In 1960, Du Bois

was invited by Kwame

Nkrumah to his inauguration

as the first president of

independent Ghana. The

following year he accepted

Nkrumahs invitation to move

to Ghana and subsequently

became a Ghanaian citizen.

He died in Ghana in 1963

and, after a state funeral,

was buried in Accra.

Marcus Garvey, Jr.

(1887 - 1940)

Born in Jamaica in 1887, Marcus

Garvey is best remembered asa champion of the Back-to-Africa

Movement, which encouraged

those of African descent to

return to their ancestral home.

Garvey used slogans like Africa

for Africans. Similar slogans,

such as mayibuye i-Afrika!(Africa

should be returned to its rightful

owners!), were used by the ANC

Youth League in the 1940sand later by the PAC

in South Africa.

W.E.B. Du Bois

(1868 - 1963)

W.E.B. Du Bois was a

scholar and founding memberof the National Association for

the Advancement of Colored

People (NAACP) - the largest

and oldest civil rights

organisation in America.

Known to many as the father of

Pan Africanism, Du Bois

organised the first of a series of

Pan African Congresses. These

conferences, which inspired

African leaders, were major

milestones in the process

of decolonisation

in Africa.

The shadow

of a mighty Negro

past flits through the tale

of Ethiopia and of Egypt

the Sphinx. Throughout

history, the powers of

single blacks flash like

falling stars, and die

sometimes before the

world has rightly gauged

their brightness.W.E.B. Du Bois

LibraryofCongress,U

SA

UniversityofMassachusetts

UniversityofMassachusetts

Unknown

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Nkrumah, a strong advocate of Pan Africanism, declared that the

independence of Ghana is meaningless unless it is linked with

the total liberation of the African continent. By leading Africas

independence movement, Nkrumah became a source of inspiration

throughout the African continent. He played a significant role in

the creation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963,

a precursor to the current Africa Union. Sadly, his achievements

have been somewhat diminished by his later excesses of power.

Photo:BaileysAfricanHistoryArchive

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The second intellectual movement to precede Black Consciousness was the

Negritude Movement, founded by those struggling against French colonialism.

Negritude grew out of the discrimination and alienation experienced by Africanand Caribbean students in Paris during the 1930s. It was an attempt to define

black culture in terms of universal black values and black self-expression.

THE NEGRITUDE

MOVEMENT

Two leading black

intellectuals in the 1960s,

Ezekiel Mphahlele (centre,

with the South African

delegation at the 1958

Conference of Independent

African States in Ghana) and

Wole Soyinka (below) from

Nigeria were critical of the

Negritude Movement.

Soyinka famously remarked:

A tiger does not declare

its tigritude.

Aim Csaire (1913 - )

Born in Martinique in the

Caribbean, the poet, playwright,

and politician, Aim C saire

developed the concept of

Negritude in Paris in the 1930s.

C saire explained that the

problem of black culture cannot be

posed without simultaneously

posing the problem of colonialism

which had disrupted the history of

Africa, destroyed the African

economy and brainwashed

Africans all over the world intoaccepting the idea that

they were inferior.

Because the

conqueror dictated

what was right and whatwas wrong, he caused the

development of an

inferiority complex in the

black people ... this

prevents the black man

from articulating

his aspirations and

determining his future.Steve Biko, I write what I like

Leopold Senghor

(1906 - 2001)

Leopold Senghor was one

of Africas foremost poets and the first

president of independent Senegal.

As a student in Paris in the 1930s, he

was also one of the founders of the

concept of Negritude. Like C saire, he

argued that black civilisation long

preceded white colonialism and it was

therefore untrue that the French were

bringing civilisation to their

colonial subjects.

Naked woman, black woman

Clothed with your colour which is life,

with your form which is beauty!

In your shadow I have grown up;

the gentleness of your hands was

laid over my eyes ...

Naked woman, black woman

I sing your beauty that passes,

the form that I fix in the eternal,

Before jealous fate turns you to ashes

to feed the roots of life.

Leopold Senghor

Roger-Violet,TopFoto

BaileysAfricanHistoryArchive


Roger-Violet,TopFoto

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THE SPIRIT OF

REVOLUTION

Another external influence on Black Consciousness was the

spirit of revolution, inspired both by the writings of Frantz Fanon

and the Black Power Movement in the United States.

Both Fanon and the Black Power Movement adopted

a militant approach to social transformation.

Frantz Fanon

(1925 - 1961)

Frantz Fanon, born in

Martinique in the

Caribbean, was a

psychotherapist, a writer

and a revolutionary who

inspired anti-colonial

liberation movements

around the world. He

pioneered the idea that the

oppressed needed to

liberate or decolonise

their minds.

Fanons Black

Skin, White Masks, was

an analysis of the effects of

colonial subjugation on

the human psyche. He

advocated revolutionary

violence in order for Africa

to throw off the shackles

of its colonial past.

... Violence is

a cleansing force. It

frees the native from his

inferiority complex and

from his despair and

inaction; it makes him

fearless and restores his

self-respect.Frantz Fanon

Fanons ideas

captured theimagination of many

African revolutionaries,

and informed the

thinking behind

liberation struggles

throughout the

Third World.

Although Steve

Biko admired Fanon,

and there are many

references to Fanons works

in his writing, Biko himself

never espoused violence

as a legitimate form

of resistance

to oppression.Amilcar Cabral

(1924 - 1973)

Amilcar Cabral brought

the spirit of revolution closer

to home as a founder

member of the Movimento

Popular Libertacao de Angola(MPLA). The liberation

movements against

Portuguese rule in Southern

Africa were a source of great

inspiration to Biko and to

the youth of Soweto.

PaulStrandArchive



Unknown

JohannesburgPublicLibrary

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Adopting the

name Kwame Ture, he

settled in Guinea, West Africa

with his South African wife,

famous singer and struggle

activist, Miriam Makeba. He

helped to establish the All-

African Peoples Revolutionary

Party and worked as anaide to Guineas prime

minister, Sekou Toure.

Malcolm X

(1925 - 1965)

As the most influential leader of

the Black Power Movement in

the United States, Malcolm X

had an impact on Bikos

thinking. Malcolm X strongly

urged blacks to be proud of their

heritage and their African roots.

He also argued that black

people in America should

seize freedom by any

means possible.

I am for violence

if non-violence means

we continue postponinga solution to the American

black mans problems. If we

must use violence to get the

black man his human rights

in this country, then I

am for violence. Malcolm X

Stokely Carmichael

(1941 - 1998)

Steve Biko often referred

to Stokely Carmichael as being

one of his important influences,

and kept his book, Black Power,

constantly at his bedside.

Born in Trinidad, Carmichael

moved to the United States in 1952

where he played a central role in the

Civil Rights Movement. However, he

came to believe that the lack of

militancy of the Civil Rights Movement

was failing blacks in America, and

became a strong proponent

of Black Power.

Carmichael also

adopted the slogan,

"Black is Beautiful",

and advocated a

mood of black pride and

a rejection of white

values of style

and appearance.

Before the black

people should join the

open society they should first

close their ranks to oppose

definite racism that is meted

out by the white society, to

work out their new direction

clearly and bargain from that

position. Stokeley Carmichael

THE BLACK

POWER

MOVEMENT

Like Biko, Malcolm X

opposed racial integration.

Instead, he promoted the idea

of black separation, believing

that blacks needed to

be self-reliant.

While the Civil Rights Movement in the United States

challenged segregation through non-violent confrontation, the

Black Power Movement supported the use of violence as ameans of achieving freedom and equality.

MakebaCollection,P

ictureNet

Rex/TopFoto

Damas/SIPA

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At the heart of Black

Consciousness is the realisation

by blacks that the most potent

weapon in the hands of the

oppressor is the mind of the

oppressed. If one is free at heart,

no man-made chains can bind

one to servitude but if ones mind

is so manipulated and controlled

by the oppressor then there will

be nothing the oppressed can do

to scare his powerful masters.Steve Biko, I write what I like

Photo:DailyDispatch

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1946-1965 BIKO S

EARLY LIFE

One Sunday afternoon a

young boy walked through

the streets of a township.

With a book under his arm,

he headed for the shade

of a tree in the veld.

While the other boys played

in the streets, he loved to sit

on his own under a tree. Here

he could read about the

world and its people.The young people and the old

people of the township all

knew who that little boy was.

There goes Steve Biko with

his books, they said. Chris van Wyk

Bantu Stephen

Biko, or Steve, as

he was popularly known,

grew up in Ginsberg in

the Eastern Cape. His

father, Mzingaye Biko,

died when Steve was four

years old, leaving behind

his wife, Alice Nokuzola,

Mamcethe (top), and

four children, Bukelwa

(second from top), Khaya

(third from top), Bantu

and Nobandile (bottom).

He was very

well liked by hispeers and friends

and started showing his

leadership qualities at a very

young age. His friends usually

fetched him from his home to

play street football, bare-

footed. They would not

begin a football game

without him.Bandi Biko

People,

especiallyfrom overseas, ask

me why Steve was

called Bantu. They think

bantuis a derogatory,

racist word. But it is

Bantu with a soft B

and it means the one

for the people.Nkosinathi Biko, eldest

son of Steve Biko

To Bandi Biko,

her older brother, Steve,

was like any young boy

growing up in a township.

Though Bandi describes Steveas a lazy boy, she has fond

memories of her brother as

a naughty schoolboy and

an entertainer who

had great sense

of humour.

SteveBikoFo

undation

SteveBikoFoundation

Johncom

SteveBikoFoundation

Young boy reading by

Gerard Sekoto

BarbaraLindop

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Steve had no care in the world for politics. But this

was to change when he was expelled from Lovedale.

This was when the great giant was awakened.Khaya Biko

Biko was refused entry to

all the schools in the area. He

eventually completed his schooling

in 1965 at another missionary

school, St Francis College at

Marianhill Catholic mission station

in Natal. At Marianhill, Steve began

to correspond with a Father Aelred

Stubbs, a teacher whom he had

become acquainted with at

Lovedale College.

Steve enrolled at

Lovedale College in Alice

in 1963. But three months later

the school closed as a result of

strikes by senior students.

Biko was among the

many students who were arrested.

He was released after the

authorities established that he had

not been involved in organising the

strikes. He was nevertheless

expelled from Lovedale because his

older brother, Khaya, was one

of the student leaders.

From

that moment

onwards I began

to have a healthy

disregard for

authority. I hated

authority like

hell!Steve Biko

He questioned

Father Stubbs about

Christianity and why

we can have valueswhich seem to be good

values. Yet these

values did not translate

into action and address

the oppression that was

happening in South

Africa at the time.Nkosinathi Biko, eldest son of Steve Biko

Father Aelred Stubbs

was a lecturer at the

Federal Theological

Seminary of Southern

Africa (FEDSEM). He was

based in the Eastern

Cape and was a

confidante of many

students affiliated to the

University Christian

Movement including

Biko. After Bikos death,

he compiled Bikos

writings into the seminal

I write what I like.


StFrancisCollege,Mariandale

StFrancisCollege,Mariandale


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THE EXTENSION OF

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

ACT OF 1959

The Extension of University Education Act of 1959

changed the higher education landscape in South Africa by separating universities

along ethnic lines. The government s intention was to fragment black resistance and to

separate blacks from their white sympathisers in the open universities. However, inreality these ethnic universities became hotbeds of revolution.

It is ironical that Black Consciousness had its roots in the isolated

rural colleges designed to produce an educated elite in the homelands.

It was on these bantustan campuses, especially the University of theNorth and the University of Zululand, that black students began

to challenge the political situation during the mid 1960s.Steve Lebelo

Photo:Johncom

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Unfortunately the books you read at university are in English,

a second language to you. As a result you never quite catch

everything that is in a book. You certainly understand theparagraph but you are not quite adept at reproducing an

argument that was in a particular book. This makes you less

articulate as a black man, and more inward-looking.Biko, I write what I like

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1966-1970

THE BIRTH OF SASO

Biko did very

well at school and won

a scholarship to study

medicine. In 1966, he

enrolled at the black

section of the

University of Natal

Medical School in

Durban, the only

educational institution

in South Africa

attended by a

significant number of

Indian, coloured andAfrican students. Biko

immediately threw

himself into

student politics.

Medical students Brigette

Savage (left), Rogers Ragavan, Ben

Ngubane and Steve Biko at the

University of Natal in 1966

Biko also had a close relationship

with Neville Curtis, who was Nusas

President in 1969. Curtis helped

create the Nusas wages

commissions which contributed to

the rise of independent trade

unions in the 1970s. Curtis was

banned along with Biko and

14 others in 1973.

Though Steve is not in

this photograph of the 1967 Nusas

Congress, he definitely attended that

congress because he took us all out

on a hunger strike over Rhodes

Universitys refusal to allow black

students to stay on campus during the

congress. It was my first hunger strikeso I remember it clearly!

Duncan Innes, Nusas President, 1968

NationalArchives

UniversityofKwa

Zulu-Natal

CoryLibrary

BenjaminPogrund

Johan Fick of the ASB,

Steve Biko of SASO and

Neville Curtis of Nusas

Nowhere is the arrogance of the liberal ideology demonstrated so well as their insistence

that the problems of the country can only be solved by an approach involving both black

and white ... it is rather like expecting a slave to work together with the slave masters son

to remove all the conditions leading to the formers enslavement.Biko, I write what I like

Biko was elected to the

Students Representative

Council and in 1967 participated

as a delegate to a National Union

of South African Students

(Nusas) conference at Rhodes

University. At the conference,

black students protested when

the university did not allow

mixed accommodation and

eating facilities.

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Blacks are tired of standing at the

touchlines to witness a game that theyshould be playing. They want to do things

for themselves and by themselves. Steve Biko

We are oppressed not as Zulus, Xhosas, Vendas or Indians. We are

oppressed because we are black. We must use that very concept

to unite ourselves and to respond as a cohesive group. We mustcling to each other with a tenacity that will shock the perpetrators

of evil ... This is where the SASO message and cry Black man, you

At the University

Christian Movement (UCM)

meeting at Stutterheim in July

1968, delegates supported Bikosidea for an all-black movement.

In 1969, at the University of the North

(Turfloop), near Pietersburg (now

Polokwane), black students launched

the South African Students

Organisation (SASO), with Biko

as its first president.

UWCRIMMayibuyeArchives

CosatuArchives

DieTransvaler

Abram Onkgopotse

Tiro addresses a SASO

meeting at St Peter s Seminary at

Hammanskraal. As president of the

SRC at Turfloop in 1972, he delivered

a speech in which he sharply criticised

Bantu Education. This led to his

expulsion from Turfloop. Third

from the right, Mosioua Terror

Lekota looks on.

In the eyes of Biko

and his comrades, Nusas

was a predominantly white

organisation comfortablewith playing safe politics.

Black students began to

question whether white

liberals were in a position

to define the texture and

tempo of resistance.

biko 1b

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