biblical spring 2017s7d9.scene7.com/is/content/lifewaychristian... · wax: the csb balances...

B I B L I C A L

HOSPITALITY AS ASPIRITUAL GIFT

Expressing Contempt in the First Century

The “Wilderness” of Jesus’ Temptation

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volume 43 number 3 spring 2017

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WE ARE GLAD TODAY TO BE ABLE TO interview Trevin Wax, who is the Bible and Reference Publisher for LifeWay, about the

Christian Standard Bible, which was introduced in March of this year.

Illustrator: Trevin, you and your team have been working on a new translation—the Christian Standard Bible. Could you tell us about the translation?

Wax: The Christian Standard Bible (csb) places equal emphasis on two values: accuracy to the original texts of Scripture, plus readability in contemporary English. We call this approach to translation Optimal Equivalence.

Illustrator: Is this an updated version of the Holman Christian Standard Bible?

Wax: The csb is a revision of the hcsb, a translation that has consistently ranked as the sixth best-selling Bible translation in Christian retail stores for the past several years.

Illustrator: What is the advantage of having and using different translations?

Wax: Every translation should convey the meaning of the original language and attempt to never mislead the reader. Some translations turn out to be more literal; oth-ers are more dynamic. A thoroughly literal translation is especially useful for study and preparation, but often a preacher or teacher prefers not to use this when speaking and writing. For communicating effectively, many prefer a translation that balances literal accuracy with accessibility in contemporary English.

Illustrator: What would you say is distinctive about this translation?

Wax: The csb balances fidelity to the original meaning and readability in contemporary English. A study by Global Bible Initiative shows that the csb does this better than any other English translation. The csb is ideal in its approach to accuracy and readability.

Illustrator: Are there any stylistic changes and why did you do these?

Wax: The most significant stylistic change improves the translation’s accuracy. Whereas hcsb capitalized divine ref-erents such as He, Him, You, Your when referring to deity, the csb does not. We made this change because there are many passages of Scripture in which the choice to capitalize a pro-noun may cause the reader to think there is no application to a figure who is not divine. For example, some psalms point to Jesus as the Messiah. These often have application in two directions—to King David (for immediate reference) and to the Messiah (for ultimate reference). If we capitalize all the pronouns in a messianic psalm, the reader may miss the fact that there is a non-divine person in view also. In other cases, it is not clear whether the text is referring to someone divine or human. Therefore, in keeping with the majority view in conservative Bible scholarship, and for consistency’s sake, the csb has chosen not to risk any potential error in interpretation, and so we do not capitalize divine pronouns.

Illustrator: What new research and findings have contributed to this translation?

Wax: There are many new findings. One is 1 Corinthians 7:1. Along with other major translations,

Eric GeigerVice President, LifeWay Resources

G. B. Howell, Jr.Content Editor

Dwayne McCraryTeam Leader

Ken BraddyDirector, Adult Ongoing Curriculum

Michael KelleyDirector, Group Ministry

Send questions/comments to:Content Editor, Biblical IllustratorOne LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0175Or make comments on the Web at www.lifeway.com @B_Illustrator visit www.lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator

Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Thom S. Rainer, President. © 2015 LifeWay. For ordering or inquiries visit www.lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Resources Customer Ser-vice, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For subscriptions or subscription address changes, e-mail [email protected], fax (615) 251-5818, or write to the above address. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax (615) 251-5933, e-mail [email protected], or write to the above address. Annual individual subscription, $26.50. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $6.25 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Bible study sessions in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, The Gospel Project curriculum, and the Explore the Bible cur-riculum series. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit www.lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked CSB® are taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Scripture quotations marked (HCSB) are from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copy-right © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Holman CSB®, and HCSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (ESV) are from English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, Eng-lish Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.(R). Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are from the New King James Version. Copyright © 1979, 1980, 1982, Thomas Nelson, Inc., Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (NLT) are taken from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL 60189 USA. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NRSV) are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (RSV) are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copy-righted 1946, 1952, © 1971, 1973.

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B I B L I C A L

HOSPITALITY AS ASPIRITUAL GIFT

Expressing Contempt

Hades:A First-CenturyUnderstanding

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volume 43 number 3 spring 2017 About the Cover: An Iron-Age strainer from Shaaraim (Khirbet Qeiyafa); excavations there have unearthed both large quanti-ties of pottery and stone tools. Excavated houses help show how households were organized in ancient Israel. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE/ SOUTHERN ADVENTIST UNIVERSITY/ COLLEGEDALE, TN (72/9415)

hcsb said: “it is good for a man not to have relations with a woman.” This translation reads as if the Christian men at Corinth were struggling with whether God preferred they choose lifelong celibacy. In recent years, scholars have gained a broader understanding of the Greek usage of “touch” in contexts such as this. It turns out that usage outside the Bible shows that “touch” had a connotation of casual sex or even selfishness or abuse on the part of the man. This meaning fits well with the context of the letter to the Corinthians, and so csb captures a more accurate look at the Bible’s likely meaning here.

Illustrator: What trends have you seen in Bible translations?

Wax: Readers most commonly report they want a bal-ance of accuracy and readability. Translations that skew to one side or the other eventually raise concerns of being inaccessible or of being inaccurate. Our driving passion has been to present a Bible that does both well.

Illustrator: Trevin, thank you for your time and for the leadership you have given to this new translation.

Wax: It’s been my pleasure.

F O R C O M PA R I S O N

1 Corinthians 7:1CSB: Now in response to the matters you wrote about: “It is good for a man not to use a woman for sex.”HCSB: Now in response to the matters you wrote about: “It is good for a man not to have relations with a woman.”KJV: Now concerning the things whereof ye wrote unto me: It is good for a man not to touch a woman.

Psalm 100:1,5CSB: Let the whole earth shout triumphantly to God! . . . For the Lord is good, and his faith-ful love endures forever; his faithfulness, through all generations.HCSB: Shout triumphantly to the Lord, all the earth. . . . For Yahweh is good, and His love is eternal; His faithfulness endures through all generations.KJV: Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all ye lands....For the Lord is good; his mercy is everlasting; and his truth endureth to all generations.

Contents S P R I N G 2 0 1 7 V O L U M E 4 3 N U M B E R 3

19 15

FEATURES

2 BI Lines: An Interview with Trevin Wax Introducing the CSB

InSites: The Zealots InSites: A Dry and Thirsty Land

98 Issues Gone BI

BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE

10 Numerals and Their Significance by Jeff S. Anderson March 5 // Session 1

49 Hades: A First-Century Understanding by Steve W. Lemke March 5 // Session 1

15 They Were Reclining: First-Century Dining Practices by Martha S. Bergen March 12 // Session 2

71 A New Way of Life by Bennie R. Crockett, Jr. March 19 // Session 3

42 Enoch, A Portrait of Faith by Shawn L. Buice March 26 // Session 4

57 Persecution: A Word Study by Michael Priest April 2 // Session 5

90 To Be a Witness by David Emory Lanier April 9 // Session 6

34 Hospitality as a Spiritual Gift by Darryl Wood April 30 // Session 2

82 Honor Your Parents: A Hebrew Understanding by Paul N. Jackson May 7 // Session 3

22 “The Prize” in the New Testament by Bill Patterson May 28 // Session 6

EXPLORE THE BIBLE

49 Hades: A First-Century Understanding by Steve W. Lemke March 5 // Session 1

53 “Kingdom of Heaven” in Matthew by Mark A. Rathel March 5 // Sessions 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11

79 Jesus’ Inner Circle by Michael W. Olewski March 12 // Sessions 2, 10

26 Jesus’ Enacted Parables by Jerry Batson March 26 // Session 4

4 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / SPRING 2017

SEE RELATED BIBLE STUDY RESOURCES: www.GospelProject.com • www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible

90

19 Nazareth in the First Century by Roy E. Lucas, Jr. March 26 // Sessions 4, 11

38 It Happened on the Mount of Olives by B. Dale Ellenburg March 26 // Sessions 4, 8

86 First-Century Roads and Travel by Paul E. Kullman April 9 // Session 6

67 Judas, the Traitor by C. Mack Roark April 30 // Sessions 9, 11

InSites: The Zealots April 30 // Sessions 9, 11

15 They Were Reclining: First-Century Dining Practices by Martha S. Bergen April 30 // Session 9

6 Expressing Contempt in the First Century by Dale “Geno” Robinson May 21 // Session 12

THE GOSPEL PROJECT

30 Why the Genealogies Mattered by Mark R. Dunn March 5 // Session 1

19 Nazareth in the First Century by Roy E. Lucas, Jr. March 19 // Session 3, 4, 12

75 Repentance in First-Century Thought by Gerald L. Stevens April 2 // Session 5

InSites: A Dry and Thirsty Land April 9 // Session 6

64 The “Wilderness” of Jesus’ Temptation by G. Al Wright, Jr. April 9 // Session 6

53 “Kingdom of Heaven” in Matthew by Mark A. Rathel April 16 // Sessions 7, 8, 9

49 Hades: A First-Century Understanding by Steve W. Lemke April 16 // Session 7

15 They Were Reclining: First-Century Dining Practices by Martha S. Bergen April 23 // Session 8

94 To Have Disciples in the First Century by Bobby Kelly May 7 // Session 10

45 Jews and Samaritans: Why the Tension? by Justin Langford May 14 // Session 11

60 What Made One a “Sinner”? by Hal Lane May 28 // Session 13

22

SPRING 2017 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR 5

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HOUGH THE PEOPLE CHEERED Jesus as He triumphantly entered Jerusalem on Sunday, by Thursday they

condemned Him. They saw Jesus as “worth-less or beneath consideration . . . unworthy of respect or attention”1 While the Jewish power structure crucified Him, ordinary persons demonstrated their contempt with words, actions, and gestures. In all four Gospels (Matt. 26–27; Mark 14–15; Luke 22–23; and John 18–19) we discover that the people expressed contempt verbally by mocking and using profanity, and more personally and physically by spitting, slapping, and hair-ripping. Two other actions emerged as especially contemptuous: the kiss and the vinegar-filled sponge.

Verbal ExpressionsMocking—Mockers verbally insulted and ridiculed Jesus (Matt. 27:41-44; Mark 15:19; see Pss. 22:6-8; 109:25). The Old Testament describes how mockers responded when Jerusalem fell. They clapped their hands in glee. Some hissed in derision. Others ground and gnashed their teeth (Lam. 2:15-16). We can imagine that some people

ETB: Matthew 27:41-52


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and ritually pure side. At a dinner party, for instance, while the seats closest to the host were the places of honor, the highest place

of honor was to the host’s right. The seat to the left was less honorable. The right hand was

used for greeting and sharing food, and the left hand was used for less honorable tasks, such as personal bathroom hygiene. Right was good. Left was bad.5

A slap in the face was a serious insult whichever hand a person used. The slap shows a person’s gravest contempt. To strike another with a right-handed, open blow across the left side of the face is a universal sign of contempt, especially if a person of an inferior status slaps his supe-rior. A left-handed slap to the right cheek was a doubly offensive insult. To use the left hand to slap another was to slap with the filthy hand, the hand used for personal toilet hygiene. To receive a left-handed slap was the same as having excrement hurled into one’s face.6

When Vespasian’s soldiers deposed Emperor Vitellius in a.d. 69, they and a raging throng dragged him to the forum, where, “some slapped him, some plucked at his beard; all mocked him, [and] all insulted him.”7 They treated Jesus the same way. That is how they showed their contempt for all whom Rome hated.

responded similarly to Jesus. Indeed, Roman soldiers mocked Him and feigned honor and worship, putting a purple robe and crown of thorns on Him and bowing to their knees. In ridicule—not reverence—they proclaimed Him, “king of the Jews” (Mark 15:16-20; Luke 23:11).

Profanity—According to Luke 22:65, the Roman soldiers “were saying many other [evil and slanderous] things against Him, blaspheming [speaking sacrilegious-ly and abusively about] Him.”2 They mocked Jesus with all the force of the foul, X-rated, scatological, and sexually charged language of their vocabularies. They surely knew how degrading and insulting their words would be to a Jewish rabbi, even one whom profanely speaking Jews had already excoriated.

Physical ExpressionsSpitting—Spitting at or near someone is a most contempt-able insult.3 To spit in a person’s face is even worse.4 Job lamented that his friends “despise me and won’t come near me, except to spit in my face” (Job 30:10, nlt). Isaiah prophesied that Messiah would endure “insult and spit-ting” (Isa. 50:6, nrsv). Indeed, priests, temple police, and Roman soldiers reviled Jesus by spitting on Him and in His face (Matt. 26:67; 27:30; Mark 14:65; 15:19).

Slapping—In the ancient world the right side of the

Above: Denarius, obverse depicts Vitellius, who was emperor only 8 months, April-December in A.D. 69.

Below: The Golden or Eastern Gate, on the eastern side of the old city, was con-structed in the post-Byzantine period. To prevent the Messiah from

entering Jerusalem through this gate, the Muslims sealed the gate during the mid-1500s. Jesus entered the city from the east through a Herodian gate over which this present gate is probably built. Zechariah prophe-

sied the triumphal entry of Israel’s king (9:9).


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The Romans used a specific tool to clean up after a bowel movement, a spongia, which was a sponge tied to a ten-inch stick. In Roman public toilets spongia were kept in a basin soaking in a vinegar solution. A person would use the spongia, rinse it in the running water in the chan-nel at his feet, and place it back in the basin for another person’s use.10

Hair-ripping—Hair and beards were the pride of all Hebrew men, a sign of their masculinity. Priests were expected to have beards. In at least one instance, an enemy king humiliated King David’s servants by shaving off half of their beards (2 Sam. 10:4). Certainly Jesus had a beard, as did most Jewish men of His day. Moses commanded, “You shall not . . . disfigure the edges of your beard” (Lev. 19:27, nkjv). What could be more disfiguring and painful than for a man to have his beard ripped away from his face by the roots!8

Part of the horrific treatment Jesus must have received was people plucking out His beard. The Gospels do not record this action, but Isaiah prophesied about it centu-ries earlier (Isa. 50:6). The Romans likely did this as they mocked and tortured Jesus. If they would do it to a deposed emperor, they certainly would do it to a lowly Jewish rabbi!

The Kiss—A kiss was an expression of love, affection, and respect.9 One thinks of the sinful woman kissing Jesus’ feet or the father kissing his returning prodigal son (Luke 7:38; 15:20). Judas, however, turned a joyous reunion into a heinous betrayal. Jesus even challenged Judas, saying, “Judas, are you betraying the Son of Man with a kiss?” (22:48, csb). By this one act, Judas held in contempt all Jesus’ love and trust for him (Matt. 26:47-49; see 2 Sam. 20:9-10).

The Toilet Sponge—Modern people do not recognize this expression of contempt. All of the Gospel writers described how, as Jesus cried out that He was thirsty, someone attached a sponge on a long stick, stuck it in vin-egar and gave it to him to drink (Matt. 27:48, Mark 15:36; Luke 23:36; John 19:29). Bible students often see this as an act of mercy. This likely was not the case, as Roman toilet practices seem to indicate.

Left: Mound in center is site of Old Testament Jericho. The Ammonites’ King Hanun shaved the beards of David’s emissaries and cut off the bottom half of their robes. Each action was a major insult to the Israelite men. David instructed his men to stay in Jericho until their beards grew back.

Below: Garden of Gethsemane, site of Jesus’ betrayal and arrest before His trial and cruci-fixion.


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5. This is especially true in a Muslim culture. “Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Behavior and

Etiquette: Physical Gestures,” University of West Florida [online; accessed 13 June 2016]. Available from

the Internet: uwf.edu/atcdev/afghanistan/Behaviors/Lesson8PhysicalGestures2.html. Joseph Jacobs and Judah David Eisenstein, “Right and Left,” JewishEncyclopedia.com [online; accessed 13 June 2016]. Available from the Internet: www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12757-rignt-and-left. Darrell L. Bock, Luke (Downers Grove, IL : InterVarsity Press, 1994), 250.

6. Lamentations 3:30 describes the humiliation of being slapped. John Granger Cook, “Matthew 5.39 and 26.67: Slapping Another’s Cheek in Ancient Mediterranean Culture,” Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism 10 (2014): 68-72.

7. Cassius Dio 65.20.3 as quoted in John Granger Cook, “Matthew 5.39 and 26.67: Slapping Another’s Cheek in Ancient Mediterranean Culture,” 85.

8. “Beard” in HIBD, 178; “xL;GI“ (gillach, shave) in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol. 3 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1978), 9.

9. Cyrus Adler and Joseph Jacobs, “Kiss and Kissing,” JewishEncyclopedia.com [online; accessed 13 June 2016]. Available from the Internet: www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9354-kiss-and-kissing.

10. William E. Dunstan, Ancient Rome (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2011), 359.; Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow, The Archaeology of Sanitation in Roman Italy: Toilets, Sewers, and Water Systems (Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2015), 22-28.

Dale “Geno” Robinson is the director of adult small groups and discipleship at First Baptist Church of Fair Oaks, Sacramento, California.

Nearing the time of His death, Jesus, while on the cross, said, “I’m thirsty” (John 19:28, csb). The Gospels record that a man gave Jesus vinegar to drink from a sponge at the end of a stick. If it was a spongia, it was, intentional or not, one of the greatest acts of contempt given Him. The visual was the same; people would have seen the sponge on the end of a stick and thought of a toilet spongia. Taken to the next level, though, the evidence of contempt would have been even worse. If Jesus died with the actual taste of vinegar and excrement in His mouth, expressions of human contempt for Him were truly complete! I

1. “Contempt,” Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 12th edition (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2011), 308.

2. Scripture quotation taken from the Amplified® Bible (AMP), Copyright © 2015 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. www.Lockman.org.

3. “Spit, Spittle” in Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary [HIBD], gen. ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, and Archie England (Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 1531.

4. Kaufmann Kohler, “Saliva,” JewishEncyclopedia.com [online; accessed 13 June 2016]. Available from the Internet: www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13027.

Left: Public latrine at Ephesus.

Lower left: Replica of a toilet sponge.

Above: Altar in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the spot of Jesus’ crucifixion.


N U M 3 R A L 5and Their Significance

by Jeff S.

Anderson

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BSFL: Revelation 1:12-20


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Symbolic NumbersThat being said, in the ancient Near East, numbers often had a mystical or symbolic significance. Ancient people considered the act of counting a sacred feat. Plato and Pythagoras held that an under-standing of numbers unlocked secrets of the universe. Biblical writers, however, were much more sparing than these Greek philoso-phers in adopting this mystical use of numbers.

Two particular books, Daniel and Revelation, constitute a com-pletely different kind of literary genre. They use symbolism much more prolifically than other bibli-cal books by taking up images of strange beasts, lampstands, stars, horns, horses, dragons—and yes, numbers—and infusing them with symbolism. In these two books, simply taking numbers convention-ally is to miss entirely the meaning of what the biblical writers were trying to convey. In Revelation, for example, the numbers three and seven are highly symbolic. They both convey the idea of fullness,

those who lived prior to the flood. That is because we believe in the reliability and accuracy of

Scripture. Besides, any alter-nate explanation that questions taking those large numbers as

being literal falls short and is not convincing.

Numbers in Scripture were significant in other ways. By a seemingly inno-

cent act of numbering, rulers could demonstrate their power by counting their subjects. They often did this through a census. God instructed Moses to take two censuses, Luke’s Gospel

records a Roman census, and 2 Samuel 24 (1 Chron. 21) records a similar census that King David conducted. In David’s case, God condemned him for this unilateral act of power. In matters of inter-pretation, as a general rule, readers should take a biblical number con-ventionally or at face value unless something in the biblical context clearly urges the reader toward a different reading.

GETTING AWAY FROM numbers in the Bible is impossible.1 Even if we

eliminated the Bible’s chap-ter and verse numbers, which were not added until the thirteenth century, numbers would still be on

nearly every page of the biblical text. Most of the time these num-bers mean exactly what we ordi-narily use numbers to mean. Let’s call this the “conventional” use of numbers.

Meaningful NumbersEven conventional numbers, however, were often significant. To say that a number is signifi-cant, though, does not necessar-ily mean the number is symbolic. For example, the Bible typically uses the number 12 convention-ally, yet that number has a lot of significance in Scripture. In the Old Testament, God designated His people as 12 tribes; and in the New Testament, 12 disciples spread the message of God’s New Covenant peo-ple, the church. When Judas died, the apostles replaced Judas with another disciple, thus restoring their group to have 12.

Another example is the number five. The Torah contains five books. Ancient Jews counted those books conventionally. Yet that number is significant elsewhere, as the Book of Psalms was also divided into five books. Further, the Hebrew Bible contains a collection of five books called the Megilloth that contained Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Esther, and Lamentations.

We typically take convention-ally and at face value even the huge numbers of the ages of the various individuals in Genesis 5,

Right: Ruins of the Temple of Augustus in Ankara (mod-ern Turkey). An inscription posted on the side brags about the emperor’s accomplishments, including taking three censuses. One of these may have been the one that sent Mary and Joseph from their home to Bethlehem.

Below: Dice, likely Roman, made of steatite, bone, marble, rock crys-tal, and agate. The apostles cast lots when they replaced Judas as one of the Twelve.


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of acute awareness. Finally, Revelation 19 has yet another image of Jesus, this time as a conquering rider on a white horse. Refusing to take these images symbolically will cause the reader to miss the message of these vivid portraits of Christ. In Revelation 1, Jesus is the glorious and magnificent High Priest (Ex. 28:4; 29:5); in chapter 5, He is the unrivaled and victorious Lion and Lamb of God; and in chapter 19, the Mighty Conqueror.

Letters as NumbersWhat about the number of the beast in Revelation 13? In the ancient Near East, numbers and words often allowed for interplay because letters actually served as numbers.2 People had no sepa-rate signs for numbers and letters. Thus, the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet was a one, the second a two, the third a three, and so forth. The Greeks also counted this way with their own alphabet. One sig-nificant way of using numbers is a practice called gematria. Here,

whatever image came to mind, it is not the one in Revelation 1:12-16. In the apostle John’s vision, Jesus’ hair is gleamingly white, He has a sword coming out of His mouth, His eyes blaze like fire, His face shines so brightly that you cannot even look at it, and He is hold-ing seven stars in his right hand. Revelation 5 offers a completely different portrait of Jesus as both a Lion and a Lamb. The Lamb has seven horns, symbols of power and strength, and seven eyes, symbolic

perfection, and completeness. So when the heart of the Book of Revelation contains three cycles of seven visions of calamity and judg-ment, these visions point to a time of intense and ultimate distress on the earth.

Take Revelation 1 as another example. First, form a mental pic-ture of what Jesus looks like to you. Your image may be something from a photo you remember as a child, a pictorial Bible, or even a movie. I can promise you that

Left: The peak of Mount Ararat rises above the clouds to a height of 16,854 feet. Ararat is the tall-est peak in mod-ern Turkey.

Below: Pre-cuneiform tablet dated about

3300–3200 B.C. The tablet was from one of the many adminis-trative archives in the ancient Mesopotamian city of Uruk. The notches represent the numbers in this accounting record.


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N U M B E R S I G N I F I C A N C E K E Y B I B L I C A L R E F E R E N C E S

ONE Alone, unique The Lord is one (Deut. 6:4)There is one God (Mark 12:32; 1 Cor. 8:6)One Lord, faith, baptism (Eph. 4:4-6)

TWO Witness, confirmation Two witnesses (Rev. 11:1-6; Zech. 4:3,11-14)

THREE Completeness: beginning/middle/end; past/present/future; above/here/below

Three Persons of the Trinity (Mark 1:9-11)Three annual festivals (Ex. 23)Third day (Matt. 16:21; Luke 9:22; 1 Cor. 15:4)

FOUR The entire natural world comprised by four directions

Four corners/directions of the natural world (Gen. 2:20; Isa. 11:12; Rev. 7:1)Four faces of the cherubim who travel any direction (Ezek. 1:10-24; Rev. 4:7-8)Four spirits that go across the whole world (Zech. 6:5-7)Four horses and riders who ride across the earth (Rev. 6:1-8)

SIX One number shy of completeness; therefore, incomplete, imperfect.

666: number of the Beast (Rev. 13:18)

SEVEN Completeness, perfection, wholenessRevelation uses this number more than any other book of the Bible.

Seven days of creation (Gen. 1)Seven lampstands, stars, churches, spirits (Rev. 1–3)Seven Seals, Trumpets, Bowls (Rev. 6–16)Seven heads, hills, kings (Rev. 17:9-10)

TEN Seven plus three = whole, complete. One thousand is the cubic number for 10 (10 x 10 x 10).

Ten Commands (Ex. 20; Deut. 5)Ten Plagues (Ex. 7-12)Tithe (Gen. 14:20)Ten horns, kings (Rev. 17:12)10 x 10 x 10 = One thousand years of the rule of God’s people (Rev. 20:1-6)

TWELVE The people of God: Israel in the Old Testament and the church in the New Testament

Twelve tribes (Gen. 35:22; 49:28; Rev. 7:5-8)Twelve disciples (Matt. 10:1)12 + 12 = 24 elders (Rev. 4:4)12 x 12 x 1000 = 144,000 faithful believers (Rev. 7:1-8)New Jerusalem with 12 foundations, gates, angels, stones (Rev. 21:9-21)

FORTY A long, but limited period of time Days of the great flood (Gen. 7:4,17)Days of Moses’ stay on Mount Sinai (Ex. 24:17-18)Years of wandering in wilderness (Num. 14:33-34)Years of the rules of Saul, David, and Solomon (Acts 13:21; 2 Sam. 5:4; 1 Kings 11:41-42)Days of Jesus’ temptation in the wilderness (Luke 4:2)


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1. One good place to begin is John J. Davis, Biblical Numerology: A Basic Study of the Use of Numbers in the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1968). Davis says biblical numbers may be used conventionally, rhetorically, symbolically, and mystically.

2. Page Kelley, Biblical Hebrew: An Introductory Grammar (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 1992), 96-100.

3. The problem is this works only with a less common spelling of Nero’s name that adds an “n” on the end. Yet today one can go to Nero’s home town in Anzio, Italy, and see that exact spelling on a statue there. Robert Draper, “Rethinking Nero,” National Geographic (September 2014): 82-103.

4. Craig L. Blomberg, From Pentecost to Patmos (Nashville: Baker, 2006), 540-42.

5. Richard A. Taylor, “The Bible Code: Teaching them Wrong Things,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43, no. 4 (December 2000): 619-36.

Jeff S. Anderson is professor of religion at Wayland Baptist University, Anchorage, Alaska.

symbolic use of numbers have even led to interest in all kinds of cryptic messages encoded in the text of the Hebrew Bible; a Bible “beneath” the Bible if you will. Those who follow this dubious practice take all the words of the biblical text, delete all spaces, resulting in a long string of letters. They then isolate let-ters by skipping a certain number of other letters. Pulling these iso-lated letters forms completely new words, often with bizarre or cryptic applications. Playing fast and loose with various combinations of let-ters is a dangerous practice that ends up with a seemingly infinite number of combinations.5

Numbers in the Bible can be used conventionally, rhetorical-ly, mystically, and symbolically. Context is not fool proof, but it is the best way to determine which of these ways the biblical writers used various numbers. I

letters in a name give an indication of a person’s number. Every name, if spelled consistently, could only be one number by adding the sum of all the letters in the name. In Greek, for example, the number for the name Jesus (IESOUS) in Greek is 888 (I = 10, E = 8, S = 200, O = 70, U = 400, S = 200). In Revelation 13:18, the number of the beast is 666. Using the Hebrew alphabet, the letters of the name Nero(n) Caesar add up to 666, which contextually is probably the original referent of this verse.3 But people have offered numerous later adaptations of gematria, which can become a slippery business that can even border on divination. In the case of Revelation 13:18, perhaps the best way to view the number 666 is to understand it as a triple failure to the “perfect” number 777, an unholy trinity.4

Such excesses employing the

Left: Overlooking part of the shore-line at Patmos.

Lower left: Early Coptic papyrus fragment dates to 4th–5th centuries A.D.; text refers to the 144,000 in Rev. 7:4: “. . . for I did see fourteen ten thou-sand and four thou-sand sealed . . . they stood beside the Christ . . . .”

Below: From Corinth, portrait of the Emperor Nero, who ruled A.D. 54-68.


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BSFL: Matthew 8:5-13; ETB: Matthew 26:17-30; TGP: Matthew 9:9-13


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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/4/55)

along Israel’s history and heritage to future generations. Within the biblical world, people would eat meals in a

variety of settings, either indoors or outdoors. Examples of meals eaten outdoors are those under trees, as in the case of the three men who visited Abraham (Gen. 18:8) or within the fields, such as Ruth among Boaz’s harvesters (Ruth 2:14). Indoor places included tents, as when Jacob received the blessing from his father, Isaac (Gen. 27:25); around a table, as evidenced by Mephibosheth being at David’s table (2 Sam. 9:11); and in a house, such as the man of God with the old prophet (1 Kings 13:19).

In the New Testament, we commonly find Jesus eating meals and celebrating with others on different occasions and

APHRASE SOME ADULTS HEARD growing up is, “Keep your elbows off the table.” In this writer’s generation people considered having elbows on the table during mealtime to be improper, rude, and ill mannered. Though social

mores differ from culture to culture, and frequently with-in cultures or across generations, the above instruction speaks to the fact that eating is more than just a physiolog-ical activity; it is also social and communal, which influ-ences us more than we might think. Sharing a meal with others is usually preferable to eating alone. Relationships are built and enhanced at mealtime. But more than that, a shared dining experience also connects us to situations that help shape who we are and what we think.

Meals in Biblical ContextsScripture highlights the importance of food in its social as well as spiritual contexts. Often, meals accompanied note-worthy, though sometimes less-desirable, circumstances and occurred in various types of settings. The feasts, festi-vals, and holy days God established under Moses’ leader-ship provided the framework for the larger Israelite com-munity to worship Yahweh and celebrate His purpose and blessings around shared meals—for example, the Feast of Passover or Tabernacles. These were learning opportuni-ties that helped reinforce God’s truths and expectations for His people, and as such, were also occasions to pass

By Martha S. Bergen

Below: Banqueters shown reclining on draped and cushioned couches. They are accompa-nied by servants and other atten-dants; dated to the 4th cent. B.C.; from the Nereid Monument at the

Arbinas tomb, from Xanthos, Lycia.

Right: In prepara-tion for the Feast of Tabernacles (or Sukkot), a grand-father shows his grandson a lulav and etrog. The lulav is made of three

branches bound together, a palm, willow, and myrtle. The etrog (citron) is a citrus fruit. Waved during part of the Sukkot celebration, the four symbol-ize God’s blessing, including agricul-tural abundance.


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Roman Influence on Jewish DiningSeveral times the Gospels speak of Jesus and others “reclining at table.” This was not, however, the usual posture for ordinary day-to-day meals. Families typically sat on the floor or squatted around a rug or low tables on which sat a communal pot of lentil or vegetable stew along with bread. Sometimes, though, seating was avail-able for special ceremonies or events associated with royalty or the wealthy. By the first century, some among the Jews had adopted the Roman practice of using the triclinium for meals. The triclinium was an arrangement of tables in a U-shaped format with couches or cushions extending in a perpendicular angle from the outer sides. This left the inner part of the “U” open, which allowed servants easy access for placing or removing food as needed. Guests, along with their host, would recline or lean on their left arm, leaving their right arm free. Thus persons would use the right hand for eating, since the left hand was relegated for unclean tasks. The right hand was the main utensil, although people did use spoons with some foods. People used bread for scooping stew from the communal pot or soaking up gravies, soups, or sauces.1

Formal meals such as banquets required an invitation for attendance, though onlookers—those of more humble means—were able to peer in and observe, especially since banquet rooms were well lit in contrast to the nighttime

in various locations—in Cana at a wedding feast (John 2:1-2); in Bethany at the home of Martha and Mary (Luke 10:38-39); at the home of Simon the leper (Matt. 26:6-7); at a promi-nent Pharisee’s house (Luke 14:1); or with the two dis-ciples at Emmaus after His resurrection (24:28-30). Jesus most often used such events as platforms for teaching, His most poignant being the occasion of the Last Supper (Matt. 26:17-18,26-29). His primary teaching methods were stories and parables. Among Jesus’ parables, three in par-ticular deal with the specific category of feasts and banquets (Matt. 22:1-14; Luke 14:7-14,16-24).

of Lake Trasimene in central Italy; this strainer for wine has a deep, pointed bowl perforated with tiny holes. It also has two vertical handles, each shaped to fit the grip of the thumb and forefinger, an arrangement

usually found on drinking cups.

serving pans. One is smaller, allow-ing the pieces to nest when not in use. In the fore-ground is a wine strainer, silver, dated to the mid-1st cent. B.C. From the region

Below: Dated to early in the 1st cent., a pair of silver trullae or

Triclinium with carved couches at Petra.


ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MIKE RUTHERFORD (59/1111)

last meal He would share with His disciples before His death. The inti-mate arrangement of the triclinium setup, along with what Jesus wanted to share with the Twelve, would have made this setting most appro-priate, including His act of servant-hood in washing the disciples’ feet. Furthermore, associated with the tri-clinium arrangement were cultural dictates for guest placement. Next to the host were the two most-honored guests; the highest-honored was on the host’s right, the next, on his left. The mother of James and John, whose father was Zebedee, no doubt had this cultural norm in mind when she asked Jesus that her sons be allowed these privileged positions

in His kingdom (Matt. 20:20-21). Scripture lends sup-port that on the night of the Passover meal preceding Jesus’ arrest, the apostle John was seated to Jesus’ right, while, ironically, Judas was likely the one to His left (John 13:22-27). The fact that Jesus could hand Judas the piece of bread dipped into the dish would necessitate close physical proximity between the two, especially considering their reclining position.

The Wedding Banquet As Christians, we have received an invitation to a ban-quet feast that will make any earthly dinner party pale in comparison. The celebration enjoyed there will only be surpassed by the purpose of the event itself—the mar-riage of the Lamb to His bride, the Church, resulting in the worship and glorification of the Great Host Himself. We will forever be indebted to Him, for without His invitation, we would never have made it to the event. “Blessed are those who are invited to the wedding supper of the Lamb!” (Rev. 19:9, niv). Praise to our Savior, the One who chooses to “recline” with each of us! I

1. Ralph Gower, “Food” in Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary [HIBD], gen. ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, and Archie England (Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 589-590; Fred H. Wight, Manners and Customs of Bible Lands (Chicago: Moody Press, 1953), 59, 63.

2. Wight, Manners and Customs of Bible Lands, 62; Gower, “Food” in HIBD, 590.3. Gower, “Food” in HIBD, 590. 4. Petronius, The Satyricon, trans. William Arrowsmith (New York: The New American

Library, 1959), 42-43.

Martha S. Bergen is chair of the Christian Studies Division at Hannibal-LaGrange University, Hannibal, Missouri.

darkness.2 The host made sure the gala affair was worth attending. He provided various types of entertainment—anything from music and dancing to having someone read literary works. Afterwards, guests were given an extended amount of time to talk and share stories.3 A biblical example of a festive banquet celebration is that of Herod’s birthday, where his step-daughter entertained with her provocative dancing (Mark 6:21-22).

Petronius, a well-known first-century Roman writer, described a pagan banquet reflective of the customs during his era. The following is an excerpt from his description of the occasion:

We took our places. Immediately slaves from Alexandria came in and poured ice water over our hands. . . . [T]he hors d’oeuvres were served, and very sumptuous they were. . . . On a large tray stood a donkey made of rare Corinthian bronze. . . . Flanking the donkey were two side dishes, both engraved with Trimalchio’s name and the weight of the sil-ver, while in dishes shaped to resemble little bridges there were dormice, all dipped in honey and rolled in poppyseed. . . . We were nibbling at these splendid appetizers when suddenly the trumpets blared a fanfare and Trimalchio was carried in, propped up on piles of miniature pillows.4

The Last SupperWhen Jesus directed the disciples to make preparations for the Last Supper, He was perhaps asking them, in part, to find a place with a triclinium. This would not have been unlikely, especially since this would be the

Interior of a Bedouin tent. Continuing still today, Bedouin have a long-estab-lished tradition of extending hospi-tality to travelers and visitors.


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