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Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

Human Rights Studies Master of Arts Program

Beyond Linear Transition(s) to Justice:

Intra-Urban Displacement and Transmission of Memories in Medellin, Colombia

Anna Rahel Eva Fischer

Thesisadviser:ProfessorGraemeSimpsonSubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftheRequirementsforthedegreeof

MasterofArts

January2017

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Abstract.Thisthesiscriticallyinterrogatesexperiencesofviolenceinrelationtoforcedintra-urbandisplacementandtrans-generationaltransmissionofmemoriesinMedellin,Colombia.By situating spatio-temporal violence – slow violence in Rob Nixon’s terms – at the heart of its analysis, this study contrasts the enduring experiences of serial displacement with time-limited and linear transitions to justice. First,thestudyrevealsthediscursive,legalandpoliticaldetachmentofintra-urbandisplacementfromregionaldisplacementasenshrinedinthecurrentColombiantransitionaljusticeframework.It demonstrates how the lived experience of violence exceeds the temporality of those transitional mechanisms. Second,thisworkexposestheongoingnatureofserialdisplacementashistoricalinjuriesintheformofinheritedmemoriesofviolence.Thelattermarkcertainplacesasareasofno-returnandassignsterritorialstigmatoidentitiesinthecity.Theabsenceofajusticeframeworkthatcanrespondtothoseexperiencesresultsinafeelingofnon-belonging.ThelatterlimitstheexerciseoffullcitizenshipinHannahArendt’sterms.Third,theemphasisofcurrenttransitionaljusticedebatesonlimitedunderstandingsofwhatconstitutesviolence,harm,andtransitioneffectivelyobscuresthecomplexrepercussionsofviolenceandthe(re-)constructionofjusticeintheeverydaybydisplacedpersonsinMedellin. Ultimately,tofocusonthecontinuityoftheenduringnatureofserialdisplacementandonthepoliticalagencyofthosethatexperiencedserialdisplacementrevealstransformativeprojectsofsystemicjusticeasurgentinpresenttimes.

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“ParaqueNoRegreseelMiedodeNuestrosPapas”1–JóvenesCampesinosdeToledoNortedeAntioquia,Colombia.“Evokingtheexperienceofviolencethathasleftpeasants,theindigenous,andblackpopulationwithoutsleepandrememberingourhistoryofpeacenegotiations,thequestionariseswhywe,asanurbanpopulationwhohaveexperiencedseveraldecadesofviolence,we,whohaveenduredtheinvisibleborders,wouldsaynotothe“Yes”forpeace?Whycouldwethwarttherightofotherpeopletolivewithoutfear?Whycouldwe,theurbanites,commandeertherighttonotleavethepeasanttosleepintranquility?”2

1Theslogan„Forthatthefearofourparentsdoesnotreturn“hasbeenononeofthebannersoftheyouthorganizationofthepeasantsfromToledodeNorteAntioquiawhichisaruralregionclosetoMedellinthathasbeenheavilyaffectedbyviolenceduringtheinternalColombianconflict.TheyouthorganizationmarchedinMedellinonthe20thofJulyinthe“MarchaporlaPaz”–themarchforpeace–inordertodemonstrateinfavorofthereferendumforthepeaceaccordsinOctober2016.2“Alevocarlaexperienciadelaviolenciaquehadejadosindormiracampesinos,indígenasynegritudes,yalrecordarnuestrahistoriadenegociacionesdepaz,cabepreguntar¿Porquéloscitadinosquehemosvividolaviolencia,quehemospadecidolasfronterasinvisibles,diríamosnoalSiporlapaz?,¿porquépodríamosfrustrarelderechodeotraspersonasavivirsinmiedo?,¿porquénosotros,losurbanos,podríamosarrogarnoselderechoanodejardormirtranquilamentealoscampesinos?¿Porquélapaznopuedeserdetodos?”In:AdriánRestrepoParra,“Volveradormirtranquilos,“19/08/2016,correspondenciaconAdriana.

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i.TableofContents

i. Contents………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

ii. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7

iii. Thesis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11

iv. Definitions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………13

v. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………………………………17

ChapterI–TransitionalJusticeinColombia…………………………………………………………………20

a. Rural-UrbanDynamicsofForcedDisplacementinColombia………………………………………………20

b. ContinuitiesofSerialIntra-UrbanDisplacementinMedellin………………………………………………27ChapterII–LivedExperienceofViolence:AccountsfromDisplacedPersonsinMedellin.…36

a. TerritorialStigmaandAdvancedMarginality:TheProductionofNon-Places………………………37

b. TransmissionofMemoriesofViolence:TheImaginaryofNon-Peace……………………………………57

c. LimitedCitizenship:DynamicsofNon-Belonging………………………………………………………………….70ChapterIII–Non-Places,Non-Peace,Non-Belonging?OnTransitionstoSystemicJustice……80

a. SituatingViolenceasSpatio-Temporal:TowardsanUnderstandingofSlowViolence…………..80

b. FromLinearTransitionstoTransformation:BeyondaSerialOrderofTime……………………..85

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………91Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………95Interviews………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….104QuestionsforSemi-StructuredInterviews…………………………………………………………………………………..105

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“Theviolenteventattachesitselfwithitstentaclesintoeverydaylifeandfoldsitselfinto

therecessesoftheordinary.”3-VeenaDas

“HavingexperiencedmorethanhalfacenturyofviolencemanyColombians,we,havenotknown

whatcouldbeapeacefulcountry.”4-Rodrigo

ii.Introduction.

“Whenyoureadinabookyouimaginehowthewarwouldbelike,butwhenyouare

bornhere[inColombia]andyouhaveneverknownpeace,youthinkthatthisisthereality,

thisistheworld.”5Maria,further,notes,“Ifeelthathasbeen[inscribed]alreadyinthe

memoriesofmyparentsandgrandparents.”6TheaccountofMaria,whohasbeendisplacedin

thecityofMedellin,Colombia,referstoaninheritedmemoryofwarandviolencethatis

transmittedoverdecades.InmyinterviewinJuly2016,shepointstoapastthathasnever

ceasedtobepresent.Therefore,theseinheritedpastmemoriesliveonandinformthevisions

ofpeaceandviolenceintheeveryday.

Colombiahasbeeninternationallyrecognizedashavingoneoftheworld’smostsevere

internalconflictintermsofdisplacementsanddisappearanceswithanumberof6,270,000

peopledisplacedfrom1985to2016,7or15,83%ofthepopulation.8Forceddisplacementis

3VeenaDas,LifeandWords[ElectronicResource] :ViolenceandtheDescentintotheOrdinary(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2007),1.4“Teniendomásdeunmediosiglodeviolenciamuchoscolombianoycolombianasnohemosconocidoloquepodriaserunpaisenpaz.”InterviewwithRodrigo,ColectivodeAbogadosCarlosRestrepo(Cajar),July5,2016,Bogota.5“Cuandotulolesenloslibrosteimaginascomoseralaguerra,perocuandonacesaquiynuncahasconocidolapaz,piensasqueesoeslarealidad,asíeselmundo.”InterviewwithMaria,whowasdisplacedwithinMedellin,inJuly15,2016,Medellin.Emphasisbytheauthor.6“Asíyalorecordabanmispadresymisabuelos,”InterviewwithMaria,July15,2016,Medellin.7“Colombia,”InternalDisplacementMonitoringCenter,“accessedJanuary18,2017,http://www.internal-displacement.org/database/country/?iso3=COL.

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recurringandpermanentinColombianhistory.Itformsanintegralpartofthememoryof

familiesandcommunities.9Thetransmissionofthosememoriesofviolence,struggleand

resistanceevokehistoricalinjuriesofadecade-longconflict.Historicalinjuriesconsistof

“formsofviolencethatarenotconceived(withincertaintheoreticalarchitectures)assuch,

andthereforearenotsubjecttopoliciesoftransitionalmechanisms.”10

Forceddisplacementobligedtheruralpopulationtomigratetothecities.11There,they

wereoftenassociatedwiththeculpritof“bringingviolencetothecity.”12Thoseimagesofthe

ruraldisplacedpeoplebecameimprintedontheurbanpopulations’mindsthroughinherited

memoriesacrossgenerations.Thisrural-urbandivideintheimaginaryofviolencehasbeen

associatedwithidentitiesinMedellin.Thisisarticulatedasterritorialstigmatization.13

Thoseinheritedmemoriesofviolencefrompreviousgenerationsnotonlyconfine

identities;theyalsomarkplaces.Thelocationsofviolenteventssuchasforceddisplacement

leaveastainonthemindsofthedisplacedpopulations–onthecountrysideandinthecity.In

Medellin,regionallydisplacedpersonsarriveinfragileneighborhoodswheretheriskof

repeateddisplacementishigh.14Whentheyaredisplacedagain,theyfrequentlyavoid

8PaulaMartínezCortés,“TheVictimsandLandRestitutionLawinColombiainContext:Ananalysisofthecontradictionsbetweentheagrarianmodelandcompensationforthevictims,”Forschungs-undDokumentationszentrumChile-Lateinamerika(FDCL),TransnationalInstitute(TNI)(2013):4.9ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998(Bogotá,D.C.:ConferenciaEpiscopalColombiana,2001),18.10AlejandroCastillejo-Cuellar,“OntheQuestionofHistoricalInjuries:TransitionalJustice,AnthropologyandtheVicissitudesofListening,”AnthropologyToday29,no.1(February1,2013):48.11SecretaríadeGobiernoyDerechosHumanos,SubsecretariadeDerechosHumanos,“DesplazamientoForzadoyDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano:ContextoydinámicaenMedellínduranteel2014,”CentroAdministrativoMunicipal(2015):25.12GloriaNaranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoenColombia:El‘ReasentamientodeHecho’yelDerechoalRestablecimientoenContextosColectivosdeUrbanización,”inDesplazamientoforzado,DinamicasdeGuerra,exclusionydesarraigo,ed.MarthaNubiaBello(Bogota:UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,OficinadelAltoComisionadodelasNacionesUnidasparalosRefugiados–ACNUR,Unibiblos,2004):283.13LoïcJ.D.Wacquant,“TheRiseofAdvancedMarginality:NotesonItsNatureandImplications,”ActaSociologica39,no.2(1996):126.14JamesBargent,“TheNomadVictims:Intra-UrbanDisplacementinMedellin,”accessedJanuary19,2017,http://www.insightcrime.org/news-analysis/the-nomad-victims-intra-urban-displacement-in-medellin.

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returningtotheveryneighborhoodsassociatedwithmemoriesofviolence—astateof

permanentmigrationthatsustainsserialintra-urbandisplacementinMedellin.15

Theinterplayofinheritedmemoriesofviolenceoverdecadesandserialdisplacement

inthecitypointstoadimensionofviolencethatisdispersedinspaceandtime.RobNixon

coinedthistypeofviolence,slowviolence,whichis“decoupledfromitsoriginalcausesbythe

workingsoftime.”16Itisaviolencethatisincremental,accretiveandoperatinginthe

everyday.Itcanaccountforlargertemporalitiesoflivedvulnerabilityregardingthe

continuityofregionaldisplacementandintra-urbandisplacement.

However,inColombiadisplacementislegally,politicallyanddiscursivelydetached

fromintra-urbandisplacementthroughthecurrenttransitionaljusticemechanisms.Those

programmaticapproachesentailanunderlyingvisionoftemporalityframedbyabefore-and-

afterideaoftransitionsandafocusonspecificharm.Thoselineartransitionsreducecomplex

historiesandslowviolencetosingularstoriesandtoalimitedsetofmomentarycrime.

Transitionaljustice,then,gainsmoraltractionbyagreement:thereisaconsensusona

specificevilandonthepossibletoolsandoptionstoredressthisevilpast.17Thisview

understandsviolenceasaruptureoftheeveryday.Yet,thisassumptionobscuresthe

enduringnatureofmarginalizationofdisplacedpersonsinthecity.

Nevertheless,therealmofeverydaycomplicatesanyassumptionsontransitionsas

linearperiodsfromonetimetoanother.18Itrevealsthatmemory,violenceandresistance

15ClaraInésAtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004,”(MAdiss.,UniversidaddeAntioquia,2007):56.16RobNixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor(Cambridge,US:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),2.17See,DavidA.Crocker,“ReckoningwithPastWrongs:ANormativeFramework,”Ethics&InternationalAffairs13(March1999):45.18PilarRiañoAlcaláandErinBaines,“EditorialNote,”InternationalJournalofTransitionalJustice6,no.3(November1,2012):386.

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existssimultaneouslyandcontinuously.Thus,intheeveryday,displacedcommunitiescan

carveoutmeaningfulspaceinwhichsystemicandtransformativejusticecanbe(re-)

constructed.

Inthiscontext,Iargue,thatashiftoffocusfromcurrentdebatesintransitionaljustice

toincorporatingcontinuityintheeverydayiscritical.Thistransformationcanaccountfor

slowviolenceexperiencedduetoserialintra-urbandisplacementinMedellin.Becausethe

“creationofnewconceptsandnewwaysofconceptualizing[reality]isaneminentlypolitical

activity,”19thisshiftcanrenderjusticeasapoliticalprojecturgentinpresenttimes.

Ultimately,Idonotclaimtohaveanabsoluteandobjectiveviewonthesequestions,as

IamimpactedandbiasedbymyownpositionasanoutsiderandasaEuropeanforeigner.

Displacement,whenusedinthefollowingstudy,refersexplicitlytoColombia,andintra-urban

displacementexplicitlyreferstoMedellinandonlytotheexperiencearticulatedinthe

interviewsIconducted.Additionally,thispaperisalsolimitedbythefocusonsecondary

literatureonMedellin’shistoryandurbanconflict,andbythecomparativelyshorttimeofthe

fieldresearch.

19DeleuzeYLoPoliticoPorPATTONPAUL-9789875745612-Cúspide.com,accessedJanuary19,2017,http://www.cuspide.com/9789875745612/Deleuze+Y+Lo+Politico/.

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iii.Thesis.

Approachestotransitionaljusticeinherentlywrestlewiththeproblemofthe

continuityofviolence.Transitionaljusticeisaspatialandtemporalterm.Itdefinesthe

movementfromsomewheretosomewhereelse,eitherfromdistinctplacesorintime.20As

such,transitionaljusticealwaysreferstoaspatio-temporalmarking.Yet,itoftenproposesan

underlyingvisionoftemporality,framedbyabefore-and-afterideaoftransitions,21towards

nationalreconciliationandpoliticalredemption.22Withinthislineartemporality,thefieldof

transitionaljusticelocatesaspecificmomentasthemarkerofnewbeginningsandassumesa

progressiontowardsclosure.

However,Iarguethatthisunderlyingtemporalunderstandingdoesnotcorrespondto

theveryexperienceofviolenceofdisplacedpeopleswithinthecityofMedellin.Thedynamic

oftherural-urbanandintra-urbandisplacement,aswellasthememoriesitgeneratesacross

severalgenerations,arecontinuous.Theymanifestthemselvesintheeveryday.Thelatteris

characterizedbysimultaneousimaginariesofpeaceandofviolencebeyondaserialorderof

time — there is no linear transition.Forthisreason,itiscriticaltoshiftthefocusoftransitional

justiceawayfromanemphasisondisruptiveevents.

20AlcaláandBaines,“EditorialNote,”387.21See,“Theideaoftransitionsuggeststhedramaticendofoneeraandthecommencementofanewone.“Z.Miller,“(Re)DistributingTransition,”InternationalJournalofTransitionalJustice7,no.2(July1,2013):378.22Ireferto"redemtive"intheaccountofMakauMutua.Sheargues,“theredemptionorsalvationoftheStateissolelydependentonitssubmissiontohumanrightsnorms,”and“thereisalsoasenseinwhichhumanrightscanbeseenasaprojectfortheredemptionoftheredeemers.“MakauMutua,“Savages,Victims,andSaviors:TheMetaphorofHumanRights,”HarvardInternationalLawJournal42(2001):207–8.SeealsoinRutiTeitel’swordthephaseIIoftransitionaljusticeaimedforaformoflawthatoffers“auniversalizinglanguageabouttheaimsofforgivenessandthepossibilityofpoliticalredemption.”RutiG.Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”HarvardHumanRightsJournal16(2003):82.

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Focusingoncontinuity,ratherthanruptureordiscreetevents,allowstheenduring

natureofserialdisplacementsinthecityofMedellintocomeintoview.Yet,inMedellin

violenceofintra-urbandisplacementisdiscursivelydisconnectedfromthebroaderinternal

conflictandrelegatedtotherealmofordinarycrime.Thus,thecontinuityofviolencebecomes

hiddenandthereforedifficulttoaddress.

Ononehand,multipledisplacementsresultinapervasivesenseofnon-belongingand

lackofcivictrust,whichinturnlimitscitizenshipofthedisplacedpersonsinthecity.This

situationpresentsaninversionofHannahArendt’sreflectiononthestateless:thosewhoare

consideredtobeexcludedfromthelegalcitizenstatusoftheStateandthereforedeprivedof

theirpoliticalcommunity.23Inthecontextofintra-urbandisplacementinColombia,the

displacedindividuallegallyconstitutesacitizenofthenationbuther/hispartakinginthe

politicalcommunityislimitedthroughterritorialstigmatizationthatgeneratesafeelingof

non-belonging,ofnon-places24andtheabsenceofsubstantialrights.

Ultimately,such sidelining dynamics result in a common pattern that speaks to the difficulty

of imagining peace.If we do not recognize the continuity and enduring nature of violence as

simultaneously existing with the dynamics of peace, it is, in turn, difficult to imagine (and struggle

for) peace when violence is ongoing. Hence,throughtheabsentrecognitionofcontinuity,those

transitionstojusticebecomeaspacewheretheevilofspecificharmshasbeendiscredited

andrelegatedtothepast,whereasthefutureofsystemicjusticeandpeaceisconstantly

postponed.

23HannahArendt,TheOriginsofTotalitarianism(Cleveland:WorldPub.Co,c1958),291.24Definedinthefollowingasaplacewhere“peoplearealwaysandneverathome.”MarcAugé,Non-Places(NewYork:Verso,2008),78.

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iv.Definitions.

InthisstudyIwilldrawonthefollowingcentralnotions:Violence,imaginary,memoriesof

violence,andpeace.

a. Violence.

Theorizingviolenceinrelationtoongoingdisplacement–internalandintheintra-urban

realm–andtrans-generationaleffectsofmemories,whichmarkthosespacesofdeparture

andarrival,seekstorevealthespatio-temporalcontinuityofinjustice.Violencedefinedas

structuralviolencegoesbeyondmerenegativepeace.25AccordingtoJohanGaltungstructural

violenceisunintended,indirect,andreferstosocialinjusticeasopposedtoviolencewitha

clearsubject-objectrelationmanifestedindirectaction.26Thisapproachseekstoshedlight

onformsofviolencethatareimperceptible.Structuralviolencealsoevokesandcontributesto

theself-maintenanceofthesocialsysteminwhichitoccurs.Asitishidden,itisnormalizedin

theeveryday.

SymbolicviolenceaccordingtoPierreBourdieu,referstothe“impositionof

classificatoryprincipleswhichenjoyacompulsoryvalidity.”27 Symbolicviolenceobscuresthe

largersocio-politicalcontextinwhichviolenceoccurs,oftenseparatingviolencefromthe

structuresthatgiverisetoit.Itreferstothenaturalizationofdifferencesandinequalities

withoutrecognizingthetrueconditionsoftheircreation.Asaresult“certainindisputable

25JohanGaltung,“Violence,Peace,andPeaceResearch,”JournalofPeaceResearch6,no.3(1969):171.26Ibid.,173.27PierreBourdieu,TheLogicofPractice(Cambridge:PolityPressinassociationwithBasilBlackwell,1990),136–37.

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naturalproperties”28areattachedtosocialandpoliticalcategorieswithoutaccountingforthe

powerrelationsinwhichthosecategoriesemerge.

Althoughbothaccountsofviolencearepertinentforsomeoftheconcernsthatanimate

thisstudy,theyneedtobeextended.Forinstance,Galtungargues,“structuralviolenceis

silent–(…)itisessentiallystatic.”29Thus,thisconceptofviolence–alsopowerfultoillustrate

hiddenagencyintheoperationsofviolence–doesnotnecessarilyaccountforthemovements

intimeandspaceandsequentialchangeoverdecades.Yet,thetermslowviolencecoinedby

RobNixonreferstoquestionsoftimeandchange.Theconceptforegrounds“imaginative

dilemmasposednotjustbyimperceptibleviolencebutbyimperceptiblechange”–or

continuity–“wherebyviolenceisdecoupledfromitsoriginalcausesbytheworkingsof

time.”30Whereasstructuralviolenceshedslightonnewunderstandingsofhiddencausation

andagency,slowviolenceembracesrethinking“descriptivecategoriesofviolenceenacted

slowlyovertime.”31RobNixonproposesaframeworkthataccountsfor“aviolencethatis

neitherspectacularnorinstantaneous,butratherincrementalandaccretive,itscalamitous

repercussionsplayingoutacrossarangeoftemporalscales.”32Thisviolencethenmanifestsin

“thedelayedeffectsthatstructuressomanyofourmostconsequentialforgetting.”33Thus,this

accountisinsightfulforunderstandingviolenceascontinuityandchangeovertimeinrelation

tointra-urbandisplacement.

28ErikOlinWright,ApproachestoClassAnalysis(CambridgeUniversityPress,2005),111.29JohanGaltung,“Violence,Peace,andPeaceResearch.”173.30Nixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor,11.31Ibid.32Nixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor,2.33Ibid.,8.

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b. Imaginary.

“Imaginary”isatermfrequentlyusedinthefollowingstudy.Althoughimaginaryseemsto

belongtothecanonicalvocabularyofsociologist,anthropologistandpoliticalscientist,34itis

veryscarcelydefined.35Thismightresultfromthefactthat“imaginary”gainsitstractionfrom

imagination,which,implyingtheconsciousandunconscious,liesbeyondanyauthoritative

definition.ForJohnThompsonimaginaryis“thedimensionthroughwhichhumanbeings

createtheirwaysoflivingtogetherandtheirwaysofrepresentingtheircollectivelife."36In

additiontothisdefinition,Iwouldliketothinkofimaginaryasevoking“possibility.”An

‘imaginaryofpeace’correspondstoareceivedideaofwhatpeaceis,andtotheabilityto

conceiveofpeaceinawaythatwouldbetransformative,whichmakesgoodagain,yet,

allowingforcontinuityinapositivesense.Inreturn,theimaginaryofviolencereferstothe

violencethatiscapturedinmemory,whichisnotdirectlyphysicallylivedbuttransmitted

throughnarratives.

Regardingforceddisplacementathirdkindofimaginaryisimportant.Spatial

imaginariescorrespondto,inWendyWolford’swords,“thecognitiveframeworks,both

34Thereareseveralworksthatdrawondefinitionsoftheimaginarywithoutexplicitlydefiningtheterm.BenedictAndersonevokesthepowerofimaginaryinhiswork“imaginedcommunities;“BenedictAnderson,ImaginedCommunities:ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadofNationalism,(NewYork:Verso,1991);EdwardSaiddrawsontheterm“imaginativegeography“whichgeneratesandlegitimates“auniverseofrepresentativediscoursepeculiartothediscussionandunderstanding“ofitsobjectandspace/place[71].WhenSaidcallsthediscoursesurroundingOrientalism“radicalrealism,“hereferstoacategorydealingwith“questions,objects,qualitiesandregions“thatisdesignatedbydiscourseand“thenisconsideredeithertohaveacquired,ormoresimplytobe,reality“[73].Saidpointstothefactthat“allwhatweknowabouttimeandspaceorratherhistoryandgeographyis[...]imaginative.“[55]EdwardW.Said,Orientalism[NewYork:VintageBooks,1979].35Seealso,MaaretJokela-Pansini,“SpatialImaginariesandCollectiveIdentityinWomen’sHumanRightsStrugglesinHonduras,”Gender,Place&Culture23,no.10(October2,2016):1465–79andKarenElizabethBishop,“CartographiesofExile :KarenElizabethBishop,”accessedJanuary19,2017,//book2look.co.uk/book/pKmkjtrWuE.SteveGrahamandSimonMarvínimplythesociotechnical,discursive,legal,geographicalandpoliticalsphereundertheirnotionof“spatialimaginary.”SteveGrahamandSimonMarvin,SplinteringUrbanism:NetworkedInfrastructures,TechnologicalMobilitiesandtheUrbanCondition(Routledge,2002);HenriLefebvreimplies“images”and“imagination”underhisthirdcategoryofspace,whichis"relationalspace."HenriLefebvre,TheProductionofSpace(Wiley,1992).36JohnB.Thompson,StudiesintheTheoryofIdeology(Oxford:InassociationwithB.Blackwell,1984),6.

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collectiveandindividual,constitutedthroughthelivedexperiences,perceptions,and

conceptionsofspaceitself.”37Thisunderstandingaccountsforthenatureofserial

displacementasanenduringviolence:notonlydirectlyphysicallyexperienced,butimagined

throughinheritedpastmemoriesandspatialcategories.

c. MemoriesofViolence.

Memorylooselyrefersto“dealingwithfoundational,oftentraumatic,collective

experiencesafterthefact.”38Memoriesaretobeunderstoodassubjectiveprocessesanchored

inexperiencesandinsymbolicandmaterialmarkers.39Memoriesofviolenceormemoriesof

traumaticevents40refertotheongoingandtransmittedexperienceofextremepolitical

traumatization,definedas“large-scalearmedconflict[that]hastakenplace[and]thathas

seennotonlythelossoflifeandarangeofotherhumanrightsviolationsbutalsothe

destructionofinfrastructureandlivelihoods.”41

d. Peace.

Ratherthanenvisioningpeaceas“thevastregionofsocialordersfromwhichviolenceis

absent,”42inthisstudyIwouldliketoreferto“popularpeace”43drawingonanemphasison

37WendyWolford,“ThisLandIsOursNow:SpatialImaginariesandtheStruggleforLandinBrazil,”AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers94,no.2(2004):411.38Definitiongiventomemoryinthetermcourse”MemoryinMigration“byJonathanBachattheNewSchoolforSocialResearch,FallSemester2016.39ElizabethJelin,Lostrabajosdelamemoria(SigloXXIdeEspañaEditores,2002),41.40Iaminterchangeablyreferringtotraumaandmemoriesofviolenceinthesection“TransmissionofMemoriesofViolence:TheImaginaryofNon-Peace”forthepurposeofthislimitedstudy.Yet,Iamawareofthefactthattheundifferentiateddeploymentofthenotionofmemoryandtraumahastobecomplicatedgiventhecriticisminresponsetotraumastudiesinthepastdecadesinrelationtopeace-building,transitionaljusticeandhumanitarianinterventions.41BrendonHamper,“DealingwithPainfulMemoriesandViolentPasts:TowardsaFrameworkforContextualUnderstanding,”BerghofHandbookDialogueNo.11(2015):3.42Galtung,“Violence,Peace,andPeaceResearch,”168.

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theconstructionofpeaceintheeveryday.Thisemphasisoneverydaypracticescontributesto

thedevelopmentoflocalpeacebasedonthesenseof(in-)justiceofthecommunitiesaffected

byviolence.Inthisregardan“everydaypeace,”inDavidRobertsterms,isone“inwhicha

population’spreferencesarerecognizedbeyondnarrowliberalconfines.”44

e. Justice.

Justiceinthefollowingstudyreferstotwoframeworksthatacknowledgethecontinuity

andpossibilitiesofchangeofslowviolenceintheeveryday.First,itreferstotransformative

justiceasitembraces“concernssuchasstructuralandeverydayviolence”andfocuseson

“transformativechangethatemphasizeslocalagency(…)andthechallengingof(…)

structuresofexclusion.”45Second,italsoentailsPablodeGreiff’sthreegoalsrelatedtojustice:

recognition,civictrustandsocialsolidarity.46Inthefollowing,Icalltheintersectionofthose

conceptssystemicjustice.

v.Methodology.

Thisstudydrawsonqualitativedatagatheredthroughaone-monthfieldresearchto

Medellin,Colombia,inJuly2016.Iconductedtheresearchthroughthenon-governmental

organizationMovimientoNacionaldeVíctimasdeCrímenesdeEstado(MOVICE)–National

MovementoftheVictimsofStateViolence.Theirmembersdefinethemselvesthroughtheir

sharedexperienceofcrimesinflictedbytheStateandsocio-politicalviolence.I,particularly,43DavidRoberts,“Post-ConflictPeacebuilding,LiberalIrrelevanceandtheLocusofLegitimacy,”InternationalPeacekeeping18,no.4(August1,2011):414.44DavidW.(DavidWesley)Roberts,LiberalPeacebuildingandGlobalGovernance :BeyondtheMetropolis(NewYork:Routledge,2011),90.45PaulGreadyandSimonRobins,“FromTransitionaltoTransformativeJustice:ANewAgendaforPractice,”InternationalJournalofTransitionalJustice8,no.3(November1,2014):340.46PabloDeGreiff,“JusticeandReparations,"OxfordScholarship,(2006):451.

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approachedthisorganizationsincetheirchaptermembersinMedellinfocustheirclaimsin

relationtoasetofmassiveforceddisplacementsthatoccurredthroughoutthepastdecade.

IllegalarmedgroupsincooperationwiththeStateperpetratedthoseforcedexpulsionsin

Medellin’smostfragileneighborhoods.ThecooperationwithMOVICEexplainswhythe

interviewsofthisstudyonlyrefertodisplacementduetoactorssuchasthepolice,military

andparamilitary.Forceddisplacementgeneratedthroughguerillagroupsmighthavecaused

differentrepercussionsanddynamicsfortheaffectedcommunities.Thusmyfieldresearch

throughMOVICElimitsthescopeofthisstudyandneedstobeconsideredwhenassessing

findingsofthiswork.

Theresearchincluded15semi-structuredqualitativeinterviews.AsIamreferringto

transgenerationaleffectsonmemoryandtheexperienceofviolence,Iinterviewedthree

differentagegroups,affectedbya)onlyintra-urbandisplacement,b)onlyinternal

displacementorc)bybothtypesofdisplacement.Thefirstagegrouprangedbetween21to

28yearsold.Thesecondagegroupreferredtointerviewedpersonsbetween39to51years

old.Thethirdgroupimplieddisplacedpersonsfrom69to82yearsold.Allintervieweeswere

currentinhabitantsofMedellinatthetimeoftheinterviews,butasaresultofinternal

displacement,notallofthemareoriginallyfromthecityofMedellin.

Unintentionally,thegroupsconsistedpredominantlyofwomen,whichspeakstoa

gendereddynamic.Ichosetonotincludeagenderlensinthisstudybecauseofthelimited

scopeofthisthesis.However,previousresearchbyscholarsrevealedthatparticularlythe

transmissionofmemoriesofviolenceinvolvesdifferentgender-relatedpractices.47Similarly,

theinterviewsdemonstratedthatthedynamicsofintra-urbandisplacementaffectmenand

47See,MarianneHirsch,“TheGenerationofPostmemory,”PoeticsToday29,no.1(March20,2008):104.

19

womendifferently.Women,–asfarasmystudygoes,–aremorestronglyaffectedby

structuralmarginalizationinthecity.However,womenoftenexperienceempowermentand

educationfromprevioustraditionalgenderroleswhentheyarriveinthecity.

Moreover,thisstudyisalsolimitedinitsscopetoaccountforthedifferent

generationalexperiencesregardingrural-urbanandintra-urbandisplacement.Youthare

differentlyaffectedbyforcedexpulsionsfromtheirneighborhoods.Theyfrequentlycoop

moreeasilywithanecessaryadaptationtonewsocialenvironmentsthanoldergenerations.

Sevenadditionalinterviewsregardingintra-urbandisplacementincludetheaccounts

ofexpertsfromtwolocalNGOs–ForjandoFuturoandCorporaciónRegión–andbyscholarsof

theUniversityofAntioquia.AllintervieweeswerecurrentinhabitantsofMedellinatthetime

oftheinterviews,butasaresultofinternaldisplacement,notallofthemareoriginallyfrom

thecityofMedellin.

Myobjectivewastounderstandtheinterplaybetweenmemoriesofviolenceand

traumawithinternalandintra-urbandisplacement.Sincetheaccountsoftheinterviewees

refertolargertemporalitiesofviolence,thetimeframeofmyfindingsinvolvestheexperience

ofconflictoverseveraldecades.Nevertheless,theColombiantransitionalmechanismsthat

mostaffectedtheintervieweesintheircurrentlivingconditionwereimplementedafter2005,

beginningwiththeJusticeandPeaceLaw.Astheinterviewsareconductedaccordingtoacase

studydesign,thefindingsdonotallowforanygeneralizabilitybeyondthelocalexperienceof

intra-urbandisplacementbythepersonsinterviewedinMedellin.

20

ChapterI–TransitionalJusticeinColombia

TheIDPpopulationinColombiaisthesecondlargestafterSyria.487.037.962ofthe

8.299.334victimsoftheColombianconflictregisteredattheRegistroÚnicodeVíctimas(RUV)

in2016arevictimsofforceddisplacement.49TheregionofAntioquia,whereMedellinis

situated,recordedthehighestnumberofvictimsofdisplacementwhencomparedtoother

Colombianregions,withanumberof1.606.878personsuntilDecember2016.50

However,inColombiatheappliedtransitionaljusticelawsandmechanismsaddressa

limitedtemporalityofinjuries.Thereforetheyfailtorenderintelligiblethestructuraland

spatio-temporaldimensionsofviolence.Thosemechanismsdisplaceresponsibilitiesby

scratchingouthistoricalcontinuities,repetitionsandcausalitiesofinjuries.Especiallythe

enduringviolationsofintra-urbandisplacementcannoteasilybecapturedintherangeof

addressabledimensionsofviolence;itisparticularlydifficulttoestablishcausalitybetween

enduringdispossessionandexpropriationwithformsofindividualviolencethatismore

easilyrecognizedbythelaw.

a. Rural-UrbanDynamicsofForcedDisplacementinColombia

ForcedDisplacementinColombiaprovokedawide-rangeofanalysisandexplications.

AccordingtoJulioRobertoMeier,RepresentativeoftheUNHCRinColombia,forced

displacementemergesbecausetheStatecannotpreventtheviolationofrightsofthepersons

thataredisplaced.Accordingtohim,forceddisplacementismassiveintermsofthenumber

48“GlobalOverview:Peopleinternallydisplacedbyconflictandviolence,“NorwegianRefugeeeCouncil,accessedonNovember23,2016,http://www.internal-displacement.org/assets/library/Media/201505-Global-Overview-2015/20150506-global-overview-2015-en.pdf.49“Inicio,”RegistroUnicodelasVíctimas,accessedonNovember28,2016,http://rni.unidadvictimas.gov.co/RUV.50Ibid.

21

ofpersonsaffected,itissystemicduetomultipleviolationsofrightsanditiscontinuous,

sincethosemanifoldviolationspersistintimeuntilrecoveryisachieved.51Thedisplaced

populationisconceptualizedintwoways.First,thepopulationisconceivedassufferingfrom

thecollateraleffectsofarmedconflictandthereforesubjecttohumanitarianassistance.

Second,displacedcommunitiesareseenasagroupdirectlyvictimizedbyconflict,whose

rightswereviolatedandthereforeshouldberestored.52Bothofthoseviewsdivergefrom

schemesunderstandingforcedmigrationaspartoftheprocessofestablishmentofthecities

orasresultofmodernization.53Moreover,themechanismsthataccountforforcedmigration

inColombiamostlydisregardforceddisplacementinflictedbytheState.54

Inthe1980sisolatedmassacresinruralzonesemerge,whichintroducethe

phenomenonofforcedinternaldisplacement.55Becauseoftheanti-insurgencystrategiesof

themilitaryandtheparamilitarygroupsandthedesiretoregainsocialcontrolbytheguerilla

groups,actionsofexpulsionofthelocalpopulationincreased.56Thosedynamicsofforced

displacementrefertoastrategyoffearandterrorasapartofbelligerenttactics.57Thus,

forceddisplacementgenerateschangesinthesocialstructureofsociety,whichimplies

51JulioRobertoMeier,“¿Porquésonvíctimaslaspersonasdesplazadas?“accessedonDecember22,2016,http://med.javeriana.edu.co/vidas_moviles/Documentos/victimasdesplazados.pdf.52DonnyMertens,“ForcedDisplacementandGenderJusticeinColombia:BetweenDisproportionalEffectsofViolenceandHistoricalInjustice,”CaseStudiesonTransitionalJusticeandDisplacement,Brookings-LSE,(2012):5.53See,ClaraInés.“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004.”Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia.”54ClaraInésAtehortúaArredondo,“Límitesparaelconceptodedesplazamientoforzadointraurbano.:Elpapeldelaaccióndetutelaydelajurisprudenciaensuconstrucción,”Diálogosdesaberes:investigacionesycienciassociales,no.30(2009):255.55“ViolenciadelderechohumanitarioenAntioquia,"PabloEmilioAngaritaCañasandINER(Organization),eds.,BalancedeLosEstudiosSobreViolenciaEnAntioquia,1.ed(Medellín,Colombia:MunicipiodeMedellín :EditorialUniversidaddeAntioquia,2001),69.56MarthaNubiaBello,ed.,DesplazamientoForzado:DinámicasdeGuerra,ExclusiónYDesarraigo,1.ed(Bogotá,D.C.,Colombia:UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,SedeBogotà,2004),24.57FernánE.González,ViolenciaPolíticaEnColombia :DeLaNaciónFragmentadaaLaConstrucciónDelEstado(Bogotá:CINEP,CentrodeInvestigaciónyEducaciónPopular,2002),22.

22

rupturesandlossesthatcontinuetoliveoninacollectiveandindividualmemoryacross

generationsafterthespecificmomentofinjury.58Thus,legalresponsibilitiesforthistypeof

lastingcrimeareverydifficulttopinpoint.59Consequently,amultiplicityofactorsstillbenefit

fromthosedisplacementsincludingallarmedactors,theColombianstateasbeingoneof

them,60andlocalandinternationalcompaniestothepointthat”therearenodisplaced

personsbecausethereiswar,butthereiswartohavedisplacedpersons.“61

Respondingtotheincreasednumberofregionaldisplacements,theColombian

transitionaljusticeprocessimplementedanumberofcomplementarymechanismsfor

redressrelevanttoforceddisplacement.62ThosemechanismsincludedLaw387of1997,

whichestablishedforthefirsttimethelegalstatusofthedisplacedandadoptedmeasuresfor

assistanceandpreventionofinternallydisplacedpopulations63;Law975of2005,alsoknown

asJusticeandPeaceLaw,whichaddressedthedemobilizationofparamilitarygroups;Law

1448of2011asso-calledVictimandLandRestitutionLawaimedforprovidingcompensation

andrecognitionforthevictimsintheColombianarmedconflict.InJuly2012,theColombian

governmentalsoestablishedalegalframeworkforpeace.ThisincorporatedArticle22ofthe

politicalconstitution,whichintroduced“therighttopeace”andaplatformforapossible

politicaltransformationanddemobilization.Morerecently,peacetalksinHavana,ongoing58BerthaLuciaCastaño,"Apropositodelopsicosocial,"inDesplazamientoForzado,ed.MarthaNubiaBello,(Bogota:UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,OficinadelAltoComisionadodelasNacionesUnidasparalosRefugiados–ACNUR,2004),195.59Castillejo-Cuellar,“OntheQuestionofHistoricalInjuries,”54.60MovimientoNacionaldeVíctimasdeCrímenesdeEstado,“EstructurasCriminalesAlInteriorDelEstadoColombiano–AnalisisyPropuestasdePaz,”14.61Bello,DesplazamientoForzado,25.62Additionally,thereexistsnationaltransitionaljusticemechanismsthatarenotnecessarilyrelevantforinternalandintra-urbandisplacement.ThoseincludetheNationalCommissionforReparationsandReconciliation–CNRRof2005(closedin2011),Decree1290of2008,Law1424of2010introducingmechanismfortruthfornon-juridicaltruthseeking.63IntherelationtoLaw387tworulingsbytheColombianConstitutionalCourt,rulingT-227of1997andrulingT-327of2001,alsorecognizedthenecessitytoprovidemeasuresforredressforviolationsresultingfromintra-urbandisplacementaspartoftheinternalconflict.

23

negotiationswiththeRevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia(FARC)andtheNational

liberationArmy(EPL)since2012,andseveralhistoricalandtruthcommissions,twoofthe

mostfamousonesbeingtheHistoricalMemoryGroup(GMH)andtheComisiónHistóricadel

ConflictoysusVíctimas(CHCV)aimedforaclosureoftheconflict.Afteranearlierrejectionof

peaceagreementsonOctober2,2016byanegativereferendum,thegovernmentandthe

FARCsignedarevisedpeaceaccordonNovember24ofthesameyear.Thosepoliciesfocused

onfacilitatingstepstowardsapost-conflictnationalreconciliation.64

However,thosetransitionalmechanismsaddressedspecificmomentsofviolenceand

thereforefailedtorecognizethelargertemporalityofinjuryexperiencedbydisplaced

communities.

Inthe1990s,displacementderivedfromasystematicappropriationoflandand

dispossessionbyanalliancebetweenparamilitary,politicians,functionaries,leading

businessmen,anddrugdealers.65Yet,thetemporallimitationsofthePeaceandJusticeLaw

doesnotaccountforthosehistoricaldispossessions.66Article5oftheLawdefinestheVictim

inrelationtotheviolationsofrightsinflictedby“armedgroupsonthemarginsofthelaw,”

whichembraceguerillagroupssuchastheFARCandparamilitarygroupssuchas

AutodefensasUnidas de Colombia (AUC).Article8statesthatvictimscanclaimreparations

thatrestorethevictim’ssituationbeforethecrimeoccurred.Thoselegalmechanismsreferto

amomentaryviolenceinflictedbyillegalarmedgroups.Thus,itisanunderstandingofinjury

thatcanberedeemedbypunishingindividualperpetrators–orhearingtheirtestimonies.The

64PaulaMartínezCortés,“TheVictimsandLandRestitutionLawinColombiainContext:Ananalysisofthecontradictionsbetweentheagrarianmodelandcompensationforthevictims,”,7.65MovimientoNacionaldeVíctimasdeCrímenesdeEstado,“EstructurasCriminalesAlInteriorDelEstadoColombiano–AnalisisyPropuestasdePaz,”7.66Castillejo-Cuellar,“OntheQuestionofHistoricalInjuries,”54.

24

JusticeandPeaceLawsuggeststhattheparamilitarycouldsubmittoacriminalprocedurein

exchangefor“truth”inordertoreducetheirsentence.67Yet,thecollectedinformation

throughthosetrialsdidnotestablishcausalitybetweenhistoricalandstructuralprocessesof

landdispossessionwiththeconcretecrimescommittedbymembersoftheparamilitary.68

The(failed)demobilizationprocessofthosegroupsaddressedtheviolenceinflictedby

individualperpetratorswithoutholdingaccountablethesystemicbeneficiariesofthose

lastinginjuries.69

Correspondingly,theVictimLawdoesnotcapturetheenduringnatureandexperience

ofserialdisplacement.TheLawcementsdifferencesinthenatureofcrime.Thelattercreates

ahierarchyofvictimsinwhichtherighttoreparationsdependsonthedateonwhichhuman

rightsviolationswerecommitted.70TheLawstipulatesthatvictimsofhumanrightsviolations

before1985donotreceiveanyreparations.71Victimsofforcedlandseizuresbetween1985

and1991donotreceivelandrestitutions,onlyfinancialorsymboliccompensation.72Thus,

landrestitutionistimelylimitedtothedisplacementsthatoccurredafterthefirstofJanuary

1991.73Moreover,inthislegalframework,forvictimsofdisplacementtoreceivereparation,

theyhaveonlyathreemonthswindowwithinwhichtheyhavetoprovideevidenceoftheir

67“Ley975de2005,”FiscaliadelaNacion,July25,2005,accessedonNovember28,2016http://www.fiscalia.gov.co/jyp/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Ley-975-del-25-de-julio-de-2005-concordada-con-decretos-y-sentencias-de-constitucionalidad.pdf.Art.8,9.68Castillejo-Cuellar,“OntheQuestionofHistoricalInjuries,”51.69MovimientoNacionaldeVíctimasdeCrímenesdeEstado,“EstructurasCriminalesAlInteriorDelEstadoColombiano–AnalisisyPropuestasdePaz,”9.70AmnestyInternational,“Colombia:LaLeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierras–AnálisisdeAmnsitíaInternacional,”AmnestyInternationalPublications(2012):6.71MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“ImprentaNacionaldeColombia(2012):9,Art.3.72MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“Art.3§4.73MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“Art78.

25

forceddisplacement.74TheLawobligesthemtoreporttheirdisplacementwithintwoyearsof

occurrence.75

Furthermore,particularlytheimmunityofparamilitarygroupsmaintainedserial

displacement.Theparamilitaryhistoricallyenjoyedlegalizationbetween1968to1989asa

partofthecounterinsurgencystrategiesbytheColombianstate.76Article1oftheJusticeand

PeaceLawonlyreferstothedemobilizationof“armedgroupsonthemarginsofthelaw”

consideringparamilitaryorguerillagroups.Itexcludesstateagents.Thislegalarchitecture

solidifiestheassumptionofarealseparationbetweentheStateandparamilitary,although

theiractionshavebeenstructurallyinterrelated.77Thelawhindersandevendeniesthe

possibilitythat,asanorganization,thearmedforcesoftheStatebeconsideredaperpetrator

ofviolence.Furthermore,theLawaddresses"politicalcrimes“fromwhichexecutionhorsde

combat,kidnappingandforceddisappereancesareexcludedaccordingtoarulingbythe

ColombianConstitutionalCourt.78 Despitetheintendeddemobilizationprocessfor

paramilitarygroups,in2012,accordingtotheColombianMinistryofJustice,fiveparamilitary

structures,themajoronesClanÚsugaandLosRastrojos,stilloperatedwitharound4.170

men.79Thus,thestipulationsoftheJusticeandPeaceLawhideastructuralrelationship

74MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“Art61.75“LapersonavíctimadedesplazamientoforzadodeberárendirdeclaraciónantecualquieradelasinstitucionesqueintegranelMinisterioPúblico,dentrodelosdos(2)añossiguientesalaocurrenciadelhechoquedioorigenaldesplazamiento,siempreycuandoestoshechoshubiesenocurridoapartirdel1odeenerode1985,ynoseencuentreregistradaenelRegistroÚnicodePoblaciónDesplazada.”MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“Art.61.76JenniferS.HolmesandSheilaAminGutiérrezdePiñeres,“ViolenceandtheState:LessonsfromColombia,”SmallWars&Insurgencies25,no.2(March4,2014):374,doi:10.1080/09592318.2013.857939.77Castillejo-Cuellar,“OntheQuestionofHistoricalInjuries,”51.78CatalinaDíaz,“Colombia’sBidforJusticeandPeace,”inBuildingaFutureonPeaceandJustice,ed.KaiAmbos,JudithLarge,andMariekeWierda(SpringerBerlinHeidelberg,2009),13.79MovimientoNacionaldeVíctimasdeCrímenesdeEstado,“EstructurasCriminalesAlInteriorDelEstadoColombiano–AnalisisyPropuestasdePaz,”20.

26

betweenparamilitaryandstate.Thereformof2012,Law1592,didconsidercollectiveharm,

butupheldtheexclusionoftheStateasperpetrator.Yet,paramilitarygroupsandtheState

hadmostlyperpetrateddisplacement.80Therefore,theimmunityofthoseactors,duetofailed

demobilization,sustainedenduringviolationsoflanddispossessionsandforcedexpulsion.

TheVictimLawpositedforthefirsttimeinternaldisplacementasacategoryof

victimization.81However,thislawdoesnotcorrecttheaforementionedimpunityof

perpetratorsintroducedbytheJusticeandPeaceLaw.82Thegrantingofmaterial,politicaland

symbolicreparationstothevictimdoesnotimplytherecognitionofstateresponsibilityinthe

crimescommittedduringconflict.83AccordingtoArticle3§2and§3oftheVictimLaw,

neithermembersofthearmedforces,norvictimsofordinarycrimeareconsideredvictims.

Thevictimofdisplacementisalsoonlyrecognizedinthetermsofthecrimesgenerally

addressedbythelaw,namelyscratchingoutthevictimofordinarycrimeandofviolations

inflictedbystateagents.84InArticle9theStatedeniesitslegalresponsibilityinrelationtothe

crimescommittedduringtheColombianinternalconflict,stating“Themeasuresofcare,

assistanceandreparationinscribedinthislaw,(...)donotimplyrecognitionormaynotbe

presumedorinterpretedasrecognizingtheresponsibilityoftheState(...)aswellasanyother

typeofresponsibilityfortheStateoritsagents.“85Itfollowsthataclearasymmetricalimage

oftheroleandworkingsoftheStateanditsagentsisintroduced,astheycannotbe80MovimientoNacionaldeVíctimasdeCrímenesdeEstado,“EstructurasCriminalesAlInteriorDelEstadoColombiano–AnalisisyPropuestasdePaz,”19.81See,MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“ChapterIII.82NelsonRojasMolina,“LeydevíctimasydesapariciónforzadaenColombia,”2013,47.83AmnestyInternational,“Colombia:LaLeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierras–AnálisisdeAmnsitíaInternacional,”7.84MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“Art§20.85“NoimplicanreconocimientonipodránpresumirseointerpretarsecomoreconocimientodelaresponsabilidaddelEstado(…)comotampoconingúnotrotipoderesponsabilidadparaelEstadoosusagentes.(…).”MinisteriodelInterior,RepúblicadeColombia,“LeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierrasYDecretosReglementarios,“Art.9.

27

consideredperpetrators.Thus,thislegalframeworkimpedeslookingattheworkingsof

structuralorslowviolenceasdimensionsofspatio-temporalcrimesinflicted,notonly,butin

partbytheState.

Furthermore,theinefficiencyofthoserightsinrelationtolandrestitution

implementedthroughtheVictimLawholdslargepopulationsinaconditionofdisplacement,

astheycouldnotreturntotheiroriginallands,iftheywouldwantto.HumanRightsWatch

declaredthatlessthen1%ofColombia’ssixmillionvictimsofforceddisplacementhave

acquiredtitlestotheirland,threeyearsaftertheVictimLawwasenacted,in2014.86

Moreover,inthenewpeaceaccordresourcesforassistanceofthedisplacedpopulationare

scarce.Anintegrallong-termapproachthatpossiblycouldaddressdisplacementintherural

realmismissingduetothefocusonhumanitarianassistance.87Asaconsequence,regionally

displacedpopulationscontinuetobeincreasinglyrelegatedtothecity.88Thisiswhythe

limitedtemporalityofthetransitionaljusticelawserectedcategoriesofcrime,perpetrators

andvictimsthatengenderandsustainintra-urbandisplacementinMedellin.

b. ContinuitiesofSerialIntra-UrbanDisplacementinMedellin

Intra-urbandisplacementsoaredinthepasttwodecades.89In2012,9,322peoplein

Colombia'ssecond-largestcity,Medellin,registeredasvictimsofthisphenomenon.90The

regionallydisplacedpopulationarrivesinparticularlyfragileneighborhoods,wherethelevels

86HumanRightsWatch,“Elriesgodevolveracasa:ViolenciayamenazascontradesplazadosquereclamanrestitucióndesustierrasenColombia,”ImpresoUSA,September(2013):29.87MartinGottwald,“PeaceinColombiaandSolutionsforItsDisplacedPeople,”ForcedMigrationReview;Oxford,no.52(May2016):16.88Consejeríaparalosderechoshumanosyeldesplazamiento,Desplazamientoforzadointraurbanoysolucionesduraderas:unaaproximacióndesdeloscasosdeBuenaventura,TumacoySoacha(CODHES,2012),16.89GrupodeInvestigaciónEstudiosPoliticos–LineaMovilidad,Migración,yDesplazamientoForzado.“InformeDiagnósticodelDesplazamientoIntraurbanoenMedellin2009-2010.”UniversidaddeAntioquia(2011):7.90Bargent,“TheNomadVictims.”

28

ofviolencearehigher.91Therefore,intra-urbandisplacementresultingfromthreatand

violencedisproportionallyaffectsthosepreviouslydisplacedpopulationsinthecityof

Medellinafterarrival.92Inthiscontext,thecharacterizationofforcedintra-urban

displacementrelatestotwoperspectives.First,itisperceivedaspartoftheinternalforced

displacementinColombia,showingsomeofitscharacteristics.Second,itisunderstoodasa

manifestationofforcedmigrationwithinthesamecity.93Inthisregard,twoconstitutive

criteriaarenecessaryforthequalificationofintra-urbandisplacement.First,thecausefor

migrationhastobeaviolencethatdisruptspublicorderandsecond,migrationhastooccurin

theurbanrealm.94

Inthebeginningofthe1970sthedepartmentofAntioquiapresentsthehighestpollsof

violenceinthecountry,reachingitscorein1991.95Inthisyear,Medellincounted396

homicidesper100thousandhabitants.96Withthebeginningofthe1990s,exclusionbecomes

thecentralconstitutiveelementofurbanization.97Inthefollowingyears,theurbanconflictin

Medellinhasbeenanalyzedas“GuerraUrbana”exposingamicrocosmofthenational

Colombianarmedconflict.98Thisperiodproducedcountlessnumbersof“urbanvictims,”

91InstitutoPopulardeCapaticación,“DesplazamientointraurbanoenMedellín:CíclicoeInvisible,“October2013,accessedonNovember3,2016,http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Desplazamiento%20intraurbano%20en%20Medellin.pdf.92GrupodeInvestigaciónEstudiosPoliticos–LineaMovilidad,Migración,yDesplazamientoForzado,“InformeDiagnósticodelDesplazamientoIntraurbanoenMedellin2009-2010,”5.93Arredondo,“Límitesparaelconceptodedesplazamientoforzadointraurbano.,”242.94Ibid.,255.95“ViolenciadelderechohumanitarioenAntioquia,"inBalancedeLosEstudiosSobreViolenciaEnAntioquia,eds.AngaritaCañasandINER(Organization),2.96MichelMisseetal.,Ciudadesenlaencrucijada :violenciaypodercriminalenRíodeJaneiro,Medellín,BogotáyciudadJuárez(Bogotá:InstitutodeEstudiosPolíticosyRelacionesInternacionales,UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,2014),27.97Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”287.98ElsaBlair,MarisolGrisalesHernández,andAnaMaríaMuñozGuzmán,“Conflictividadesurbanasvs.«guerra»urbana:otra«clave»paraleerelconflictoenMedellín,”UniversitasHumanística67,no.67(June1,2009):32.

29

whichinrelationtodisplacementarefrequentlyre-displaced.99Thus,serialdisplacements

andre-settlementsinthecityhintatanongoingprocess.100

However,thecausalitybetweenintra-urbandisplacementsandregionaldisplacements

hasbeendiscursivelyandlegallysidelined.Theurbanrealmisoneofthespecificareasof

focusinrelationtoIDPpopulationonaglobalscale.101Displacementtothecitieshasbeen

saidtobeamorelikelycauseofintra-citydisplacementaswell.102Accordingtothe

ColombianConsultoríaparalosDerechosHumanosyelDesplazamiento(CODHES),themajor

characteristicofinternalforceddisplacementconsistsintheuprootingoftherural

populationsandtheir(re-)settlementinintermediatecitiesandlargecapitalsofthe

country.103Yet,mostoftheinhabitantsandthemunicipalityofMedellinbelievethatthis

displacementhaslittletodowiththebroaderinternalconflict.104Thisconflationofthosetwo

understandingsofintra-urbandisplacement–asadynamicoftheinternalconflictandasa

resultofordinaryurbanviolence–contributestotheomissionoftherecognitionofurban

victimsofforceddisplacementasvictimsofthelargerconflict.

Thephenomenonofintraurban-displacementisparticularlylinkedtothe

aforementionedtransitionaljusticemechanisms.TherulingT-268of2003bytheColombian

99ClaraInésAtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004,”19.100LuzAmparoSánchezM.,“Eldesplazamientoforzadointraurbano:negacióndelderechoalaciudad,”inPoniendotierradepormedio:migraciónforzadadecolombianosenColombia,EcuadoryCanadáed.PilarRiañoAlcalá,MartaInésVillaMartínez,andAnaMaríaJaramilloA,(CorporaciónRegión,2008),169.101HumanRightsCouncil,“ReportoftheSpecialRapporteuronthehumanrightsofinternallydisplacedpersons,ChalokaBeyani,”(A/HRC/19/54),December26,2011,11§33.102HumanRightsCouncil,“ReportoftheSpecialRapporteuronthehumanrightsofinternallydisplacedpersons,ChalokaBeyani,”11,§36.103Consejeríaparalosderechoshumanosyeldesplazamiento,Desplazamientoforzadointraurbanoysolucionesduraderas,22.104ClaraInésAtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004,”22.

30

ConstitutionalCourtinrelationtoamassiveforceddisplacement,105whichoccurredinthe

neighborhoodElSaladointheComuna13inMedellin,recognizedintra-urbandisplacementas

partoftheinternalconflictforthefirsttime.106Yet,aspreviouslyexplained,theVictimLaw

introducedclearcategoriesofviolations,distinguishingbetweenpoliticalcrimecommittedas

partoftheColombianinternalconflictandordinarycrime.107Thus,victimsofdisplacement

couldonlyclaimreparationsandrecognitionfortheirrightsviolationsifthoseviolationsfell

intothetermsofcrimescommittedasaresultoftheinternalconflict.AccordingtoMiriam

Aukerman,ordinarycrime,whichhasbeenundertakenfornonpoliticalpurposes,concerns

individualcriminals.108Therelegationofvictimsofserialintra-urbandisplacementtothe

categoriesofordinarycrimehidesthat,infact,theyareaffectedbystructuralandhistorical

injuries,–notbydamagesinflictedbyoneindividualperpetrator.

Medellinkeptattractingruralmigrantswhiletheemergenceof“militias”that

collaboratedwithpoliceandmilitarymarkedanewphaseoftheurbanconflict.109Mostofthe

armedgroupsthatdemobilizedthroughtheJusticeandPeaceLawarrivedinthecityasso-

calledBACRIM,“criminalgroups,”belonginglegallytothecategoryofordinarycrime.110Non-

statearmedgroupsthatderivedfromtheofficiallydemobilizedparamilitariesareestimated

tohavemembersinmorethan400municipalities,notablyinurbanareassuchasMedellin.111

Moreover,BACRIMismostresponsibleforintra-urbandisplacementsaccordingtothe105Thissentencedrawsontwoprevioussentences,SentenciasT227de1997yT327de2001,thatacknowledgeddisplacementbutnotintra-urbandisplacement.SeeArredondo,“Límitesparaelconceptodedesplazamientoforzadointraurbano.”106Ibid.,244.107AmnestyInternational,“Colombia:LaLeydeVíctimasydeRestitucióndeTierras–AnálisisdeAmnsitíaInternacional,”7.108MiriamJ.Aukerman,“ExtraordinaryEvil,OrdinaryCrime:AFrameworkforUnderstandingTransitionalJustice,”HarvardHumanRightsJournal15(2002):41.109ComisiónNacionaldeReparaciónyReconciliación(Colombia)ÁreadeMemoriaHistórica,Lahuellainvisibledelaguerra:DesplazamientoforzadoenlaComuna13(Taurus,2011),62.110Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”283.111Gottwald,“PeaceinColombiaandSolutionsforItsDisplacedPeople,”16.

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RegistroUnicodelasVíctimasinMedellin.112Sincethetransitionaljusticeframeworkdoesnot

coverthecrimesbythosegroups,displacedpersonswithinthecityoftencouldnotregister

forintra-urbandisplacement;thecrimecommittedagainstthemwasjustordinarycrime.It

followsthatthegovernmentoverlookedthecontinuityofparamilitarisminthecity.More

recently,inMay2013arulinginMedellinacknowledgedintra-urbandisplacementof18

familiesthathasbeenperpetratedbyspecificgroupsofBACRIM.113However,thereexistsstill

norecognitioniftheperpetratorofthecrimeorthreatthatprovokesintra-urban

displacementsimplydeniesbeingamemberofthoseillegalgroups.

Inaddition,CODHESpointstodifficultiesofincludingvictimsofforceddisplacementin

theRegistroÚnicodeVíctimas,wheretheycouldaccessreparationsforintra-urban

displacement.114Thisaccordingtothemresultsfromthehighnumbersofvictimswhorefuse

toregistercrimescommittedagainstthemoutoffear.Moreover,asthislegalframework,

accordingtoLuzPatriciaCorrea,grantsthepossibilitiesforreparationsfordisplacementonly

for10years,–fromwhich5havepassed,–thepossibilitiesforintegralreparationsofvictims

ofintra-urbandisplacementarelimited.115Thus,althoughthereexistsalegalrecognitionof

intra-urbandisplacement,theartificialseparationfromordinaryandpoliticalcrimemakesit

impossibleforvictimsofintra-urbandisplacementtoclaimtheirrightsandreparations.This,

inturn,sustainsintra-urbandisplacement.

Additionally,intra-urbandisplacementisexplainedasaresultoftwooperations.Itis

seenasaconsequenceofanactionofstateagents,particularlyinrelationtomassive112GrupodeInvestigaciónEstudiosPoliticos–LineaMovilidad,Migración,yDesplazamientoForzado,“InformeDiagnósticodelDesplazamientoIntraurbanoenMedellin2009-2010,”UniversidaddeAntioquia(2011):22.113TwodayslaterfollowstherecognitionofBACRIMbytheConstitutionalCourt.See,InstitutoPopulardeCapaticación.“DesplazamientointraurbanoenMedellín:CíclicoeInvisible.“114Consejeríaparalosderechoshumanosyeldesplazamiento,Desplazamientoforzadointraurbanoysolucionesduraderas,148.115InstitutoPopulardeCapaticación,“DesplazamientointraurbanoenMedellín:CíclicoeInvisible.“

32

operationssuchasOperaciónMariscal,OperaciónOriónandOperaciónEstrellathatcaused

massivedisplacements.116Second,theabsenceor,rather,fragmentationoftheauthorityof

theStateengendersintra-urbandisplacementthroughtheemergenceofcoercivefactual

powersthatseektoimposetheirsovereigntyontoparticularneighborhoods.117TheState

doesnotofferthefullguaranteesofprotectioninthoseplaces.118However,onlythesecond

dynamicofintra-urbandisplacementislegallyrecognizedbythecurrentconfigurationof

transitionaljusticemechanismsinMedellin.Thoseprocesses,then,resultparticularlyfor

victimsofstateviolenceinapervasivesenseofmisrecognition.Thislackofrecognition

hinderspossibilitiestoestablishsystemicjustice.

Themissingrecognitionofvictimsofintra-urbandisplacementdoesnotalterin

relationtothemorerecentpeaceframeworks.Itiswidelyacknowledgedthatdisplaced

populationsprimarilyfledtoColombianmajorcities.119Followingthis,themostrecentpeace

accordofNovember2016incorporatedasoneofitsfocusesanagrarianreformand

reparationsforruraldisplacedpopulations.120Yet,thepeaceaccordexcludesany

observationsorrecommendationsinrelationtointra-urbandisplacement.Itmerelymentions

aimingforrural-urbanintegrationinrelationtoeconomicdevelopmentpolicies.121Thevictim

116ComisiónNacionaldeReparaciónyReconciliación(Colombia)ÁreadeMemoriaHistórica,Lahuellainvisibledelaguerra,94.117Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”281.118ComisiónNacionaldeReparaciónyReconciliación(Colombia)ÁreadeMemoriaHistórica,Lahuellainvisibledelaguerra,24.1197.2millionregisteredinternallydisplacedpersonsinColombia.Atleast60%ofthosedisplacedfledtoslumsofthe27largestcities.See,UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR),“Colombia,”accessedDecember29,2016,http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/2542.120MesasdeConversaciones,“AcuerdoFinalparalaTerminacióndelConflictoylaConstrucciondeunaPazEstableyDuradera,”November12,2016,accessedonDecember29,2016,https://www.mesadeconversaciones.com.co/comunicados/acuerdo-final-para-la-terminación-del-conflicto-y-la-construcción-de-una-paz-estable-y-1.See,chapter1“ReformaRuralIntegral”andalsoChapter5„Victimas.“121MesasdeConversaciones,“AcuerdoFinalparalaTerminacióndelConflictoylaConstrucciondeunaPazEstableyDuradera,”7&173.

33

issituatedattheheartforprocessesofpeace.122Yet,thegovernmentonlyprovides

recognitionforthevictimdisplacedintheruralrealm.123Hence,therural-urbanlinkagesof

displacementaspartofamoreholisticapproachtowardspeacehavenotbeenacknowledged

bytheColombiangovernmentandarenotintegratedinthenewpeaceframework.124Finding

comprehensivedurablesolutionsforthelargeIDPpopulationinColombia,whichaccording

totheUNHCRincorporatesanemphasisonlocalintegrationinurbansettingsofIDP’s,125is

keytoguaranteesofnon-repetition.126Yet,northeearlierpeaceaccordsofHavana,northe

mostrecentpeaceaccordofNovember2016entailanemphasisonurbanre-integrationof

theIDPpopulationarrivinginthecity,–longbeforespeakingaboutpossiblemeasuresof

preventionfromintra-urbandisplacement.127

Moreover,mostofIDP’sdonotnecessarilywanttoreturn.128Yet,theremediesfor

forceddisplacementofthenewpeaceaccordfocusonpossibilitiesforreturnandre-

establishmentofthesituationbeforedisplacementoccurred.129Thoseunderstandingsof

displacement,again,showthatitisconceivedasaviolenceinflictedinspecificmomentsthat

canbecured.Pre-conflictconditionscouldberestored.Thus,thosevisionsneglectserial

displacement,asastructuralconditionofcontinuity,forwhichpoliciesofreturnofthe

displacedpopulationtoformallyabandonedregionscannotaccountfor.Thosetransitions–

andthelogicattachedtothem–permitafocusonmeetinghumanitarianneedsattheexpense122MesasdeConversaciones,“AcuerdoFinalparalaTerminacióndelConflictoylaConstrucciondeunaPazEstableyDuradera,”8.123MesasdeConversaciones,“AcuerdoFinalparalaTerminacióndelConflictoylaConstrucciondeunaPazEstableyDuradera,”135.124Gottwald,“PeaceinColombiaandSolutionsforItsDisplacedPeople,”17.125UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR),“Colombia.”126Gottwald,“PeaceinColombiaandSolutionsforItsDisplacedPeople,”18.127Ibid.,16.128GrupodeInvestigaciónEstudiosPoliticos–LineaMovilidad,Migración,yDesplazamientoForzado,“InformeDiagnósticodelDesplazamientoIntraurbanoenMedellin2009-2010,”UniversidaddeAntioquia(2011):19.129MesasdeConversaciones,“AcuerdoFinalparalaTerminacióndelConflictoylaConstrucciondeunaPazEstableyDuradera,”182.

34

oflong-termreintegrationneedsofIDPsasacomprehensiveapproach,particularlyinthe

urbanrealm.Inthefaceofintra-urbandisplacementinMedellin,itisalarmingthatnoneof

thecurrentnationaltransitionaljusticeplansinthepeaceaccordofNovember2016proposes

astrategicsolutionsframeworkforIDPsintheurbanzone.130Ifthosesilencesinstalledinthe

mostrecentpeaceagreementsremainunaddressed,“itislikelytobecomeamajorstrainon

thepeace-buildingprocess.”131

Inordertocounterincreasingnumbersofdisplacedpersonswithinthecity,the

municipalityinMedellinimplementedpoliticsofassistancetothedisplacedpersonsas

RegistroÚnicodePoblaciónDesplazada(RUPD),SistemaMunicipalparalaPrevencióny

AtencióndeDesastres(SIMPAD)andbycreatingtheUnidaddeAtenciónalaPoblación

Desplazada(UAD).Yet,thosepoliticsfacedthreeproblems:thedifficultyforvictimsofintra-

urbandisplacementtoregisterattheinstitutionsincharge,theimpossibilitytoreceive

effectivehumanitarianaid,andtheabsenceforpoliciesofadequatehousingasreparation

policy.132Thissustainsdisplacementinthecitybecausedisplacedpeoplehavenostable

placetoreturnto.133

Asaconsequence,intra-urbandisplacementhasbeenlegallyrecognizedasa

victimizingcauseinrelationtothearmedconflict.However,thecrimesoccurredinthe

Comunaswerepassedoffasbeingordinarycrime.Thelatteronlyrelatestospecificharm,

ratherthanenduringhistoricalcyclesofforcedexpulsionthatincreasinglyreachthecity

wheretheycontinue.Moreover,thenewpeaceframeworksdonotaddressdisplacementin

130Forinstance,theAcuerdoFinalparalaTerminacióndelConflictoylaConstrucciondeunaPazEstableyDuraderadoesnotmentionastrategyagainstintra-urbandisplacement.131Gottwald,“PeaceinColombiaandSolutionsforItsDisplacedPeople,”16.132ClaraInésAtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004,”96.133Ibid.,101.

35

theurbanrealm.Thissustainsthecommonperceptionthatdetachesintra-urban

displacementfromthebroaderColombianconflict.Consequently,thosedynamicslimitaccess

toreparationsofvictimsofintra-urbandisplacementandestablishandsustainthecontinuity

ofserialdisplacementwithinthecityofMedellin.

Onabroaderscale,oneofthedifficultiesimpliedinthegeneraltransitionaljustice

frameworkinColombiapointstothefactthatthelivedviolencebythedisplacedpopulation

inthecityreferstoalargertemporalitythatexceedstheenduringinjuryofserial

displacement.Theanalysesoftheoriginsandcausesofconflictthatdefinethosetransitional

justicemechanismsaresimilarlyboundbylineartime,restrictingresearchontheeffectsof

violencetosingularevents.134Thoseframeworksintroduceahegemonicrelationship

betweenviolenceandtemporalitythatexplainsthepresentbyanartificialdetachmentof

crimesthatneverthelessshowhistoricalandstructuralcausality.Hencewiththose

transitionaljusticemechanismsthespatio-temporaldimensionofslowviolenceremains

hiddenandcannotbeaddressed.This,inreturn,isreflectedintheserialexperienceand

subjectivesenseofinjusticeofdisplacedpeopleintheurbanspacesofMedellincapturedin

theiraccountsinthefollowingstudy.

134AlcaláandBaines,“EditorialNote,”386.

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ChapterII–LivedExperienceofViolence:AccountsfromDisplacedPersonsinMedellin

“Werememberotherthingsthanthosepeoplefromruralareaswould

rememberandforthatreason,wehaveadifferentimaginationofwhatjusticeandpeaceinColombiamean.”135

-Adriana

“"Noonetoldme,goaway!""But,really,nobodytoldmetoleave.”136

-Carla

Accordingtotheresearchgroup,GrupodeInvestigaciónConflictosyViolencias(INER)

oftheUniversityofAntioquiainMedellin,theexodusoftheColombiansbeinginternally

displacedbytheColombianconflictdoesnotexposearuptureofmemories,butrather

consistsinacontinuityofmemoriesofviolencethathavebeenpresentinfamilyhistories

overseveraldecades.JudithShklarargues,“notheoryofjusticeorinjusticecanbecompleteif

itdoesnottakeaccountthesubjectivesenseofinjustice.“137Assuch,inordertoaccountfor

theexperienceofinjusticeofdisplacedpersonsitisnecessarytoconsiderthelimited

temporalityoftransitionaljusticemechanisms.Furthermore,thosememoriesinformthe

practicesofhowdisplacedpersonsreconstructtheirpastinthepresent.138Byconsidering

“whathappenstothesubjectandworldwhenthememoryof[violentevents]isfoldedinto

ongoingrelationships,”VeenaDasthinksofthoseevents“asalwaysattachedtotheordinary

asifthereweretentaclesthatreachoutfromtheeverydayandanchortheeventtoitinsome

135“Nosotrosrecordamosotrotipodecosasqueunapersonadelaárearuralrecordaríayporeso,tenemosunaimaginacióndiferentedeloquesignificajusticiaopazenColombia,”InterviewwithAdrianaBaigorria,CasadelaMemoria,July11,2016,Medellin.136“Nadiemedijo,¡vayase!”“Pero,realmente,nadiemedijoquemesaliera.”InterviewwithCarla,July23,2016,Medellin.137JudithN.Shklar,TheFacesofInjustice(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,c1990),49.138ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,61.

37

specificways.”139Theintertwiningoftheexperienceofdisplacementintheeveryday,

positionstheconditionofdisplacedpersonsascontinuousandattachedtotheworkingsof

slowviolence.

Thissectioncontraststheexperienceofhistoricalinjuriesinformofintergenerational

transmissionofmemoriesandspatialstigmatizationwiththeaforementionedtime-limited

transitionaljusticelawsandmechanisms.Spatialcharacteristicsinformidentitiesofdisplaced

personsinthecity.Spatialimaginariesrefertocollectiveandindividualcognitiveframeworks

constructedthroughthedisplacedpersons’perceptionsandlivedexperiencesofspace.140

Thoseframeworksimplydifferentformsofperceivedviolencethroughinherited

memories.141Peopleassignstigmatospatialcategories,whichisarticulatedasterritorial

stigmatization.142Ultimately,thelatterinformswhoexperiencesmarginalizationwithinthe

samecity.

a. TerritorialStigmaandAdvancedMarginality:TheProductionofNon-Places

MichelFoucaultpointedtothefactthatthe20thcenturyconsistsintheepochofspace.143

Researchersconsideredspatialgovernmentalitytobeacrucialaspectforunderstanding

currentconflicts.144AccordingtoAnnikaBjoerndahlandSusanneBuckley-Zistel,“aspatial

analysiscanprovidenewandimportantinsightsintothedynamicsofconflictandprocesses

139Das,LifeandWords[ElectronicResource],7.140Wolford,“ThisLandIsOursNow,”411.141Jokela-Pansini,“SpatialImaginariesandCollectiveIdentityinWomen’sHumanRightsStrugglesinHonduras,”1472.142Wacquant,“TheRiseofAdvancedMarginality.”127.143MichelFoucault,“OfOtherSpaces,”Diacritics;Ithaca,N.Y.16,no.1(Spring1986):331.144AnnikaBjörkdahlandSusanneBuckley-Zistel,SpatializingPeaceandConflict:RethinkingPeaceandConflictStudies,(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2016),18.

38

ofpeaceassituatedwithinandconstitutiveofdifferentspaces.”145Theirobservationspoint

totheorganizationofspaceasessentialforthestructureandfunctionofpeaceandviolence

withinthecity.However,thishasnotbeenfullyexploredbycurrenttransitionaljustice

frameworks.

Inrelationtothe“colonialworld”FrantzFanonreferstothegeographical

configurationofacompartmentalizedworldasspacesinwhichviolencemateriallyexistsand

isimagined.146TalalAsadalsopointstothefactthatcertainplacesarepronetobespecific

spacesofviolence.147InMedellin,differentterritoriesarespacesthatholdnotonlyvarious

levelsofmaterialviolence,buttheyarealsoattachedtoadifferentimaginaryofpastviolence.

Toanalyzethosespacesoffersanexplanationforpoliticalandsocialorganizationofthecity

inwhichserialdisplacementoccurs.Spaceisunderstoodassomethingexistingontowhich

thesocietyprojectsandreflectsitself.148Therefore,thecityisaconglomerationofthe

dynamicsofcontinuationandtransformationofconflict.

Spaceiscontinuouslysociallyproduced;itconfiguressocialrelationsandmemorythat

informstheindividual’sabilitytoclaimrightsandinstitutionalaccesstoreparations.

EdwardSoja’sintroducesashiftfromunderstandingspaceasmaterialtothevisionof

spaceassociallyconstituted.149Theideaofthesocialconstructionofspacealsorelatestothe

workbyHenriLefebvre.Henotesthatspaceasasocialrelationisconstantly(re-)createdby

humanbeingsassocialactors.150Lefebvreobservesthattherearecertainsocialpractices

145Ibid.,1.146FrantzFanon,TheWretchedoftheEarth(NewYork:Grove,2002),3.147TalalAsad,OnSuicideBombing,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,c2007),15.148VilmaLilianaFrancoRestrepo,Conflictourbano:marcoteórico-conceptualyherramientasmetodológicasparasudescripciónanalítica(Medellín:InstitutoPopulardeCapacitación,2004),10.149EdwardW.Soja,PostmodernGeographies :TheReassertionofSpaceinCriticalSocialTheory(NewYork:Verso,c1989),144–49.150Lefebvre,TheProductionofSpace,14.

39

boundtourbanspace.Hereferstorepresentationalspaces,whichconsistofimagesand

symbols.Itisspace,which“theimaginationseekstochangeandappropriate.”151The

imaginaryofviolenceemergesinthoserepresentationalspacesasaneffectoftheprocesses

ofinternalandurbanconflictinMedellin.Inthiscontext,DavidHarveyindicates,“Whatwe

doaswellaswhatweunderstandisintegrallydependentupontheprimaryspatio-temporal

framewithinwhichwesituateourselves.”152Hence,thespecificwayoneperceivesconflict

dependsonthoserepresentationalspacesfromwhereimaginariesemergeandinwhichone

situatesone’sunderstanding.

InMedellin,placesincorporatemnemonicmarks“wherelayersofmemories

overlap.153Violencecanenterasan”undergroundmarkerofthememory”thatis

incorporatedinthoseplaces.154MarthaVillaexplainsthattheconcretespaceinthecityof

Medellinhasbecome“themostimmediateregulatoroftheoscillationsofwar.”155

Placesarenotonlymarkedbymemoriesofviolence.Spaceandthecollectiveand

individualidentitiesinformthesocialrelations,ofthosethatinhabitit.156DoreenMassey

highlightsspaceasaproductofsocialinterrelations,whichinformstheconstructionof

identitiesinthecity.157Moreover,themajorColombiantruthcommissionreport¡BastaYa!:

MemoriasdeGuerraydeDignidad(inthefollowingonlyBastaya)states,”Inrelationto

displacement,theinhabitedspaceinthecitynotonlyfunctionsasaplaceofsocial151Ibid,39.152DavidHarvey,“SpaceasaKeyword,“(paperpresentedforMarxandPhilosophyConference,29,InstituteofEducation,London,May29,2004)7.153PilarRiaño-Alcalá,“RememberingPlace:MemoryandViolenceinMedellin,Colombia,”JournalofLatinAmericanAnthropology7,no.1(March1,2002):280.154Ibid.,284.155MartaInésVillaMartínez,"Ciudadyconflict:Lashuellasterritorialesdelconflictourbano."WorkingPaper,Bolivia,2004,2.156AnnikaBjörkdahlandSusanneBuckley-Zistel,SpatializingPeaceandConflict:RethinkingPeaceandConflictStudies,3.157DavidNewman,“Territory,CompartmentsandBorders:AvoidingtheTrapoftheTerritorialTrap,”Geopolitics15,no.4(November19,2010):776.

40

development,butasaplaceofidentitydevelopment.158Onlythroughspacethatiscomposed

ofsocialnorms,valuesandascribedmeaningscanabstractsocialrelationsbecome

concrete.159InrelationtodisplacementinMedellin,therupturingofsocialrelationsinthose

spacesisattheforegroundofthefeelingof“des-ubicación,”-beingoutofplace.Juliánexplains

inrelationtodisplacement,

“Itisaveryseriousfrustration,andtheworstofallistheruptureofthesocialfabric.Familyrelations,thelossofthesocialenvironment….oneiscompletelyoutofplace,thentoday,thosewhowheredisplacedin2000,thosewhowerechildrenatthistime,arenolongerchildren,theyarealreadyteenagersorolder,theydonotwanttoreturntothecountryside,theydonotknow,andtheyareafraidbecauseofourstories,ofwhattheirmothertoldthem.”160Thisaccountshowsthatbothaspectsexist:astrongimaginaryofthecountrysidethatrefers

toviolence,andinreturnmarkstherefusaltoreturn.Thereisalsoagenerationalgap

betweentheexperienceofdisplacementfromthecountrytothecityaswellaswithinthecity.

Ontheonehand,oftheadolescentsinterviewed,manyoftenrefusetoreturntotheirparents’

placeoforiginbecausetheimaginaryofviolenceistransmittedthroughthenarrativesof

theirparents.161Ontheotherhand,fortheoldergeneration,thelogicofthecityissodifferent

fromwhattheyhadknownbeforethattheyexperiencedifficultiesadaptingtourbanlife.The

accountsofbinaryrolesbetweencityandruralspheresexposeantagonismbetweentradition

158“Estelimboquedejaeldesplazamientoentrequieneslosufrensedebe,principalmente,aqueelespaciohabitadonosolofuncionacomolugardedesarrollosocial,sinocomolugardedesarrolloidentitario.”“¡BastaYa!Colombia:MemoriasdeGuerraYDignidad,”¡BastaYa!Colombia:MemoriasdeGuerraYDignidad,261,accessedJanuary19,2017,http://www.centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/micrositios/informeGeneral/.159Lefebvre,TheProductionofSpace,26.160“Esunafrustraciónmuygrave,yelpeordetodoeslarupturadeltejidosocial.Tejidofamiliar,laperdidadelentorno.Unototalmentedesubicado,entoncesenlaactualidad,losquenosdesplazamosdel2000,losqueeranniñosenestetiempo,yanosonniños,yasonadolescentesomayordeedad,ellosnoquierenvolveralcampo,yanosaben,yaledamiedo,nuestrashistoriaslesdanmiedo,loquesumamálescontó.“InterviewwithJulián,July21,2016,Medellin.161Thereexistsseveraladditionalfactors,suchasprogressandmodernityassociatedwiththecity,betterpossibilitiesofemploymentandeducation,whicharenotdiscussedinthisstudy.

41

andmodernity.162Hence,displacedpopulationsinthecityarenotonlyphysicallydisplaced,

but,accordingtoCarlos,an82year-oldinternallydisplacedpeasant,theyarealso

“emotionallyandsociallydisplaced.”163Asoneages,theyinternalizetheimaginaryofthe

countrysideandthecityasoppositionalpoles.Thisdenotesthesocialorganizationoflifeas

structuredandinternalizedinspatialcategoriesintheurbansetting.

Thoseimaginariesalsoderivefromterritorialcontrol.164Urbansocialordersare

increasinglybasedonthegovernanceofspace.165Thoseorderslimitanddefineterritoriesin

thecity,imposepatternsofindividualandcollectivebehavior,instituteidentities,denote

zonesofexclusionandinclusion,providesecurityandimpartjustice.166Forinstance,Ariella

describesthat,“InMedellin,territorialcontrolwillcontinueaspartofthosemobile

imaginaries[ofthecity].Thesewaysofthinkingvalidatetheseformsofcontrols.”167LuzElena

affirmsthataverystrongimaginaryandunderstandingofthedivisionofthecityas“us”and

“them,”exists.Thisconfiguresinvisiblebordersbetweenneighborhoods.Thearmedgroup

createsa“we“inrelationtoanother“other“outsideoftheterritoryofalternative

sovereignty.168

Violenceoperatesthroughdisplacementand“segregation.169Bordersasspatial

markingslimitencountersandinteractionsthatcould(re-)buildrelationshipsandsocial

solidarity.Throughencounterindividualscandevelopaninterestin(theinterestof)their

162Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”280.163“Estamosdeplazados,emocionalmenteyennuestroentorno.”InterviewwithCarlos,July17,2016,Medellin.164StathisN.Kalyvas,“Micro-LevelStudiesofViolenceinCivilWar:RefiningandExtendingtheControl-CollaborationModel,”TerrorismandPoliticalViolence24,no.4(September1,2012):660.165SallyEngleMerry,“SpatialGovernmentalityandtheNewUrbanSocialOrder:ControllingGenderViolenceThroughLaw,”AmericanAnthropologist103,no.1(2001):17.166Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”283.167“EnMedellinvaaseguirelcontrolcomopartedeesasmobilesimaginarios,formasdepensarquevalidanesasformasdecontroles.”InterviewwithAriella,July9,2016,Medellin.168Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”284.169AlcaláandMartínez,Poniendotierradepormedio,123.

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fellowcitizens.Thisbecamedifficult,sinceencounteringrequirescrossingthenumerous

invisiblebordersthatmarkedplacesinMedellin.Rosaexplains,

„Wellitisverycomplicated.InLaLomaweareallfamilymembers.Thereare8neighborhoodsectors,buteventhoughthesectorsareconnected,itisnothandledthesamewayforeverything,no,forexample,Idonotgotothe43sector,butothers,yes,theygo.Butfromthesector43theydonotgotoothersectors.“170Thesedynamicsofspacesofexclusionandinclusioninformintra-urbandisplacement

becauseitdetermineswhetheronecanreturnornot.

Placescanproducememories,whilesimultaneouslybeingproducedbymemories.171

Thoseimaginaries,aspreviouslymentioned,havetheeffectofmarkingplacesaspointsof

non-return–places,whichtheprevioustemporalinhabitantsrefusetorevisitsincethey

associatememoriesofviolencewiththem.AsMarthaVillapointsout,thereisageneralized

fearinthecitiesrelatedtoparticularplaces.172Forinstance,Elisaexplainsthatbecauseofthe

associationofcertainpartsofherneighborhoodwiththeviolencethathappenedthere,she

constantlyavoidsthoseplacesoutoffear.173Carlaexplainsthatsheneveragainwantsto

returntoUraba,-aregioninAntioquia,whereshewasborn,-becauseitisaplacethat

equateswithviolenceinhermemories.Asconsequence,shecriticizesthepoliticsof

170“Puesesmuycomplicado,enLaLomatodossomosfamiliaresdeunladoaotroigual,noyunieron,son8sectores,peroesmuycomplicadoporqueigualaunquelossectoressonmuypecados,igual,nosemanejaigualparatodo,no,porejemployonovoyala43queesunsectorperootrossívan,perodela43novanotrossectores,peroesmuydificilunonopuedeiraunsectoraotroonopuedehablaraciertaspersonasporqueibanadecirqueestoyconellos..esmuydificil..haceunañoymediosurgieriondemasiadoproblemasconlosjovenesporqueestabanmartandolosporqueasínumeran..porserfamiliardeunodelesmatabanauno.“InterviewwithRosa,July23,2016.171JuliaCreetandAndreasKitzmann,MemoryandMigration:MultidisciplinaryApproachestoMemoryStudies(UniversityofTorontoPress,2011),11.172InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016,Medellin.173InterviewwithElisa,July28,2016,Medellin.

43

reparationsforthedisplacedastheyfocusonreturnbutnotonadequatehousingwithinthe

city.174Similarly,Anaexplainsinrelationtothemarksthathermemoryleftonplaces,

“Ididnotwanttogobacktothestreets,...becauseitwastraumatic,myunclewaskilledinthosestreets.Mygrandmotherandmyfamilydecidedtoleavethatplacebecausetheneighborhood,…becausemybrotherwaskilledthereandheplayedthefatherrolebecausehisfatherwasalsoadisplacedpeasant.Therewasnotranquility,theyconvertedtheplaceinanunlivableplace.”175Anaassertsthattheplaceis“unlivable”forreturn.Shereferstotheneighborhood,whereshe

grewup,explaining,“Nobodyfrommyfamilygoestothisneighborhood.”176Thememoryof

violenceattachedtothisplaceseemstobeacollectivefamilyrecord,ormaybescar.Martha,

havingbeendisplacedfromaruralzoneinAntioquiatoMedellin,explainsthatfor20years,

shewasnotattheVereda,whereherhouseissituatedbecauseifshewouldreturn,shewould

recallalltheviolencethathappenedthere.177

Thus,memoriesofforceddisplacementstransmittedtheimageoftheviolencethat

previouslyoccurred.178Displacementinscribedfearinacommonplace,asarealityorchronic

state.179ThefamiliesthathavebeendisplacedinLaLomarefusedtogoback,accordingto

Rosa,since“LaLomabringsalotofhorror.”180Similarly,Anaexplainsthefollowingin

relationtoCali,wheresheisfromandwhereshelivedbeforemovingtoMedellin,

“IntheOrrienteofCalí,wheretherewereparamilitariesandguerillas,itmeanslivinginthemidstofviolence...Irememberoncebeinginatownwherewehadtobebecausemymotherwas174InterviewwithCarla,July23,2016,Medellin.175“Noqueríavolveralascalles,tanasífue...porqueeratraumatico,amitiolomataronenlacalle.miabuelaymifamiliadecidiósalirdeahíporqueelbarrioporqueamihermanoLoasesinaronyelcumplióelpapeldepapáporqueelpapátambiénerauncampesinodesplazado.Nohabíatranquilidad,convitierionellugarenunlugarinvivible.”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.176“Aestebarrio,demifamilianadievayesunbarriomuygrande.”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.177“Sí,pasomuchotiempoenlavereda,mereunoconlacomunidad,escomono,nosotrosdetodaesasituaciondeviolenciaquesucedió,(...)tenia20anosquenoveialacasa.”InterviewwithMartha,July22,2016,CarmendeViboral,Antioquia.178InterviewwithRosa,July23,2016,Medellin.179AlcaláandMartínez,Poniendotierradepormedio,208.180“LaLomatraemuchohorror.”InterviewwithRosa,July23,2016,Medellin.

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lookingforwherewecouldstay.Whenwecameback,thechurchwaspaintedwiththelettersELN181andhadbullets.(...)Inonenightwewereplayinginthestreet,thereweremanychildren,andwerantohidewhentheguerillacamebecausetheytooktheboysfromtheotherbandas[groups].Everyonehidforfear”.182Again,fearseemstobeendemictothoseplaces.Laterintheinterviewsheaddsthatshedoes

notliketoreturnbecauseofhermanymemoriesoffear.

Theinabilitytoreturnperpetuatestheenduringnatureofserialintra-urban

displacements.AccordingtoPablo,intra-urbandisplacementgeneratesacontinuousdynamic

ofarrivalanddeparture.Familiesarriveandleaveforciblyorvoluntarilythroughan

alterationinthesovereigngroupthatgovernsthespecificterritory.183Pabloaddsthatserial

displacementisacommonexperiencefordisplacedpopulationsinMedellin.184Military

operationsandstateinterventionsuchasOperaciónOrión,OperaciónEstrella,andOperación

MariscalinthoseplacesthatremainoutsideofthesovereigntyoftheState,generatedmassive

intra-urbandisplacements.185MichaelRothenbergpointstotheimportanceoftheinterplay

betweenmemory,violenceandmigration.Hecalledfortaking“migrantsseriouslyassubjects

of(…)memory.”186Thedisplacedfamilies,explainsOscar,oftenbecame“permanent

migrants.”Thisaccountoffersanunderstandingofdisplacementasacontinuityinthe

experienceofpermanentmigrationandtheinheritedmemoryattachedtoit.“Familiesnever

181ThisnamedesignatestheColombianguerrillagroupEjércitodeLiberaciónNacional.182“EnelOrrientedeCali,dondehabiaparamilitaresyguerilleros,sgnificavivirenelmediodelaviolencia.(...)Recuerdounavezestarenunpueblodondetuvimosqueestarporquemimamaerabuscandodondepodriamosquedarnos,quandovolvimos,laiglesiaerapintadaydeciaELNyteniabalas.(…)Enunanocheetsmosjugandoenlacalle,habiamuchosninos,ycorrimosparaescondersecuandolaguerillaveniaporquesacaronloschicosdelasotrasbandas.Todoelmundoseescondiopormiedo.”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.183InterviewwithPablo,July9,2016,Medellin.184ThisisalsoconfirmedbyaninterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopezattheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.185ComisiónNacionaldeReparaciónyReconciliación(Colombia)ÁreadeMemoriaHistórica,Lahuellainvisibledelaguerra,74.186MichaelRothbergandYaseminYildiz,“MemoryCitizenship:MigrantArchivesofHolocaustRemembranceinContemporaryGermany,”Parallax17,no.4(November1,2011):33.

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ceasedtoarriveduetodisplacementinthecityofMedellin,”accordingtoAriella.187Assuch,

thereexistsnore-emergenceofviolenceperseastheviolenceis,accordingtoClara

ArtehortuaArrendondo,a“violencethatispermanent.”188

Furthermore,one’sspatialimaginaryofviolence,derivingfromthosemnemonic

marksandrepresentationalspaces,alsoinformedone’svisionofpeace.Thisinreturn

confinestheunderstandingandimplementationofpossibleformsofjusticeinthoseplaces.

AccordingtoaninvestigationbyGrupodeInvestigaciónConflictosyViolencias(INER)ofthe

UniversityofAntioquiainMedellin,thepopulationlivinginurbanspacesfrequently

understandstheviolationsthatoccurredinthecityasordinarycrimeanddoesnotperceive

theprecarioussituationoftheruralpopulation.189Distinctvisionsofviolenceandtherefore

differentialunderstandingsofadequateformsofredressemergealonganurban-ruraldivide.

Pabloexplainsthatvotinginfavororagainstthepeaceagreementderivesfromanurban

vision.Henotesthepeasantshavealwaysbeeninfavorofthe“si”becauseofthetypeof

violencetheyexperienced,–armedconfrontationinthecountryside.Accordingtohim,the

urbanrealmrejectedthepeaceagreementbecausetheyhavenotbeenexposedtothesame

typeofviolence.Amorenuancedanalysisofthisphenomenonisnecessary.Yet,thestatistics

surroundingtherejectionofthepeaceagreementsreflectthesamedynamic.190.

Spatialimaginariesofothernessproblematizethedistinctionsbetweenselfandother.

Therefore,territorialmarkersarecriticalfor“identity-relatedinclusionandexclusion(…)for

187“NuncahandejadollegarfamiliasporeldesplazamientoalaciudaddeMedellin.”InterviewwithAriella,July9,2016,Medellin.188“Laviolenciaesconfundamentepermanente.”InterviewwithClaraArtehortuaArrendondo,July12,2016,Medellin.189González,ViolenciaPolíticaEnColombia,18.190See,“Colombiajustvotednoonitsplebisciteforpeace.Here’swhyandwhatitmeans”WashingtonPost,October3,2016,accessedDecember23,2016,https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/03/colombia-just-voted-no-on-its-referendum-for-peace-heres-why-and-what-it-means/?utm_term=.ddf223ae998b.

46

theconstructionofthe‘self’andthe‘other’,”whichplayacentralroleinthepatternsof

violenceandconflict.191

Inconflictstudiesitiswidelyknownthatmarginalizationiscentraltothedynamicsof

violence.192Fordisplacedpersons,discriminationonthebasisofpermanentmigrationmay

createanadditionalbarriertoaccessingStateservices.193Theoriesonthemilitarizationof

urbanspaceoutlinespaceascorecategoryfortheproductionanddistributionofpatternsof

marginalization.194InrelationtoTelAviv,AndreasHacklarguesthat“thecityperformsan

‘identity’withinwhichPalestiniansdonotexist.”195Palestiniansinthiscontextaremarkedby

“thestigmaasbeingstranger.”AccordingtoHackl,theyexperiencethe“dissolutionofplace,”

whichtriggersadoublemarginalization“asmaterialwithinurbanspaceandasculturalas

strangers.”Therefore,“stigmatizedothers”inrelationtourbanmarginalizationisoften

characterizedthroughterritorialmarkers.

Forinstance,PedroreferstotheComuna13inMedellin,asaplaceinthecity,where

paramilitaryviolencehasbeenverypervasive.Heaffirms,“peoplefromtherearesaidtobe

violent,theyareseenasbeingguerrilleros.”Assuchtheplacefromwhereapersoncomes

191SvenChojnackiandBettinaEngels,“OvercomingtheMaterial/SocialDivide:ConflictStudiesfromthePerspectiveofSpatialTheory,”inSpatializingPeaceandConflict,ed.AnnikaBjörkdahlandSusanneBuckley-Zistel,RethinkingPeaceandConflictStudies(PalgraveMacmillanUK,2016),33.192KristineHöglundetal.,“ArmedConflictandSpace:ExploringUrban-RuralPatternsofViolence,”inSpatializingPeaceandConflict,ed.AnnikaBjörkdahlandSusanneBuckley-Zistel,RethinkingPeaceandConflictStudies(PalgraveMacmillanUK,2016),60,doi:10.1057/9781137550484_4.193HumanRightsCouncil,“ReportoftheSpecialRapporteuronthehumanrightsofinternallydisplacedpersons,ChalokaBeyani,”10.194See,RogérioHaesbaert,ViverNoLimite :TransterritorialidadeEmTemposdein-SegurançaEContenção(RiodeJaneiro:Bertrand,2014);StephenGraham,CitiesunderSiege :TheNewMilitaryUrbanism(NewYork:Verso,2010).195AndreasHackl,“UrbanSpaceasanAgentofConflictand‘Peace’:MarginalizedIm/MobilitiesandthePredicamentofExclusiveInclusionamongPalestiniansinTelAviv,”inSpatializingPeaceandConflict,ed.AnnikaBjörkdahlandSusanneBuckley-Zistel,RethinkingPeaceandConflictStudies(PalgraveMacmillanUK,2016),180.

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fromorlivesinconstitutesanimposedpartofidentity.Itrelatesandattachesthispersonto

theimaginarythatiscontainedbytheplace.

ErvingGoffmantheorizedtheworkingsofstigma.Personsconfrontedwitha

stigmatizedperson,accordingtohimconstructa“stigma-theory,”whichconsistsinan

“ideologytoexplain[thestigmatizedperson’s]inferiorityandaccountforthedanger[the

stigmatizedperson]represents.”196AccordingtoGoffman,

“Thetendencyforastigmatospreadfromthestigmatizedindividualtohiscloseconnectionsprovidesareasonwhysuchrelationstendeithertobeavoidedortobeterminated,whereexisting.”197Withoutexplicitlynamingit,Goffmanimpliesthatstigmacausessocialexclusionbecauseit

canspreadtootherswhomareincontactwiththestigmatized.Thus,itisalsoattachedto

places,wherethoseencounterswithotherscantakeplace.Inotherwords,stigmaisrelatedto

territorialmarkings.LoïcWacquantcoinedthenotionofadvancedmarginality,analyzingthe

interrelatednessofoutbreaksofcollectiveviolence,inrelationtopovertyandpostcolonial

immigrationinParis.198Advancedmarginalityrefersto“thenewformsofexclusionary

closuretranslatingintoexpulsiontothemarginsandcrevicesofsocialandphysicalspace.”199

InMedellin,intra-urbandisplacementcausesspatial,legalandpoliticalmarginality

thatisrelatedtoterritorialstigmaaccordingtoresearchbytheUniversityofAntioquia.200The

precarioussituationresultingfromexpulsionoftheirterritoriesinducesahistorylived

collectively.Moralwoundsderivefromfeelingsofexclusionandabsenceofsocial

196ErvingGoffman,Stigma :NotesontheManagementofSpoiledIdentity(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,c1986),28.197Ibid.,30.198Wacquant,“TheRiseofAdvancedMarginality,”129.199Ibid.,232.200InterviewwithClaraArtehortuaArrendondo,July12,2016,Medellin.

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recognition.201Nataliatellshowthroughdisplacementshehaslostherhomeandhadtopay

rentinadifferentneighborhoodthatshecouldnotafford.Shehasbeendisplacedagain

throughthelackofeconomicresources.202Assuch,intra-urbandisplacementdrawsona

continuityofvariousdisplacementsthatcauseacycleofre-victimizationand

precariousness.203Themultipledisplacementsmakesocio-economicestablishmentalmost

impossibleinthefaceofthetotallossofgoodsandservices.204AccordingtoKatja,mostofthe

displacedpersonsarriveinthecityinvulnerableplaces.Shenotes,“Theydoinformalwork,

thereisnoanswerbytheState,mostofushavenohousing(…)theyshouldgiveyouthe

assistancewithinthreemonths,buttheysimplydon’tdoit.”205AccordingtoCarlos,

“Thedisplacementforoneisaverydifficultthingbecauseoneloseseverything,alltheworkofhislife,anduntilthentherewasnosolutiontoanything,norepair,norestitutionofthelandeither,becausedisplacementcausesonetobeginacity.”206Displacementforhimmeansbeingabeggarinthecity.Thisimagecorrespondstothe

commonimagerelatedtothedisplacedthatarrivedfromthecountrysideinthecity.207

DiscourseandsocialrepresentationsputtheinhabitantsfromtheregionofAntioquiaarriving

inthecitybetweenpathology,immoralityandsocialdelinquency.208AccordingtoMartha

201ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,24.202InterviewwithNatalia,July18,2016,Medellin.203Bello,DesplazamientoForzado,28.204AtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004,”97.205“Elloshacentrabajoinformal,nohayrespuestaporpartedelestado,lamayoríadenosotrosnotenemosvivienda(...)ellosdebendarlelaayudadentrodetresmeses,perosimplementenolohacen.”InterviewwithKatja,July11,2016,Medellin.206“Eldesplazamientoparaunoesunacosamuymuy,comodigamos...puesunopierdetodo,todasutrabajodetodalavida,yhastaelmomentodespuesnohabiaunasoluciónparanada,nireparación,nirestituciondelatierrastampoco,puesparaunoeldesplazamientoesunaformadeponerloaunoamendigarenunaciudad.“InterviewwithCarlos,July17,2016,Medellin.207See,Consejeríaparalosderechoshumanosyeldesplazamiento,Desplazamientoforzadointraurbanoysolucionesduraderas.208SuzanneLacyandPilarRiaño-Alcalá,“Medellin,Colombia:ReinhabitingMemory,”ArtJournal65,no.4(December1,2006):99.

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Villa,alreadyinthe1990sthefigureofthedisplacedwasconceivedaspeoplethatbrought

thewartothecities.209Thustheimageofthedisplacedispassedonovertime.Itisalso

projectedontopersonsclosetothedisplaced.210Becausegroupidentityisshapedby

historicalperspectives,historicalnarrativeshaveanexplicitanddirectimpacton

identities.211Thememoryofthosenarrativesassignsthedisplacedtheroleasbeggar.Thus,

theconflictisinthecontextofforceddisplacement,asituation,whichsignificantlymarks

identity.212Forinstance,byinsistingthatherdisappearedsonwasnoguerrillero,Amparo

referstoaterritorialmarker,explaining,“Hecannotbeaguerrillerobecausehewasnotreally

fromthere,wearenotfromtheComuna13.”Wacquantnotedthat“territorialstigmatization”

belongstopublicpolicieslabelingthosespacesofadvancedmarginalityas“lawlesszones.”213

Thisshowshowaparticularplaceinthecity,whichisdenotedasviolentandlawless,214is

assignedacertainimaginaryofviolencebypoliciesandpoliticsofthemunicipalityorofthe

State.This,inreturn,informstheimageoneholdsoftheinhabitantsinthoseplaces.

AstudybytheUniversityofAntioquiafoundthattherearetwodistinctimagesofthe

displacedinMedellinthataresuperposed.Thefirstimageofthe“deplazadobandido”denotes

thedisplacedasa“publicenemy,”whoarrivesinthecityinordertodisturbtheurbanlife.

215Thisisavisionthathasbeenconstructedoverseveraldecades.Her/hisdisplacementhas

209InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016.210“Enlosrelatosdelasvíctimasesclaroquelaculpanosoloseinstalaenellas,sinotambiénenpersonascercanas,avecesdesumismonúcleofamiliaromiembrosdelacomunidaddereferencia.”“¡BastaYa!Colombia,”263.211ElazarBarkan,“HistoricalReconciliation:Redress,RightsandPolitics,”JournalofInternationalAffairs60,no.1(2006):3.212FlorEdilmaOsorioPerez,Territorialidadesensuspensodesplazamientoforzado,identidadesyresistencias(Bogotá:Ed.Antropos,2006),36.213Wacquant,“TheRiseofAdvancedMarginality,”135.214ComisiónNacionaldeReparaciónyReconciliación(Colombia)ÁreadeMemoriaHistórica,Lahuellainvisibledelaguerra,62.215See,ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,26;GrupodeInvestigaciónEstudiosPoliticos–LineaMovilidad,Migración,yDesplazamientoForzado,“InformeDiagnósticodelDesplazamientoIntraurbanoenMedellin2009-2010,”18.

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cometobeconceivedastheresultofher/hisownactions.216Thesecondimageofthe

“desplazadodamnificado”as“condemneddisplaced”isexposedasavictimofnaturalized

violence.Thisperceptiondoesnotsituateviolenceinitssociopoliticalcontext.Therefore,the

displaceddonotconceivethemasrightholdersinrelationtoforcedexpulsionandremovalto

orwithinthecity.217

Thosetwoimagescirculateasdecoupledfromtheconditionsoftheir

production,almostconceivedasahistorical.Spaceisaconstitutivefactoroftheknowledge

thatisproducedinrelationtotheother.218EdwardSaidascertainsthatitispossible“for

manyobjectsorplacesortimestobeassignedrolesandgivenmeaningsthatacquire

objectivevalidityonlyaftertheassignments[havebeen]made.“219Thisimpliesthatthe

displacedsocialposition,eitheras“desplazadobandito”oras“desplazadodamnificado,”is

perceivedasnatural.Anyrelationtotherootcausesthatforcedpeopletobedisplacedare

hiddeninthoseperceptions.Thedecouplingofthehistoricalconditionsinwhichthe

displacedaresituatedcorrespondstoPierreBourdieu’sfamousanalysisofsymbolicviolence.

Thelatterdesignatestheimpositionofthoseprinciplesofdivisiontothosewhohavelittle

choiceaboutwhethertoacceptortorejectthem.By“inducedmisunderstanding”,Bourdieu

describesaprocessbywhichpowerrelationscometobeperceivednotforwhatthey

objectivelyare,butinaformwhichrendersthemlegitimateintheeyesofthosesubjectto

power.220Thus,theassignmentoftheterritorialstigmatoapersondoesnotreflectthesocio-

politicalcontextorthereasonsforwhichthispersoncametocarrythestigma.Thisalso216See,ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,28;LuzAmparoSánchezM.,“Eldesplazamientoforzadointraurbano:negacióndelderechoalaciudad,”171.217ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,298.218AccordingtoEdwardSaid,thereisacloserelationshipbetweengeography,imaginationandknowledge.Saidspeaksof„Orientalismasafieldoflearnedstudy.”See,Said,Orientalism,49.219EdwardSaid,Orientalism,54.220Bourdieu,TheLogicofPractice,841.

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explainswhythedisplacedpopulationwithinthecitybecomessooftensidelinedregarding

theviolenceinflictedaspartoftheinternalColombianconflict.

Moreover,theinternallydisplacedpopulationoftenarrivesinveryfragileurbanplaces

comparedwithotherregionsofthecity.Theplaceswherethedisplacedpeoplearriveare

characterizedbymissingprovisionsofpublicservicesandlackofaccesstotheland,where

theviolationandexclusionofrightsbecomesconstant.221Marthaassertsthat,“Iarrivedhere

in2001,anditwasthepoorestneighborhoodthatexistedhere,itwasthecheapest

neighborhood,theonlycheapleaseIfoundhere.“222Shemovedawayfromthisplacenine

yearslaterbecauseherchildrengrewupandshewasafraid“ofthefriendshipstheywould

make“inthoseplaces.Thisaccountshowsthatthosebeingdisplacedexperienceacontinuous

feelingofvulnerability.223Katjareflectsontheextremelyvulnerablepositionthatintra-urban

displacedpersons,whooftendonotgetsocialorlegalrecognitionfortheirdisplacement,

hold.Sheaffirmsthatherintra-urbandisplacementintheComuna13causedfamily

disintegrationassheseparatedfromherhusband.Hersontodayishomeless.

Theimageofthedisplaceddeterminesone´spossibilitiestoengageinworkand

education,andassuchimproveone´slivingcondition.Displacedpersonsoftenencounter

difficultiesfindingwork,becausetheyareimmediatelymarkedwiththeimaginaryofviolence

or,atleast,precariousnessthathasexistedthroughoutseveraldecades.Carmenexplains,

“Becausepeoplewhoaredisplacedarere-victimized.Theyask,‘Ahyouarrivedasadisplacedperson?’Theynevercalltheonewhowasdisplaced[forajob]becausetheybelievethathewaspartoftheconflict,partoftheguerilla,orpartofsomearmedgroup.Peoplebelievethis.They

221AtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004.”7.222“Lleguéaquienel2001,yeraelbarriomáspobresquetieneaqui,eraelbarriomásbarato,elunicoarriendamásbaratoqueencontréaquí.”InterviewwithMartha,July22,2016,CarmendeViboral,Antioquia.223DianaFuentesBecerraandClaraAtehortúaArredondo,“SobreElSujeto-Víctima:ConfiguracionesdeUnaCiudadaníaLimitada,”OpiniónJurídicaUniversidaddeMedellín15,no.29(2016):71.

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believethatbecauseifoneisdisplaced,onecomeswithsomuchneedthathebecomessuddenlyathief.“224Theaccountshowsthattheperceivedconditionofthedisplacedindividualbyher/hissocial

environmentinformspossibilitiestoimproveone’slivingconditionsbyfindingwork.

Moreover,italsoconditionsthedisplacedpopulation´sabilitytoclaimrightsandreparations.

Thismarginalityandfeltvulnerabilityofone´spositionintheurbanrealmcausesmistrustin

bothsocialrelationships,includingwithfamily,friendsandneighbors,andtheState.As

previouslymentioned,thesituationofdisplacementismostlycausedbystatecrime.225This

putstheinternaldisplacedpersons,-and,evenmoreso,thedisplacedpersonwithinthecity,-

inaprecarioussituationsincethestatetakestheroleofsaviorandperpetratoratthesame

time.Victimsofstatecrime,mostlyaffectedbydisplacementbutnotexclusively,refusetoput

anytrustintheStateoritsinstitutions.Frequentlytheyrefusetotrusttheirfellowcitizens

outoftheexperiencesofvariousre-victimizations.Thosedynamicshinderdevelopingcivic

trustas“asenseinwhichtheyarefellowmembersofthesamepoliticalcommunity”inPablo

deGreiff’sterms.226Thisdynamicadvancestheirmarginalityevenmore,sincetheyrefuseto

claimtheirrightsataninstitutionthathasbeenresponsiblefortheviolationsofthosevery

rights.Thosedynamicsequatetotheworkingsofstructuralviolencesincethedeprivationof

one’sabilitytoclaimrightsisperceivedasnaturalandthereforehidden.Nadiaexplainsthat

shethinksthatitisnotconvenientfortheStateifoneclaimsone’srights.Byreferringtoa

224“Porquesomosmuyre-victimizados,laspersonasquellegandeplazadas,somosre-victimizados,„Ahustedvinedesplazada..ahentoncesesperequeyolallamó“peronuncallamanauno.Porquenuncallamanaelquefuedesplazadoporquecreenqueerapartedelconflicto,partedelaguerilla,oalgungrupoarmado,lagentecreeasíoporqueunovienedesplazadovienecontantanecessidadqueeradeprontounladron.Bueno,milesdecosas,lore-victimizanaunoellos.Paralosmuchachoseramuydificilaentrarenlaescuelatambienaestudiar.“InterviewwithCarmen,July13,2016,Medellin.225GrupodeInvestigaciónEstudiosPoliticos–LineaMovilidad,Migración,yDesplazamientoForzado,“InformeDiagnósticodelDesplazamientoIntraurbanoenMedellin2009-2010,”14.226DeGreiff,“JusticeandReparations,"464.

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registrationattheRegistroUnicodeVíctimas,sheadds,“Alotoftimes,youreallyneedtofight

inordertoberegistered.”227

Theterritorialstigmaalsocausesintra-urbandisplacementinthecityinrelationtoa

particularimageoftheyouth.Thisisparticularlyrelevantforyoungmen.LuzElenaexplains

thatboysinthoseneighborhoodsthathavebeenknownasmarginalizedareoftenconceived

as“guerrilleros”orcriminal.Thisisaspecificstigmaattachedtotheyouthsincethe“sicarios”

thatassassinatedintheeraofPabloEscobarwereyoungmenfrommarginalizedandpoor

neighborhoods.228Thestigmaoftheyouth,ormoreprecisely,youngmenandboys,indirectly

causesintra-urbandisplacement,sincetheirmotherssoughttoimpedeforcedrecruitmentof

theirsonsbyleavingtheneighborhood.Thisdynamicalsoexplainshowthestigmabecame

somehowcommonsenseintheimaginaryofviolenceinthecitythroughthememoriesof

oldergenerationsthathavetransmittedthosevisionstothenextgenerations.

Furthermore,internalandespeciallyintra-urbandisplacementremainshidden,since

thestigmaattachedtothefigureofthedisplaced,leadstopracticesofauto-censorship.Danilo

SuarezMoralesreferstohabitusthatentailsacertainconditioningofindividualandcollective

practicesduetodisplacement.229AccordingtoaresearcherattheUniversityofAntioquia,

“Displacementisthecategoryforthepersonthatwasabletoregisterforit,butnotonlythose

thatregisteredarevictims.”230Stigmaandongoingdiscriminationrelatingtotheruralregions

fromwhichpeoplearrivedfromcarriestheunderlyingassumptionthattheywereinvolved

227“PuesunasvecespensoqueesteEstadonoleconvienequeunoreclameporquemuchasvecesunotienequelucharmuchoparaserregistrada,”InterviewwithNadia,July16,2016,Medellin.228HectorGalloyGerardoCespedes,“Estadodelartedelosestudiossobrevioenciaysubjectividad,"inBalancedeLosEstudiosSobreViolenciaEnAntioquia,ed.AngaritaCañasandINER(MunicipiodeMedellín:EditorialUniversidaddeAntioquia,2001),159.229HarveyDaniloSuarezMorales“AlgunasReflexionesparacomprenderlaformacióndeldesplazamientoforzadocomouncampodesaber,poderysubjectividad,”Bello,DesplazamientoForzado,165.230“Eldesplazamientoeslacategoríadelapersonaquepudoregistrarse,peronosólolosregistradossonvíctimas.”InterviewwithClaraArtehortuaArrendondo,July12,2016,Medellin.

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withparamilitaryorguerillagroups.Thisplaysanimportantrolefortheauto-censorshipof

displacedpeoples.231Carla,74yearsoldoriginallyfromUraba,explains,

“IcamefromUrabá,Ileftdisplaced,butnobodytoldmethatIhavetoleave.ButtheVereda[entityofadistrictinColombia],whereIwasliving,allthepeoplefromtherewerecomingdownthemountainsinordertoleavetheplace.So,IsaidthatIcannotdothatanymore,thatIcannotsupportthesituationintheVereda.Isaidbeforethey[paramilitarygroups]cometoourfarm,let'sgo,let´sleave,justleaveeverythingbehindtogotoMedellin.“232Theimportantaspectinrelationtoautocensorshipreferstoherexplanationofthereasons

forthisdisplacement.BeingaskedifshehasbeendisplacedCarlasays,“no,Ihavenever

belongedtothedisplacedpopulation,“–anunexpectedreactiongiventhataccordingtoher

story,shehasbeendisplacedbythethreatofparamilitarygroupsthreetimes.Sheinsists,

“WhenIcamefromUraba,Icameforfear,butnobodytoldmetoleave.“233Thisisanexample

ofauto-censorship,forone’sdisplacementisactuallynotperceivedandalsonotarticulated

asaviolationoracrimeofone’srighttostay.Itistheseworkingsofsymbolic,structuraland

slowviolencetogetherthatseemtohidethereasonsfordisplacement.Thosedisplacements

exposenaturalizedornormalizedcausesformovingawaythatrepresentnomorecrimefor

whichonemightneedtoclaimreparationsorredress.

Forceddisplacementissofrequentlymarginalizedbecauseitreferstoasecond

evil.Itisperceivedassomethingthatoccursinrelationtoandascontinuationofanother

crimewhenthefirstinjuryisexperiencedasbeingmuchmorepowerfulanddisruptive.

231See,ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,35;InstitutoPopulardeCapaticación.“DesplazamientointraurbanoenMedellín:CíclicoeInvisible.“232“YovengodelUrabá,saliamásbiendesplazada,nadiémedijovayase,perolaveredadóndeestuveviviendotodalagenteseibabajando,bajabadesdearriba,bajabadesdearriba,entincesyomedijenomásestoyaguandando.Antesquevenganaesafincamejorvamenos,Entonces,dejetodoparaarrancarparaMedellin.“InterviewwithCarla,July23,2016,Medellin.233“CuandomevienedeUraba,mevinopormiedo,peronadiemedijoquemefuera.“InterviewwithCarla,July23,2016,Medellin.

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Displacementslipsintotheeveryday,whereitbecomesnaturalized.Yet,thenatureofthe

everydayseemsevenmoreelusiveasviolence.234Theverynatureofdisplacementas

permanentandenduring,notasauniqueshockingtraumaticexperience,entailsits

invisibilization.This,inreturn,createsthecontinuousmarginalizationofthedisplaced.Being

askedabouttheinjuriesexperiencedthroughdisplacement,Carlaanswered,“with

displacement,nothingtodo.Nothing,nothing,...whentheydisappearedmysonIreallydidn´t

knowwhattodo.”235Sinceshealmostforgetsaboutthedisplacementbybeingremindedof

theforceddisappearanceofherson,itispossibletoconcludethatdisplacementassuchoften

passesasunheard,–not“unspeakable”but“unspoken.”Thereisnonotice,noaccusation,no

registerforit,becauseitissimplyforgottensinceitissoordinary--sinceitslipsintothe

ordinary.ItevokesDas’observationthatthefeelingofeverydaylifeasasiteoftheordinary

buriedinitselftheviolencethatprovidedacertainforcewithinwhichrelationshipsalter.236

Dasexplainshowsufferingiscontinuousthroughtime;itbelongstotheordinarinessof

everydaylifeandthedynamicsthataretransmittedoverdecades.237Displacementseemsto

belongtothecontinuityacrossspaceandtimeofanordinarylifeexperience.Thiscontinuity

isonlydisruptedwiththeviolentdisappearanceofalovedperson,whichultimately,in

comparison,minimalizesthepainfeltthroughdisplacement.Hence,Carla’saccountevidences

theinvisibilityofdisplacementasitisconceived,perceivedandlivedasanexperienceof

continuity.Intra-urbandisplacementasaviolationthatreceivedevenlesserattention,seems

notonlyberenderedinvisiblethroughthefearofbeingstigmatized.Itisneglectedsimply

234AlcaláandBaines,“EditorialNote,”368.235“Esqueporeldesplazamiento,nadaquever.Nada,nada,cuandomedesaparecieronmihijonotuveconqué,peroahorayatengoconocimientoSiesopasadenuevoYasédóndepuedoirqueesascondicionesnoerannaturalperoquesimelomataron.”InterviewwithCarla,July23,2016,Medellin.236Das,LifeandWords[ElectronicResource],11.237Das,LifeandWords[ElectronicResource],69.

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becauseithasbecomenaturalizedaspartoftheexperienceofviolenceand“ordinarycrime”

inthecities.Thisholdstrueforthosewhosebodiesandmindsare,–andhavebeen–most

vulnerable.

Ultimately,MarthaVillaaffirms,“thedisplacedpopulationispermanentlyexternalto

thecity.”238“Whatishappeninghereisneverending,”accordingtoher.239Sheexplainsthat

thedisplacedhaveaverystrongsenseofnothavingaplaceinthecity.240Therefore,she

concludes,thereisaconstructionofa“non-place,”ofaplacethatdoesnotbelongtothem.241

Inthisregard,places,sitesofviolence,constitutenon-places.Non-Places,accordingtoMarc

Augéareplacesthatare“listed,classified,promotedtothestatusof‘placesofmemory.’”

242AccordingtoAugé,“certainplacesexistonlythroughthewordsthatevokethem,andin

thissensetheyarenon-places,orrather,imaginaryplaces.”Theyarewhatweperceive,but

onlyinapartialandincoherentmanner.Inthosenon-places,“peoplearealwaysandneverat

home.”243Itseemstobeaplaceinwhichidentityisconfinedandnotconfinedatthesame

time.InrelationtoMedellin,thoseidentitiesofthedisplacedareconfinedbyaterritorial

stigmathatmarksplacesandpeoplelivinginthoseplaces.Yet,itisnotconfined,asthe

identityoftheplaceandtheindividualsthatinhabititisdetachedfromtheirstory.Their

imageisdisconnectedfromthereasonwhytheycametobedisplacedduetotheordinariness

ofthecontinuityofdisplacementintime.

238“Lapoblaciondesplazadacomopermanentementeexternaalaciudad.”InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016.239“Aquiconteceloquenuncatermina.”InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016.240“Sensaciónmuyfertequenotienenunlugar.”InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016.241“Escomodeunaciudadquenolespartenece.”InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016.242Augé,Non-Places,78.243Augé,Non-Places,109.

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Toconclude,spaceassociallyproducedregistersdifferentimaginariesandmemories

ofviolence,conflictandpeace.This,inreturn,re-configuresthesocialrelationships,identities

andthebroaderdynamicsofdisplacementwithinthecity.Theimpossibilityofreturningto

placesthroughtheimaginaryofviolencesustainsserialdisplacementinthecity.Territorial

stigmaisassignedtothedisplacedpopulationinthecity,whichleadstodiscrimination,both,

externalandinternalized.Finally,thoseimagesaretransmittedthroughmemoriesover

severaldecades.

b.TransmissionofMemoriesofViolence:TheImaginaryofNon-Peace.

MarthaNubiaBelloarguesthatthecharacteroftheColombianinternalconflictcanbe

explainedasasituationthatforgesextremetraumatization,whichinformsprocessesof

memory.244Memoriesofviolenceareusuallyperceivedastraumaticbecausetheycausea

violentdisintegrationofeverydaylife.Thememoryoftraumaticeventsissaidtobeabrupt,

disruptiveofthenormalityoflifeandofpeacefulcoexistence.Yet,inrelationtotheparticular

trajectoryofdisplacedpersonsinMedellinthosememoriesdescribecontinuity,ratherthan

rupture.245AsKimberlyTheidonpointsout,thebodyisasiteofmemory.246Bodiesas

containerscarryanimaginaryofviolence,peaceandjustice.Moreover,thetransmissionof

memoriesofviolenceisatransgenerationalphenomenon.Transgenerationalcorrespondsto

thetransmissionoverseveralgenerationsthroughpublicspacesorspacessuchasthefamily.

ItdescribesthewayinMarianneHirsch’swords,howmemoriesrecalla“senseofliving

244MarthaNubiaBello,“LasDimensionesPsicosocialesdelaMemoria,”WorkingPaper,CentroNacionaldelaMemoriaHistorica,May2016,1.245AsshownintheinterviewsthatIhaveconductedbutalsoinacademicliterature.See:AdrianaGonzálezGil,Lugares,procesosymigrantes:aspectosdelamigracióncolombiana(PeterLang,2009),13.246KimberlyTheidon,“TheMilkofSorrow:ATheoryontheViolenceofMemory,”CanadianWomanStudies27,no.1(May1,2009):8,http://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/23135.

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connection”withtheexperiencesofformergenerations.247Thisphenomenoncorrespondsto

acollectivetendencyemanatingfromwithinColombiansociety.Assuch,theyhavetobe

explainednotasanindividualpsychologicalaberration,butasaproductofspecificstructural

socialconditions.Therefore,thoseinheritedmemoriesrefertohistoricalinjuriesthatextend

beyondthelimitedtemporalityofthetransitionaljusticelawsinColombia.Thosememories

arearticulatedasandassociatedwithfear,indifference,depoliticizationandalterationsinthe

perceivedidentityconstitution.248Hence,transgenerationalmemoriesofviolencerefertothe

underlyingdynamicsofslowviolence,atermcoinedbyRobNixondenotingviolencethatis

incrementalandaccretive,“playingoutacrossarangeoftemporalscales.”249Accordingly,a

commonpatternthataroseinthestoriesoftheintervieweesinMedellinspeakstothe

difficultyofimaginingpeace.

In“NothingEverDies”theAmerican-VietnamesewriterVietThanNguyen

contemplatesonhisownexperienceoftheaftermathofwarthathehimselfhasnot

experiencedbutwhichhasleftitsscarsonhismemory.250Helinksmemorytomigrationby

claiming,“second-memory[is]partofrefugeebaggage.”251Thosememoriescontinuetheir

existenceinthenarratives,representationsandimaginaryofeverydaylife.252

Aspreviouslyshown,thepatternsofmarginalizationandthestigmatizedimageofthe

displacedpopulationswithinthecityarenotonlyimaginedinthepresent.But,rather,those

imagesderivefromtheinheritedmemoriesofviolence.Thosememoriesrelatetotheplaces247MarianneHirsch,“TheGenerationofPostmemory,”104.248“Yonacieenunpaisequivocado.”InterviewwithMaria,July15,2016,Medellin.249Nixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor,2.250VietThanhNguyen,NothingEverDies :VietnamandtheMemoryofWar(Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,2016),1.251Ibid.,11.252AstridErll,“TravellingMemory,”Parallax17,no.4(November1,2011):13.

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thatcametoconstitutetheimageofthosewholivedthere.PilarRiañoarguesinthecontextof

Medellin,thattheimaginationofspacesiscloselyboundtomemoryandthe(transmissionof)

memoriesofviolenceandresistanceinaparticularterritory.253Similarly,SeethaLownotes

thatthesocialconstructionofspacerevealsthecreationofspacethroughmemories.254Those

memoriesofplacesandthedisplacedpersons’narrativesarecarriedonfromthepast:they

aretransmittedacrossseveralgenerationsthatexperiencedthecontinuityofdisplacement.

Researchbyscholarsinthehumanrightsandpeacebuildingfieldshasshownthat

historicaltraumaispassedonthroughsuccessivegenerations.Theyarguethatthe

intergenerationaltransmissionofmemoryandtraumaholdsasignificantexplanationforthe

re-emergenceofviolence.255CathyCaruthclaimsthattraumaismarkedbyits“inescapability

ofitsbelatedimpact.”Similarly,MarianneHirschcoinedthenotionofpostmemory,which

“describestherelationshipofthesecondgenerationtopowerful,oftentraumatic,experiences

thatprecededtheirbirthsbutthatwereneverthelesstransmittedtothemsodeeplyasto

seemtoconstitutememoriesintheirownright.”256

Alsoreferringtotheintergenerationaltransmissionofhistoricaltraumaandmemory

throughstoriesandimaginary,PumlaGobodo-Madikizelaarguesthattheunspokenmemory

ofthepastcanbere-enactedinthepresent.257SheaccountsforaneventinMlungisi

TownshipinEasternCapeinSouthAfrica,where7to9-yearoldgirlsplayedthe“necklace-

game.”Theauthornotesthefactthatthosegirlswere“re-enacting”anactthatsomehow

mimickednecklacekillings–murderscommittedagainstthosewhoweresuspectedof253Riaño-Alcalá,“RememberingPlace,”283.254SethaM.Low,“SpatializingCulture:TheSocialProductionandSocialConstructionofPublicSpaceinCostaRica,”AmericanEthnologist23,no.4(1996):869.255Gobodo-MadikizelaPumla,BreakingIntergenerationalCyclesofRepetition:AGlobalDialogueonHistoricalTraumaandMemory(BarbaraBudrich,2016),1.256Hirsch,“TheGenerationofPostmemory,”103.257Pumla,BreakingIntergenerationalCyclesofRepetition,2.

60

collaboratingwiththeapartheidgovernmentsecurity258–thatoccurredbeforethetimethat

thegirlswereborn.259AccordingtoGobodo-Madikizela,thoseactsevidenceda“traumaof

communallife”thathasbeentransmittedintergenerationallyby“storiesorsilences,through

unarticulatedfearsandthepsychologicalscarsthatareoftenleftunacknowledged.”260Nicolas

PeddlearguesthatinthePalestiniancontext,traumaconsistsinanongoingeventsincethe

possibilityformourningislimited.261The“re-enactment”oftraumaacrossgenerationsgives

risetoarangeofcollectivebehaviors,includingviolence.262Thisre-enactmentoftraumatic

scenesisexplainedbyJudithLewisHermanas,“traumatizedpeoplerelivethemomentof

traumanotonlyintheirthoughtsanddreamsbutalsointheiractions.”263

IntheColombiancontext,Marthaexplainshowaresearchgroupfoundthatchildrenin

acommunityclosetoherhome,inGobodo-Madikizela´swords,“re-enacted”thecrimesthat

constitutethetypesofviolencesufferedduringconflict.Marthaexplains’

“They[theresearchteam]foundthatthesymptomsofviolencefromthiswarhadbecomeimprintedonthechildren’s’minds.Forinstance,thepencilistheweaponusedonanotherchildforintimidatingandplayingshootingandkillinggames,ortomimicthattheyarepersecuted.Howisthatinthemindsofchildren?Therearealsomanyproblemsinfamiliesthatwereunifiedbeforeandnowthefamilymembersareseparated.Theydonothavemuchconfidenceineachother."264Thisillustratesthesignificanceoftransgenerationallyinheritedmemoriesforidentity

constitutionandaction.

258Ibid.,1.259Ibid.,2.260Ibid.,3.261NicolasPeddle,“TraumaandPalestinianNakba,“(Masterdiss.,UniversityofExeter,2015)9.262Pumla,BreakingIntergenerationalCyclesofRepetition,3.263JudithLewisHerman,TraumaandRecovery(NewYork,N.Y.:BasicBooks,c1992),35.264„Seencuentranquelosniñossiguieronconmássintomasdeviolenciademuchascosasquevienencomunesdeesaguerraatras(Anmerkung:interesantequepiensaqueseraatras)oseaquehastasulapizessuarmaparadarleaotroparaintimidarlejuganadisparar,amartar,vamospensaraqueestamosperseguidos,oseacomoesesoenlasmentesdelosniños?Tambientienemuchasproblemasenlasfamiliasqueeranreunidasantes.Notienenmuchoconfianzaenelotro.“InterviewwithMartha,July22,2016,CarmendeViboral,Antioquia.

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VeenaDasexplains,“Griefisarticulatedthroughthebody,”andthe“representationof

sharedpainexistsinimagination.”265SimilarlyKimberlyTheidoncitestheexpressionofa

Peruvianwomanvictimofsexualviolencesaying“everythingpassedthroughmilk,myblood,

myworriestomydaughter.”Sheexplainsthatherdaughtersufferedfromalackof

concentrationandunrestbecauseofthemother’sexperienceoftheviolenceinflictedbythe

PeruvianguerillagroupSenderosandparamilitaryinthePeruvianconflict.Theidoncomesto

theconclusionthatthoseaccountsofviolenceindicatea“sufferingfromhistory.”266Those

accountsillustratehowintergenerationaltransmissionsofthosememoriesdenotehistorical

injurythroughtheexperiencesofdecade-longconflict.

VamikVolkanandJeffreyAlexanderalsopointtothetransgenerationaldimensionof

traumaasacollectivephenomenonsinceprocessesonthegrouplevelparalleltheindividual

level.Transgenerational“wounds”canforinstance,bepassedonthroughtheintimate

relationshipbetweenachildanditsmother.267Thisprocessiscoupledonacollectivelevel.

Thetransmissionofasharedtraumaticeventrelatestotheimpossibilityofmourning“losses

ofpeopleorland”forpreviousgenerations.268Moreover,Alexanderargues,“Imaginedevents,

however,canbeastraumatizingaseventsthathaveactuallyoccurred.”269Thebehaviorofan

individualreferstowhatisexperiencedinone’ssocialenvironmentthatisnotexplainedby

theactualeventstakingplace,butbythemannerinwhichtheyareperceived.270Their

accountreferstotwoaspectsthatarerelevantforthisstudy.First,itemphasizestheeffect

265Das,LifeandWords[ElectronicResource],69.266Theidon,“TheMilkofSorrow,”10.267VamikD.Volkan,“TransgenerationalTransmissionsandChosenTraumas:AnAspectofLarge-GroupIdentity,”GroupAnalysis34,no.1(March1,2001):85.268Ibid.,88.269JeffreyCAlexanderetal.,CulturalTraumaandCollectiveIdentity.(CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004),8.270CamiloNietoMatiz,“RacionalidadYFrustración:DosExplicacionesdeLaViolenciaPolítica,”PapelPolíticoEstudiantil3,no.2(2007):360.

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thatterritoriallossescanholddimensionsofthetransmission(s)ofmemories.Second,it

referstoatransmissionofa“chosenorimaginedtrauma”whichevokesthecollectiveimages

thatarepassedon,alteringanddefiningthevisionofthefuture.

TheworkingsofthosememoriescollectivelyplayoutintheColombiancontext.The

BastaYareportlistsintensefear,alterationsofdreams,apathy,rebellion,rageandfeelingsof

revengeaseffectsoftraumaticexperiencesofdisplacement.271Ariella,whohasbeen

displacedwithinthecityofMedellin,explainsthat,

“Colombiaisstronglymarkedbyfear.Fear,becausewesawthatmanyofourfriendsdiedintheWarintheyearsofourchildhood.Andourparentstoldusthattheirfriendswerealsokilled.Ibelievethat,here,manyfearswerecreated,manyimagesofviolence,thatyoungpeoplehold."272

Thisaccountrevealsthatthroughnarrativeandone’spersonalexperience,thetraumatic

memory,suchasthedeathofherparents’friends,whoseimageispassedonthrough

storytelling,generatesacollectivefeelingoffear.Fearisbasedoncollectiveimaginationand

historicalmemory.273Itisconfiguredbythelong-standinghistoricalnarrativepropagated

duringconflictandtheexperiencesoftheclosesocialenvironment.AccordingtoMaria,

“Iconstantlyfeelfear.IfIrideinacarI'mafraid.IdonotwanttotravelontheroadsinColombiaatnight.Idonotfeelwell.Itthink,itisliterallyfearofthememoriesofyourchildhood,becauseit'slikeyougrewupwithsomethingthatwasdangerous.Ialwayshavememories.Mydad,too.Thosearethingsthatremainandthatchangeyourbehaviorforfear.”274

271“¡BastaYa!Colombia,”264.272“Colombia,apartedelasuntodelaculpa,estámuymarcadaporelmiedo.Elmiedo,esonoshacemuycomplicadoporquelovimosmuchosdenuestrosamigitosmueronenlaGuerra,enlosañitosdenuestrainfancia.Ynuestrospapasnoscontaronquesusamigostambienfueronasasinados.Yocreoqueaquisecreaonmuchosmiedos,muchosimagenesdelaviolencia,delosjóvenes.”InterviewwithAriella,July9,2016,Medellin.273AlcaláandMartínez,Poniendotierradepormedio,388.274“Yotengosensaciondemiedo,simevoyenuncarrotengomiedo,noquieroviajarenlascarreterasenColombiaenlanoche,nomesientobienesliteramentemiedodelosrecuerdosdetuinfancia,porqueescomocrecisteconalgoqueerapeligroso,(…)siempretengorecuerdos.Mipapa,tambien,(…)soncosasquetequedanyquecambiantuconductapormiedo,”InterviewwithMaria,July15,2016,Medellin.

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Hence,thosememoriesseemtobeinter-generationalaccountsofrealandinherited

memoriesofviolence.

AccordingtoLewis-Herman,thetraumaticmomentembodiesan“abnormalformof

memory.”275BrandonHamberarguesthattraumaembodiesa“rupture,discontinuity,

disconnectionoftheverypossibilitiesofcommunicatingsubjectiveexperienceofmass

violence.276Similarly,ArthurNealstatesaneventtraumatizesacollectivebecauseitis“an

extraordinaryevent,”aneventthathassuch“anexplosivequality”thatitcreates“disruption”

and“radicalchangewithinashortperiodoftime.”277ThisisdifferentintheColombian

context.Thecausalitybetweenstructuralviolenceandapermanentsituationofuprooting

withoutofficialrecognitionsituatesmemoriesofviolencebeyonditsmerelypsychological

framework.

Moreover,thefocusofthedisplacedpersons’traumahascontributedtoabiased

imageofthedisplacedasdefeated,handicapped,sickandincapableofmakingdecisionsfor

whichshe/heneedsassistanceandprotection.278Humanrightsandtransitionaljustice

discourses,accordingtoDidierFassin,reducethecauseofmarginalizationtoasimple

understandingofcompassion.279Thisperspectivebasedonindividualtraumageneratesa

decouplingofthevictim’sexperiencefromitssociopoliticalcontextandstructuralviolations

overtime.280Bymakingvictimsrecitethetraumaofsuffering,psychologistsandpsychiatrists

275Herman,TraumaandRecovery,37.276BrandonHamber,TransformingSocietiesafterPoliticalViolence:Truth,Reconciliation,andMentalHealth,(NewYork:Springer,2009),75.277ArthurG.Neal,NationalTraumaandCollectiveMemory :MajorEventsintheAmericanCentury(Armonk,N.Y.:M.E.Sharpe,1998),9–10.278ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,48.Seealso,AtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004.”279DidierFassin,TheEmpireofTrauma :AnInquiryintotheConditionofVictimhood(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,c2009),211.280RobertMeister,AfterEvil :APoliticsofHumanRights(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2011),1.

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asktheirclientstomaketheirstoryheardinaparticularway281thatmightforecloseother

(morepolitical)waysofunderstandingthedynamicsofinflictedviolenceandtheroleofthe

victimitself.

AccordingtotwopsychologistsoftheRegistroUnicodelasVictimas,itisverydifficult

tospeakabouttraumaintheColombiancontext.Theysay,“Wearespeakingaboutanormal

reactiontoadecade-longveryabnormalsituation,whichisthearmedconflict.”282Theyadd,

“Traumaoftenisrelatedtoanaccident,aruptureinnormallife,buttheongoingconflictis

concretelyintentionalandsystemic.”Inthiscontext,ofsociopoliticalviolence,thepsychic

damageconsistsinthematerializationofaconsciousandplannedviolence.283Accordingto

CarlaandMaria,wemustspeakofdamagethatisalmostirreparablebecauseitconsistsin

historicalinjuriesderivingfromvariousdecadesofdisplacements.Theyadd,“Thatiswhywe

aretalkingaboutstructuralinjuriesacrossseveralgenerations.”284

Particularly,theroleandmanagementoftraumainpost-conflictsocietiesreceived

increasedpopularityaspartofthetransitionaljusticetoolkit.285AccordingtoKimberly

Theidon,“Theconceptoftraumaticmemoryhasbecometheprimaryframeworkfordealing

withthesufferingofwar.”286However,asarticulatedbyCarlaandMaria,thereexistsa

“disjunctionbetweenredressivepoliticalaimsandtherealitiesofsuffering.”287Thistrauma

turnholdscomplicatedassumptionsinrelationtothecrimeofdisplacement.Itfrequently281Fassin,TheEmpireofTrauma,211.282InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopezattheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.283SusanaDelgado,“APropositodelopsicosocialyeldesplazamiento,”196,accessedJanuary19,2017,http://www.academia.edu/9045659/A_PROPOSITO_DE_LO_PSICOSOCIAL_Y_EL_DESPLAZAMIENTO.284InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopez(encodednames)attheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.285See,PriscillaB.Hayner,UnspeakableTruths :ConfrontingStateTerrorandAtrocity(NewYork:Routledge,2001);GabrieleSchwab,HauntingLegacies :ViolentHistoriesandTransgenerationalTrauma(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,c2010).286Theidon,“TheMilkofSorrow,”8.287MagdalenaZolkos,"Redressivepoliticsandthenexusoftrauma,transitionaljusticeandreconciliation,”inTransitionalJusticeTheoriesed.SusanneBuckley-Zisteletal.,(Routledge,2013),.

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suggeststhattherecouldbeanendandabeginningposedtothe(collective)damage

experienced.288Theassumptionofthoseaccountsoftenstate“howfuturegenerationswill

seethefuturetobelinkedtowhethertheyhavebeenfreedfromthe‘stranglehold’ofthe

past,”289allwhileworkingforpoliticalredemption.290Thoseassumptionsoverlookthat

violencedoesnotemergeanddisappearinaserialorderoftime.Foregroundingonesetof

harmsminimizesexperiencesofsufferingfromlongstandinginequality,marginalizationand

deprivation.291Itdenotesa“colonizationofmodesofthinking”about“theacuteandongoing

experiencesofviolence,”sinceitaddressestheparticularinjuriesofindividualsasopposedto

itssystemicunderpinnings.292

AsstatedforbydisplacedpersonsinMedellin,displacementisnotatransitioning

condition.293Itisacontinuityrevealed“inthewaysinwhichdifferenceandinequalityarestill

woventogetherintoalongueduréethatliebeyondthetheoreticalcontoursandthetechnical

mandates”oftransitionaljusticelawsinColombia.294Forinstance,DanielPécautexplainsthat

displacementisarepresentationinstalledinlong-durationinwhichviolenceexposesthe

constitutivecharacteristicofthiscollectiverepresentation.295Narrativesoffearandviolence

intheexperiencesofexpulsion,transit,re-displacementandarrivalaspreviouslymentioned

demonstratethatthereexistsacontinuitythatmarkstheexperienceofmigrationtoand

288MagdalenaZolkos,"Redressivepoliticsandthenexusoftrauma,transitionaljusticeandreconciliation,"164.289Hamper,“DealingwithPainfulMemoriesandViolentPasts:TowardsaFrameworkforContextualUnderstanding,”7.290AlcaláandBaines,“EditorialNote,”388.291Miller,“(Re)DistributingTransition,”372.292ZoëHamiltonWool,AfterWar :TheWeightofLifeatWalterReed(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2015),134.293InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopezattheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.294Castillejo-Cuellar,“OntheQuestionofHistoricalInjuries,”49.295DanielPécaut,“Laperdidadelosderechosdelsignificadodelaexperienciaydelainserciónsocial.“EstudiosPoliticos12,Medellin(1999):15.

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withincities.296Similarly,theBastaYareportmentions“displacementisnotaneventthat

beginsorendswithforceddepartureorflight,itisalongprocessthatregistersaconstant

exposuretoformsofviolencesuchasthreats,intimidation,armedconfrontations,massacres

andotherformsofviolence.”297Inshort,displacedpersonsarenormalpersonsinconditions

ofabnormality.298

AsamemberofMOVICEpointsout,“OneconceptualproblemisthattheStateis

alreadyfocusedontheclosureoftheconflict,onthepost-conflictscenario,sothattheofficial

narrativeoftheconflictobscuresthepersistenceofinternalandintra-urbandisplacement.”299

Italsooverlookstheintergenerationalmemoriesthatnormallywouldillustratethishistorical

continuity.Whenaskedaboutdisplacement,Eva,responds,“whydoyouask?Ithasalways

beenlikethis.Mymomtoldmethatithasalwaysbeenlikethis.”300Thispermanent

experiencerevealsthelackofplace.Memoriesoftraumaticeventsevokeasituationin

limbo.301Thequestion”wheretolive,”connotesacentralconcernofdisplacedpopulations.

AccordingtoAna,“Wealwaysfeltthatwearewanderers.”302Beingaskedwhatthe

displacementprovokedinher,Marthaargues,

”Wehavelivedthroughverytoughsituationsinthearea.Littleconfidence[inothers]hasbeenachieved.Inthecommunitiesalotoffearstillexists.Itexistsforthedisappearancesoftheirlovedonesandthe20yearsofstruggle.Inthosefamiliesthathaveexperiencedmanythreatsandassassinations,thereisalotofpain,–painthathasneverbeenalleviated.Itisapainthat

296AlcaláandMartínez,Poniendotierradepormedio,384.297“¡BastaYa!Colombia,”296.298OsorioPerez,Territorialidadesensuspensodesplazamientoforzado,identidadesyresistencias,29.299InterviewwithMarina,MOVICE,July17,2016,Medellin.300InterviewwithEva,July10,2016,Medellin.301Bello,DesplazamientoForzado,189.302InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.

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makesthemnotwanttoknow[aboutthedevelopmentoftheColombianconflict].Theydonotwanttofightbecauseithurtsthem.“303

Martha´saccountevokesdepoliticizationbecausethepeopleMarthareferstorefusetoseek

informationinordertoclaimtheirrightsbeforetheState.Memoriesareconstructionsthat

furnishrealities.304Theyconstructthefuture.305Thememoriesofviolencechangeovertime

fromfeartoindifferenceaccordingtoAna.Sheexplainsthatthememoriesofviolenceinthe

firstgenerationsoftheconflictdevelopedintoadeepfeelingofindifference306andtrauma,–

“thetraumaofhavingseenwhathappenedtootherswhentheyclaimedtheirrights.“307Carla

andMariafromtheRegistroUnicodeVictimassimilarlynotedtheseparadoxes.Theyexclaim,

“WeasColombians,wesurvivedbecausewewereabletoignore.Ourmentalhealthhasbeen

protectedbecausewerefusedtorecognizetheinternalconflict.”308Accordingtothem,“The

effectofthreegenerationsnotlivinginpeaceresultsindifficultytotrust,-totrustyour

neighbors,theState,theinstitutions–sometimesevenyourfamilymembers.”Thus,thetrans-

generationaltransmissionofmemoriesofongoingcollectivehistoricalinjuriespointstothe

difficultiesofimaginingpeacetimeandofbuildingcivictrust.

303“Sonsituacionesmuydurasquehemosvividoenlazona,entoncessehalogradopocolaconfianza(..)miedotodavia,enlascomunidadestienemuchomiedotodavia,todaviaexiste,unasporladesaparicionesdesusseresqueridos,yalos20anosdelucha,loquepasatambienconotrosfamilialesquehantenidomuchasamenazasyassasinatos,enesasfamiliashaymuchosdolorescontsitutivos,doloresquenuncasehansacado,undolorquenoquieresaber,quenoquiereestaralli,esundolorquehacequenoquierensaber,quenoquierenlucharporquelosduele.“InterviewwithMartha,July22,2016,CarmendeViboral,Antioquia.304Barkan,“HistoricalReconciliation,"8.305ElizabethJelin,“Memoriaydemocracia.Unarelaciónincierta,”Política.RevistadeCienciaPolítica51,no.2(December31,2013):228.306Anaactuallyreallysays“indiferencia“whichmeansindifference.Yet,intermsofactualclaimsofrightsthis(political)behaviourmighttranslateaspoliticalpassivityorinertiaofsomesort,orevenalossofresilience.307“Eltraumadehabervistoloquepasóalosotroscuandoreclaman.”elmiedomarcalaeducacióndelageneraciónquésigueindiferenteporeseprimerproceso.”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.308“Nosotros,comocolombianos,sobrevivimosporquepudimosignorar.Nuestrasaludmentalhasidoprotegidaporquenosnegamosareconocerelconflictointerno.”InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopezattheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.

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Narrativesinformidentities.AccordingtoYaseminYildizandMichaelRothberg,those

narrativesfunctionasaprojectionofafuturetrajectory.309Assuchtheycanconstructthe

visionofpeacebasedonthestoriesofthepresentandpast.Carlanotes,“Iwasborninthe

midstofinternalconflict.Ineverhaveknownacountryinpeacetime.Itmeansthatweareall

affected[bythisvision].”310Similarly,Ariellanotes,“Mostoftheyoungpeople,thathaveseen

theirfriendsbeingmurderedordisappeared,forgothowtobelieveinpeace.”Sheadds,“Ithas

beentoolong.”Rodrigoarticulatesasimilarfeeling,“havingexperiencedmorethanhalfofa

centuryofviolencealotofusColombianshavenotknownwhatpeacelookslike.”311

Concretely,thedifficultyofimagininganyconditionbeyonddisplacementandconflictushers

inthetendencytodepoliticizeforsomeoftheinterviewees.Evaaffirms,”Throughthose

displacementsmanypeoplehavealreadychangedtheirwayofbeing.Forexample,manydo

notwanttotalkaboutpolitics,ortradeunionism,oranything.Theyaredepoliticized.”312

Consequently,theinheritedmemoriesoffearandviolenceexposenorupturebutcontinuity.

TheyinformhowvictimsofdisplacementinMedellincanandwanttoclaimtheirrightsandto

whatextenttheywillhaveaccesstoreparations.

InRobNixon’saccountonslowviolenceshereferstoFaulkner’sdictum“thepastis

neverdead.Itisnotevenpast,”313resonatingthepermeabilityoftimeandtheongoinglifeof

historicalinjuriesthatcomplicateanyassumptionsoflineartransitionsfromconflicttopeace.

309RothbergandYildiz,“MemoryCitizenship,”202.310“Nacíenmediodeunconflictointerno.Nuncaheconocidounpaísenpaz.Significaquetodosestamosafectados.”InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezattheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.311“Habiendovividomásdelamitaddeunsiglodeviolenciamuchosdenosotrosloscolombianosnohemossabidoloqueparecelapaz.”InterviewwithRodrigo,ColectivodeAbogadosCarlosRestrepo(Cajar),July5,2016,Bogotá.312“Esosdeszplazamientos,sípiensoquesí.Muchagenteyacambiósuformadeser.Porejemplomuchosnodesean,noquierenhablardelapolitica,nidelsindicalismo,nidenada.Sedespolitizaron.“InterviewwithEva,July10,2016,Medellin.313Nixon,SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor,8.

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Hirschdescribespostmemoryasaperceivedmemoryofpasttraumaticexperiences.The

belatednessofmemoryinHirsch’stermsrefersto“anuneasyoscillationbetweencontinuity

andrupture.”314Thismightbeamorefittinganalysisofthetransgenerationalworkingsin

relationtodisplacementinMedellin.Ratherthandisruptivepastevents,thoseinherited

narrativesandimaginariesofviolenceliveonsimultaneouslythroughboth,conflictand

peacetime.Theinscriptionofthosememoriescannotbeundone,simplybysigningpeace

accords.TeresaKolomaBeckspeakstothefactthatinheritedmemoriesareintegratedin

everydaypracticesthatconstantlyre-negotiatepeaceandjustice.315Accordingtoher,

“Dealingwiththepastasanincorporatedrealitymeanstofacilitatethetransformationof

thesebodymemories.“316Then,todealwiththepastthatisneverreallypastistocarvea

nicheforimaginingpeaceasapossibilitythatexistssimultaneouslywithdiverseand

continuousimaginariesofviolence.

Inconclusion,collectiveintergenerationaltransmissionofmemoriesofviolence,

constitutingidentitiesinrelationtodisplacement,existsinMedellin.Yet,ratherthanbeing

disruptive,thoseinheritedmemoriesconstituteandexplainthecontinuityoftheexperience

ofviolence.Theeffectsofthismemorytransmissionthatconnotesplacesofviolenceand

territorialstigmapointtothelimitsofcitizenshipfordisplacedpersonswithinthecity.

314Hirsch,“TheGenerationofPostmemory,”106.315TeresaKolomaBeck,“ForgettingtheEmbodiedPast.BodyMemoryinTransitionalJustice,”October4,2013,197.316Ibid.

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c.LimitedCitizenship:DynamicsofNon-Belonging.

AccordingtoamemberoftheColectivodeAbogados“JoséAlvearRestrepo”–CAJAR,

difficultiesofimaginingpeaceanddevelopingcivictrustareinherentlyrelatedtotheabsence

ofeffectiverightsandtheconditionofcitizenshipinColombia.317Thedifficultyofclaiming

thoserightsparticularlyholdstrueforpersonsaffectedbyintra-urbandisplacement.318

Transmittedmemoriesarecentralorganizingprinciplesofnationalidentityand

citizenship.319AccordingtoGloriaNaranjo,theColombiancitiesincorporatevariousformsof

violenceandparticularlyheavyproblemswiththeconstructionofcitizenship.320

Inherwork“theOriginsofTotalitarianism,”HannahArendtdescribestheconditions

ofmoderncitizenship.Shereferstotheconditionofthedisplacedpersonsandstatelessas

“absolutelawlessness.”Theyareoutsideofthelaw.321Theinventionoftheterm“displaced

persons”accordingtoArendtwas“liquidatingstatelessnessonceandforallbyignoringits

existence.”322Theincreasedcodificationofinternationallawinthe20thcenturywouldnot

changethesituationofrightlessnessofthestatelesspopulation.Arendtreferstotheir

conditionasbeingwithoutterritoryandwithoutState.Denationalizationexposedthevery

originofthedisenfranchisementofthe“scumoftheearth.”323Withtheriseofthenation-state

inWest-Europe,theRightsofMan,humanrights,becameirrevocablyboundtocitizenship.324

Theyweredeclaredtobeinalienable,irreducibleandundeducible.325However,thestriking

317InterviewwithRodrigo,ColectivodeAbogadosCarlosRestrepo(Cajar),July5,2016,Bogota.318See,AtehortúaArredondo,“CaracterizacióndelDesplazamientoForzadoIntraurbano,Medellín2000-2004;”InstitutoPopulardeCapaticación,“DesplazamientointraurbanoenMedellín:CíclicoeInvisible.“319BjörkdahlandBuckley-Zistel,SpatializingPeaceandConflict:RethinkingPeaceandConflictStudies,18.320Naranjo,“CiudadesYDesplazamientoForzadoEnColombia,”284.321Arendt,TheOriginsofTotalitarianism,269.322Ibid.,279.323Ibid.,269.324Ibid.,372.325Ibid.,291.

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paradoxofthisdevelopmentmeantthatrightswouldrefertoanabstracthumanbeingthat

didexistnowhere.Consequently,rightswerenotconcreteenoughinordertoprotectthe

mostvulnerablebeingsofsociety.Asinliberalthought,thesovereigntyofthehumanbeing

wasincorporatedinthesovereigntyoftheNationandinitsmultipleimplicationsforthe

codificationofrights.326

Theseconditionsledtothreeconsequences.First,itengenderedthelossofthe

stateless’homes.Thelossofthelivingspaceimpliesthedomesticenvironment,the

geography,habits,placesandmemorieslinkedtotheirhomes.327Thesituationofthestateless

consistsin“thedeprivationofaplaceintheworld”328sincetheylosttheirplaceonearth

wheretheycouldbeginanewlife.Second,theylosttheprotectionoftheirnation-states,

throughtheirlossoflegalcitizenship.Thisledtotheimpossibilityofobtainingprotection

throughotherstatesandtheabsenceofofficialrecognition(ashumanbeings).Third,the

statelesswerebeyondlaw,inanexclusionaryrealmwithoutanyrights.Concluding,the

statelessarenotonlydeprivedoftheirmembershipinArendt´spoliticalcommunity,having

withdrawntheirrighttorights.Thelossoftheirrightsleadstotheexpulsionoftheir

humanity.329ForArendt,theessentialfoundationofthehumanconditionisdignity.330Assuch

statelessnessmeansthreefundamentallosses:thelossofhome,thelossofprotectionbythe

State,andthebeingbeyondoroutsideofthelaw.Withtheuprooting,memoriesandthe

feelingsofsocialexistenceinaparticularlocalcontextdisappear.

326Gil,Lugares,procesosymigrantes,18.327AytenGündogdu,RightlessnessinanAgeofRights :HannahArendtandtheContemporaryStrugglesofMigrants(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2015),127.328Arendt,TheOriginsofTotalitarianism,297.329Ibid.,298.330Ibid.,299.

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AccordingtoAdrianaGil,statelessnessisaliminalcaseofforceddisplacement.331

Consideringdisplacementinthoseterms,itgeneratestheexpulsionfromthehuman

communitythroughthepracticalimpossibilitytofind“anotherplaceonearth,”–throughthe

continuousfeelingofnon-belonging.

First,returningtoWacquant,thespacesofmarginalityarecontainersandmarkersof

non-belonginganddistancing.”332Referringtothefragileplacesofarrivalandconstant

displacementwithinthecity,EvaandCarlosdesignateasthemostarduousconsequenceof

intra-urbanandinternaldisplacementtheexperienceofalwaysarrivingasunknownand

remainingunknown.333Ariellaaffirmsthat,thepermanentlossofaplaceisverydifficult.She

adds,“Ineverfeltasenseofbelonginganywhere.”

AccordingtoMelissaParker,attachedtoemotionalaspectsofdisplacementareoftena

senseofestrangement,alienation,depersonalizationandsometimesafeelingofnon-

belonging.334Aspreviouslymentioned,intra-urbandisplacementoftencausesfamily

disintegrationthatstressesthefeelingofhavingno-placeinthecity.335Nadiapointedoutthat

shelostherfriendshipsthroughintra-urbandisplacement.Shealsoexplainedthatsheended

upalonebecause“wedidnotfitinanyplace.”Theinhabitantsofhernewneighborhood

rejectedherasanewarrival.Inthiscontext,belongingcanbeanactofself-identificationor

identificationbyothers.336Nadia,whoexperiencedseveralintra-urbandisplacements,

explains,“Itisverydifficulttoidentifywitharegionwherenobodyknowsoneself.One

arrivesasastranger.”Sheadds,“Often,monthsafterthearrival,oneremainsastranger.Until331Gil,Lugares,procesosymigrantes,20.332Wacquant,“TheRiseofAdvancedMarginality,”134.333InterviewwithEva,July10,2016,Medellin;InterviewwithCarlos,July17,2016,Medellin.334MelissaParker.DavidParkin,“MementoesasTransitionalObjectsinHumanDisplacement,”JournalofMaterialCulture4,no.3(November1,1999):303.335OsorioPerez,Territorialidadesensuspensodesplazamientoforzado,identidadesyresistencias,29.336NiraYuval-Davis,“BelongingandthePoliticsofBelonging,”PatternsofPrejudice40,no.3(July2006):199.

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todayIhavenofriendshipsthere[inhernewneighborhood].”Thisaccountillustrateshow

oneperceivesoneselfasexternaltothecity.Yet,Nadia’sobservationalsoshowshowoneis

perceivedbyothersasstranger,whichmayimpedetheprocessofbuildinglastingsocial

relationships.

Moreover,theexpulsionfromaplaceinthecitythathasbeencalledhomeforseveral

yearsresultsinastrongfeelingofinsecurity.Belongingisaboutemotionalattachment,about

feeling“athome”andaboutfeeling“safe.”337Nadiaexplains,“Nooneissafeinanyplace(...)

Aftervictimizationsuchasforceddisappearanceorforceddisplacement,oneisnotsecure

anywhere.”338Sheconcludes,“Thereisnoplace.”

ElizabethColsonarguesthatforciblydisplacedpersonsfrequentlyfearnewcyclesof

displacementevenseveralyearsaftertheirfirstdisplacement.339Shecoinsthisasemotional

stateof“permanentreadiness,”whichrelatestoaconstantfeelingofnon-belonging.Carla

andMariapointoutthatdisplacedpersonsoftennote,“Ifmymomhasbeendisplaced,Iknow

thatIalwayscanbedisplacedaswell.”340Hence,displacementoftenconveysthefeelingof

constantrisk.341Katja,whohasbeendisplacedfromtheneighborhoodofBuenosAirestoLa

Loma,explainsthatshealreadyexpectsbeingdisplacedagain.Shefeelsbeinginaconstant

stateofmovement.342Hence,thepermanentsensationthatdisplacementcanalwaysreturnis

experiencedasacontinuousfamilystory.

337Yuval-Davis,“BelongingandthePoliticsofBelonging,”197.338“Ningunoestaseguroporningunlado”(…)unodespuesdeunhechovictimizantecomoladesapparicionforzadaoladesaparicionforzadanoseencuentraseguroenningunlugar,”InterviewwithNadia,July16,2016,Medellin.339ElizabethColson.DavidParkin,“MementoesasTransitionalObjectsinHumanDisplacement,”303.340“Simimamafuedesplazada,yoséquesiemprepodiaserdesplazada.”InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopezattheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.341DavidParkin,“MementoesasTransitionalObjectsinHumanDisplacement,”303.342InterviewwithKatja,July11,2016,Medellin.

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TheconflictinColombiaisawarforthenationalconstructionoftheState.343However,

contrarytotheobservationsbyArendt,Colombiaischaracterizedbyanabsenceor,rather,

fragmentationofstatesovereignty.Itisa“sovereigntyinpermanentdispute”forwhichthe

rightsofvulnerablesegmentsofsocietyarerelegatedtothemargins,tovirtuality.344Onone

hand,theStatemighthavetogiveupitsauthoritytoinformalhegemonicgroupsinparticular

territoriesinthecity.Ontheotherhand,theStateiscomplicitinthemaintenanceofthe

authorityofthosealternativegroupsincertainareasbyactingincollaborationwith

paramilitaryormilitias.345InColombia,thedisplacedarenotstatelessdejureinthemanner

thatmightapplytothosethathadtofleetheirnationandcrossborders,resultinginarealm

ofrightlessnessthroughtheirstatusasnon-citizens.However,theycanbeconsideredasde

factostateless.Theuprootingoftheirhomesisperpetratedbyalternativesovereigntiesto

whichthedisplacedneedtoobeyinordertosavetheirlives.Asaresult,thereisnoeffective

protectionbytheStateforthedisplaced.

AccordingtoMargarethSomers,citizenshipismoreprofoundthanjustholdingalegal

statusinanation.Itgoesbacktotheveryrighttohaverights.346InMedellin,particularlythe

displacedpopulationintheurbanrealmcanhardlyclaimsubstantialrightswithoutformally

beingbeyondthelaw.Theyholdformalrights.Thisrelates,first,totheabsenceofeffective

rightsandadequateinstitutionalstructurestoclaimthem.Andsecond,thisoriginatesfrom

343AngaritaCañasandINER(Organization),BalancedeLosEstudiosSobreViolenciaEnAntioquia,58.344MaríaTeresaUribedeHincapié,“Lassoberaníasenviloenuncontextodeguerraypaz,”EstudiosPolíticos0,no.13(December15,1998):23.345AcooperationbetweenparamilitaryandtheStateoccurredthroughinterventionsintheComuna13InMedellin,calledOperaciónOrión,OperaciónMariscalandOperaciónEstrella.See,ComisiónNacionaldeReparaciónyReconciliación(Colombia)ÁreadeMemoriaHistórica,Lahuellainvisibledelaguerra,89.346MargaretR.Somers,GenealogiesofCitizenship :Markets,Statelessness,andtheRighttoHaveRights(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2008),10.

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thefeelingoffear,aspreviouslyexplained,containedintrans-generationalmemoriesof

violence,347thatleadtoself-censorship.

Mostofthevictimsofforceddisplacementthatwereintervieweddidnotknowabout

theirrights.Theyrecalledthatonlyasignificanttimelater,theyrealizedthattheir

displacementcouldbeacrimeandcouldberepairedaswell.Moreover,legalstructuresofthe

aforementionedtransitionaljusticeframeworkalsohinderedtherecognitionofthoserights.

Katjaonlydenouncedtheforceddisappearancesofhersonfiveyearslater,sincehis

disappearancehadbeenunderstoodasordinarycrime.Sheadds,“Butwelivedinthis

Comunaforalongtimeandweknowthattheywerethesameparamilitariesasalways.”Katja

hadtomoveawayfromthiszoneasshefearedthatthesamewouldhappentoherother

children.Yet,theinstitutionsinchargedeniedtheregistrationasavictimforintra-urban

displacementsincetheoriginalreasonforitwasnotconsideredacrimeinrelationtothe

internalColombianconflict.Furthermore,theinstitutionalstructureforregisteringasavictim

iscomplicatedforthoseinamarginalizedsituation,particularlyduetothecrimeexperienced.

Inrelationtotherighttoholdrights,Katjaexplains,“Youhavetofightalot,youhavetogetup

earlyat3inthemorning,loseallday,manytimesuntil3or4intheafternoon,travelforthe

paperssothattheyincludethem.Thecompensationtheygivemakesamockeryofour

situation(...)muchhasnotbeendoneforthevictims.”348Marthatriedtoregisterherinternal

displacementfromtheruralzoneinAntioquiatoMedellinbuthasbeenrejectedbecauseshe

wasregisteredasacitizeninMedellin.Thismeantthatshewasnotrecognizedasbeing

347AlcaláandMartínez,Poniendotierradepormedio,384.348“Hayquelucharmucho,hayquemadrugaralas3delamanana,perdertodoeldia,muchasveceshastalas3o4delatarde,viajabaparalospapelesparaqueelloslosincluianylaindemnizacionqueldanauno,escomounaburla(…)nosehacemuchoparalasvictimas,”InterviewwithKatja,July11,2016,Medellin.

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displacedfromtheruralareatothetown.Marthaaffirms,“Theseareintimidatingstrategies

thatmostlyaffectthepeasants.”

InrelationtothefragmentationoftheState’sauthorityincertainregionsinthecity,

ArtehortuarecountsthattheColombianstateisalwayspresentviabureaucratic

institutions.349Fromthesebureaucraticinstitutionsderivestheimageofthedisplacedasfirst

classcitizen.350Formally,s/heiseligibletoenjoyawiderangeofrightsthatshouldserve

his/herprotection.Yet,althoughthevictimformallyholdsmorerightsthananyothercitizen,

s/hesubstantiallyholdslessthananyothercitizen.S/hehasrightsformally,yetdoesnot

experiencethoserightsinreality.AmemberoftheRegistroUnicodeVictimasrevealsthat

thereisnofollow-upfortheconditionsforthedisplacedpopulations.Sometimestheyare

waitingover8yearsforcompensation.AsinArendt’saccount,despitethecodificationofthe

rightsofthedisplacedandtheworkingsofbureaucraticinstitutionsthatshouldassureone´s

rights,thelatteristooabstracttoprotectinconcretestatesofvulnerability.

Rightsarenotonlyneglectedduetothelackofeffectiveness,butalsothroughthe

aforementionedtemporallimitednessoftheirapplication.Thisderivespreciselyfromthefact

thattheState,throughtheimplementedlegalframework,conceivesintra-urbandisplacement

asatransition,whichcontradictstheaforementionedeffectsofterritorialstigmaandthe

lastingtransmissionofmemoriesofviolence.Forinstance,Carla,74yearsold,narratesthat

herdisplacementfromUrabatoMedellinhasnotbeenrecognizedbecauseithappenedin

1982,whichwasbeforetheperiodoftimeinthescopeoftheVictimLaw.

349“Esunabureaucraciapoliticayjuridical.”InterviewwithClaraArtehortuaArrendondo,July12,2016,Medellin.350InterviewwithHernandoMuñoz,DepartamientodeHumanidades,UniversidaddeAntioquia,July28,2016,Medellin.

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Ultimately,thespatialimaginaryofviolenceattachedtocertaincategoriesofcitizens,

suchasthedisplaced,resultinauto-censorshipThisdoesnotonlymarkidentitiesbutthe

verypossibilitytoexertcitizenship.Aspreviouslymentioned,thespatialimaginaryof

violencedesignatedthedisplacedas“beggarthatbringsviolencetothecity”.Thisimaginary

derivesfromthememoriestransmittedoverseveralgenerations.Inthisdiscourse,fearasan

emotionalregimecontrolsabodyofsocialresponsesabout"whoispartofthenation",the

"we",andwhoisexcluded.351Regardingthedynamicsofdisplacement,Anaexplainsthat,

“Therewasnodirectthreat,butthecircumstancesforcedus.”352However,sheimmediately

admits,“Whenyougoaskmymomorgrandmotheriftheyweredisplaced,theywillsay‘we

arenotdisplaced’butyes,wearedisplaced.Butmygrandmotherwouldneveraccept

recognitionasdisplacedbecauseintermsofstatusitisless,becauseforthepeople,theimage

ofthedisplacedisthepersonwhoisbeggingthere,inthestreets.”353Thefearofbeing

designatedasdisplacedresultsfromthesocialexclusionassociatedwiththisstatus.The

resultisabehaviorthatcouldbeexplainedwithW.E.B.DuBoisnotionofdouble-

consciousness,as“alwayslookingat[oneself]throughtheeyesofothers.”354Theimaginaryof

thedisplacedas“beggar”,thatisconveyedbyothers,becomesinternalizedbythosewhoare

affectedbyserialdisplacement.Therefore,theyrefusetheself-identificationwiththestatusof

adisplacedperson.Thus,theyfrequentlydonotregisterasvictimsofdisplacementinstate

institutions.AccordingtoAna,

351AlcaláandMartínez,Poniendotierradepormedio,387.352“Nohubounaamenazadirecta,perolascircumstanciasnosobligaron.”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.353“Cuandovaspreguntaramimamaomiabuelasierandesplazadas,vanadecir‘nosomosdesplazadas’perosisomosdesplazados.peromiabuelanuncaaceptariadereconocersecomodesplazadaporqueenterminosdeestatutoesmenos,porqueparalagenteelimaginariodeldesplazadoeslapersonaqueestaporallimendigando,”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.354W.E.B.(WilliamEdwardBurghardt)DuBois,TheSoulsofBlackFolk[ElectronicResource] :EssaysandSketches(ChapelHill,N.C.:AcademicAffairsLibrary,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill,2001),10–11.

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“Thefigureofthedisplacedwasformalizedintermsofthatpersonthatneedshelpandassistance,thatpersonwhoisbegging.Thisisthereasonwhytheywillneveraskforhelp.Forthem,thefactthatnoonehasgonetotheirhousetotellthemdirectlythattheyhavetoleavedoesnotmakethemdisplacedbecausefinally'Youdecidedtoleave.'So,manypeopledidperceivetheirdisplacementasacrimeandI'mtalkingaboutthemajorityofthepopulation.”355Thedisplacedpopulationwithinthecitydoesnotseethemselvesas“rightsholder”inrelation

toacrime–intra-urbandisplacement–thattheythemselvesdonotconsidertobeacrime.Or

itissimplysecondarytotheotherformsofvictimizationsthattheyexperienced(secondevil).

Theybecomealmost“complicit”inasystemthatconveysvaluesthathavebecome

internalizedoverdecades.Ana’saccountillustratesthedifficultyofregisteringandclaiming

rightsfordisplacementinrelationtotheinternalizedstatusofdignityassociatedwiththe

displaced.Shenotes,

“Myfamilydoesnotassumethemselvesasdisplacedpeople.Theydonotseethatcategoryasbeingforthem.TheyhaveneversoughtthesupportoftheStatebecauseitis[formally]assumedthatthestatusasdisplacedreferstosomethingdignified,butpeopledonotseeitasdignified.Mygrandmotherdoesnotseeitasdignifiedatall.”356 AccordingtoArendt,thethreepreviouslymentionedconditionsdenythestateless

one´sbasichumandignity.Itseemsstrikingthat,throughtheworkingsofslowviolence,the

displacedpersonsfrequentlyseethemselvesobligedtorejecttheirrighttohaverightsin

ordertosustainone´shumandignity.

355“Lafiguradeldesplazadoseseformalizóentérminosdeaquelapersonaaquesedaasistencia,aquelapersonaqueestámendigando,eslarazonporquenuncavanapreguntarayuda.paraelloselhechoquenadiehayaidoalacasaparadecirlesdirectamentequesefueron,noleshacedesplazadosporquefinalmente‘Túdecidisteirte.’entoncesmuchagentenoloviasíyestoyhablandodelamayoriadelapoblación.”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.356“Mifamilianoseasumecomodesplazadosnovenesacategoríaentreellosynuncahanbuscadoelapoyodelestadoporquesesuponequeelestatuscomodesplazadodaalgodigno,perolagentenolovecomodignoenlacasademiabuelaesbásicamenteporquenolovedigno,”InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.

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Oneofthecoregoalsoftransitionaljustice“istoreturnthestatusofcitizensto

individuals.”357Yet,inthefaceofthethreelosses,–thelossofhome,thelossofprotectionby

theState,andthebeingbeyondoroutsideofthelaw,–theStatelacksadequatepossibilities

tomakerightsaccessibleforthedisplacedpopulationinMedellin.Thisresultsinlimited

modesofcitizenship.Thelossofholdingtherighttorightsandaccesstoreparationsrefersto

theabsenceofpossibilitiestopartakeinthepoliticalcommunity.Thus,itisdifficulttore-

build“civictrust”asaconditionofsystemicjusticesincetheformeriscontingentonan

understandingofcitizensasfellowmembersofthesamepoliticalcommunity.358Inreturn,the

inclusioninthedemosandtherecognitionofthedisplacedindividualas“rightholder”,not

onlybytheState,butinone’severydaypractices–as“everydaypeace”inDavidRoberts

terms,–becomescriticalfortransformativeandsystemicjustice.

357DeGreiff,“JusticeandReparations,”460.358Ibid.,462.

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PartIII.Non-Places,Non-Peace,Non-Belonging?OnTransitionstoSystemicJustice.

“TransitionalJusticeisarusethatpromisesthatsomedayovertherainbowwewillfindjustice.

Thejusticetheypromiseisillusory.”359-BloggerfromBogotá

Sofar,thisthesishasshowntwoofthecentralaspectsofthedynamicsofforcedintra-

urbandisplacementarticulatedintheresearchinterviews.First,thereexists

intergenerationaltransmission(s)ofmemoriesofviolencethatrefertospatialcategoriesof

placesandpersons.Second,visionsoflineartransitionsandafocusonaspecificsetoftime-

limitedharmdonotaccountfortheenduringnatureofserialdisplacementandviolencein

spaceandtime.Thegapbetweentheactuallegalframeworkforthetransitionto(regular)

justiceandthelivedexperiencesofintra-urbandisplacementpointstoalargertendencyin

theorizingtransitionaljustice.Currenttransitionaljusticedebatesoftenoverlookthe

continuousnavigationofviolence,peaceandjusticebylocalactorsintheeveryday.

a. SituatingViolenceasSpatio-Temporal:TowardsanUnderstandingofSlowViolence.

TransitionaljusticeasatermcanbetracedbacktoWorldWarIandthenwasfurther

developedinthewakeoftheNurembergandTokyotrialsin1945,whichinstilleditasthe

lastingparadigmfortransitionaljusticedebates.360Itgainedtractioninlegalandpolitical

theorybecauseofthevarioustransitionsoftheEastEuropeancountries,theunravelingofa

largernumberofLatinAmericandictatorshipsand,intheearlynineties,SouthAfrica’s

359“TheLanguageofPeace,”ColombiaPeace,May5,2016,https://colombiapeace.wordpress.com/2016/05/05/the-language-of-peace/.360RutiG.Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”76.

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transitionfromApartheidtodemocracy.361Bythepost-ColdWarera,transitionaljustice

advocacybecameassociatedwithaninternationalagendatopromotegoalsthatwereless

explicitlypolitical:conflictresolutionandthestrengtheningoftheruleoflaw.362Transitional

justice,accordingtoRutiTeitel,canbedefinedas“theconceptionofjusticeassociatedwith

periodsofpoliticalchange,characterizedbylegalresponsestoconfrontthewrongdoingsof

repressivepredecessorregimes.”363TheUnitedNationsunderstandTransitionalJusticeas

beinglinkedto“thefullrangeofprocessesandmechanismsassociatedwithasociety´s

attemptstocometotermswithalegacyoflarge-scaleabuses.”364As“thosesetsoftoolscan

beemployedmutually,”365thefoundingdiscussionssurroundingtransition(s)tojusticehave

vividlyaddressedtheinterdependenceofjustice,truth,reconciliationandpeaceintermsof

itsmechanisms.366DavidCrockerproposes,“Todecideamongthediversetools[of

transitionaljustice],aswellastofashion,combineandsequencethem”bysettingclear

”objectivesforitsmeasures.“367Thedevelopmentofa“tool-box-thinking”strategyledtoa

linearconceptionoftransitiondefiningcategoriesofconflict,particularformsofviolenceand

exclusionofothers;itgeneratedamoralconsensusonevilasspecificharm.368

Nevertheless,intherecentdecadesashiftoftransitionaljusticetheorizingcenteredon

amorelong-termandnuancedanalysisdealingwithunderlyingrootcausesandtheirspecific

causalitiesandpossibilitiesforredress.Justice,peaceanddemocracyhavebecome361See,Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”70.362BronwynAnneLeebaw,“TheIrreconcilableGoalsofTransitionalJustice,”HumanRightsQuarterly30,no.1(2008):106.363Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”69.364SecurityCouncil,“Theruleoflawandtransitionaljusticeinconflictandinconflictsocieties,“(S/2004/616),August3,2004,(1-21)§8,4.365NeilJ.Kritz,“ProgressandHumility:TheOngoingSearchforPostconflictJustice,”EmeritusDistinguishedResearchProfessorofLawM.CherifBassiouni,ed.,PostConflictJustice(Ardsley,N.Y:Brill-Nijhoff,2002),57.366Miller,“(Re)DistributingTransition,”371.367Crocker,“ReckoningwithPastWrongs,”45.368See,Meister,AfterEvil,14;KhanyiselaMoyo,“Feminism,PostcolonialLegalTheoryandTransitionalJustice:ACritiqueofCurrentTrends,“InternationalHumanRightsLawReview1(2012):239.

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understoodasnotmutuallyexclusiveobjectives,butrathermutuallyreinforcing

imperatives.369Gradually,ithasbeenacknowledgedthatpublicaddressingofstructural

inequalitiesandtheimplementationofsocioeconomicreformsareindispensablefactorsfora

successfulprocessofreconciliationinordertoinhibit“therisk(…)thatthesamefactorsthat

causedtheinitialwarareusuallystillpresent.”370Hence,totacklestructuralviolenceis

understoodasparamountforachievingthegoalsofnon-repetition.Morecriticalviewsonthe

artificialityoftransitionaljusticemechanisms–duetoitsfocusoncivilandpoliticalrights

andthenarrowframeworkonunderstandingviolenceandpeace-emerged.371Forinstance,

FionnualaNiAolainpointstothefactthat“thetransitionaljusticetool-kit“doeslittleto

addressthestructuraldiscrimination,inequalityandviolence.372KhanyiselaMoyoandDavid

Chandlercriticizetheliberalandpostcolonialimplicationsofliberalpeaceframeworksin

transitionaljusticeandhumanitarianpolicies.373Similarly,RosemaryNagyarguedthat

transitionaljusticeisfrequentlyreducedtocertainsetsofmechanismsthatapplyonlytoa

specificsetofactorsandcrimes.374KieranMcEvoy,RamiMani,GraemeSimpsonandWendy

Lambourneadvocatedinfavorofamoreholisticperspectiveonjustice“thattakesinto

369SecurityCouncil,“Theruleoflawandtransitionaljusticeinconflictandinconflictsocieties,“1.370CharlesVilla-Vicencio,WalkwithUsandListen :PoliticalReconciliationinAfrica(Washington,D.C.:GeorgetownUniversityPress,c2009),110.371SeeKristaThomason,“TransitionalJusticeasStructuralJustice,”ForthcominginTheorizingTransitionalJusticewithAshgate,accessedJanuary19,2017;LouiseArbour,‘EconomicandSocialJusticeforSocietiesinTransition,’NYUJournalofInternationalLawandPolitics40(2007):1–27;RamaMani,‘BalancingPeacewithJusticeintheAftermathofViolentConflict,’Development48(3)(2005):25–34.372FionnualaNíAoláin,“JusticeinTimesofTransition:AReflectiononTransitionalJustice,”2013,57,http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/163486.373See,Moyo,“Feminism,PostcolonialLegalTheoryandTransitionalJustice:ACritiqueofCurrentTrends,“DavidChandler,“Resilienceandthe‘Everyday’:beyondtheParadoxof‘LiberalPeace,’”ReviewofInternationalStudies;London41,no.1(January2015):27–48.374RosemaryNagy,“TransitionalJusticeasGlobalProject:CriticalReflections,”ThirdWorldQuarterly29,no.2(2008):257.

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accounttheexpectationsofaffectedcommunities.“375In2011,theUnitedNationsoutlinean

approachthataddressesunderlyingrootcausesofconflictbyadvancingtherealizationof

economicandsocialrights.376Thoseunderstandingsofcrimeandviolenceimplya

considerationofbothpastandfuturefactorstojustice,seekingaccountabilityofinstitutions

torestorecivictrust,andinvestinginre-distributivejusticetoredresssocio-political

inequalities.

Followingthoseobservations,studiesconcerningthere-emergenceofviolenceand

structuralmarginalizationacknowledgethatthereexistsapersistentundirectedviolencethat

worksthroughtheglobalaswellasthelocalsystem(s)ofpower.Thisviewgaverisetoa

broaderrecognitionofsystemicviolentexperiencesandoftraumatizedpopulationsover

time.377Thus,itaddsthedimensionoftimetotheunderstandingofviolence.Ashiftin

acknowledgingtheworkingsofpainfulmemoriesasobjectofamoreholisticapproachto

justiceandtotheimpactofpoliticalviolenceemerged.Thisapproachdealswith“how

societiesandindividualsintheaftermathofwarandrepressionreconstructmeaningin

social,politicalandpsychologicalterms.”378Asaconsequence,moreresearchhasemergedon

theworkingsofviolenceovertimetoaddresshistoricalinjusticesandprocessesofhealing.

However,aswehaveseeninrelationtointra-urbandisplacementafocusontraumaas

ruptureoftheeverydayandindividuallyredressableviolencehastobecriticallyexamined.As

375See,KieranMcEvoyandLornaMcGregor,eds.,TransitionalJusticefromBelow:GrassrootsActivismandtheStruggleforChange(Oxford ;Portland,Or:HartPublishing,2008);GreadyandRobins,“FromTransitionaltoTransformativeJustice;”GraemeSimpson,“FromtheNormativetotheTransformative:DefiningandPromotingJusticeandHumanRightsasPartofConflictPreventionandPeacebuilding,”WorkingPaper,(2015):1-45;WendyLambourne“Transformativejustice,reconciliationandpeacebuilding”inTransitionalJusticeTheories,Routledge,2013.376SecurityCouncil,“Theruleoflawandtransitionaljusticeinconflictandinconflictsocieties,“§52.377See,Pupavac,“TherapeuticGovernance”;Fassin,TheEmpireofTrauma.378Hamper,Brendon.“DealingwithPainfulMemoriesandViolentPasts:TowardsaFrameworkforContextualUnderstanding,”5.

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acritiqueofstate-managedtraumaprocesses,VanessaPupavachasarguedthatthenexus

betweenindividualtrauma-healingprocesses"proposesemotionaladjustmentforsocieties,

ratherthanmaterialadvancementoftheircircumstances.”379Thusnotonlystructural

violenceremainshidden.Transitionaljusticeframeworksinrelationtodisplacement

frequentlysidelinesystemicdecade-longslowviolence.Whenindividualhealingisusedasa

metaphorfornationalhealing,thisimpliesapre-existingbodypoliticora“singlecollective

psyche”withsharedwounds,sharedvulnerabilitiesandsharedexperience.380Yet,the

deferenceofeffectiverightsofurbanelydisplacedpopulationspreciselycontradictsthe

assumptionofaninclusivemembershipina“collectivebodypolitic.”Asshown,these

communitiesexperienceafeelingofnon-belongingaswellaslimitsofcitizenship.The

experiencesofviolencecanresultfromthesameevent.However,thoseexperiencesarenot

necessarilysharedandespeciallyregardinghistoricalvulnerabilityandmarginalizationin

relationtointernaldisplacementanditsoften-unacknowledgedcontinuationasintra-urban

displacement,381theyarenotindividuallyredressable.Thus,urbanelydisplacedpopulations

inMedellinthatmostlysufferedfromstateviolence382carryaverydifferentmemory

inscribedinbodyandminds.Thisformofmemoryleadstoacontinuityofslowviolencewithin

thecity.Theroleoftimeiscriticaltodiscussionsoftransitionaljusticeasitdefinesthetypeof

violencethatcanbeaddressedthroughthoseframeworks.Theapproachtotemporality

reorganizestheterrainonwhichwethinkofinjury.Ashiftfromdiscreetorepisodic

understandingsofviolencetoslowviolenceisnecessarytomoreadequatelycapturethe379Pupavac,“TherapeuticGovernance,”7.380Pupavac,“TherapeuticGovernance,”10.381InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchez,RegistroUnicodeVictimas,July23,2016.Shedepictsclearlyhowintra-urbandisplacementconsistsinthecontinuationofinternaldisplacementandderivesfromverysimilarreasons.382LucellyVillegasVillegas,“EstadodelArtedelosEstudiossobreLocalidadesyViolencia,”inBalancedeLosEstudiosSobreViolenciaEnAntioquia,ed.AngaritaCañasandINER(MunicipiodeMedellín:EditorialUniversidaddeAntioquia,2001),147.

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displacedpersons’experienceinMedellin.Thishintsatawidertendencyincurrent

transitionaljusticedebates.

b. FromLinearTransitionstoTransformation:BeyondaSerialOrderofTime.

Transitionsevoketheproblemoftimeanditsrelationshiptohistory.Narrowerhuman

rightslegalismoftenassociatedwithtransitionaljustice383amountstoanideologicalerasure

bywhichwearenolongerabletosee“alternativeschemesofjustice”384asemancipatory

movementsandhistoricallytransformativestruggles(suchasthedecolonizationmovements)

aslegibleformsof(transitional)justicepoliticsbeyondspecifictransitionaljusticeclaims.

In2004,theUNSecretaryGeneralissuedareportoutliningaframeworkfor

strengtheningUnitedNationssupportfortransitionaljustice.There,transitionaljusticehas

beendefinedas"theconceptionofjusticeinperiodsofpoliticaltransition.”385However,

NaomiRoht-Arriazaoutlinesthattheterm"transition"hasalwaysbeenslipperyin

transitionaljusticedebates,whichhaveneverclearlyarticulated,"WhattheStateis

'transitioning'to.”386Frequentlythenotionoftransitionimpliesthatthereisashiftfrom

conflicttoatransitionaldemocracythatwillbeaccountable,workingtowardspeaceful

coexistence.387Theclassicalpoliticalsciencedefinitionoftransitionexplainsthattransition

occurswithinacircumscribeddurationlinkingtworegimes–“anauthoritarianregimeanda

383DustinN.Sharp,“EmancipatingTransitionalJusticefromtheBondsoftheParadigmaticTransition,”InternationalJournalofTransitionalJustice9,no.1(March1,2015):159.384SamuelMoyn,“APowerlessCompanion:HumanRightsintheAgeofNeoliberalism,”LawandContemporaryProblems77,no.4(2014):150.385Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”69.386NaomiRoht-ArriazaandJavierMariezcurrena,eds.,TransitionalJusticeintheTwenty-FirstCentury:BeyondTruthversusJustice(Cambridge,UK ;CambridgeUniversityPress,2006),1.387Barkan,“HistoricalReconciliation,”911.

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liberaldemocraticdispensation.”388Thus,accordingtoDustinSharp,transitionaljustice

emergedforadvancingtimelylimitedliberalpoliticaltransitions.389Theconceptualizationof

thesetransitionaryperiodsartificiallyinterruptsenduringrepercussionsofthepastcrime(by

relegatingittothepast)ratherthancomprehendingitscontinuityinthepresent.Therefore,

lineartransitionsaspassagesof“before-and-after”rendertheunderstandingofspatio-

temporalviolenceandhistoricalinjuriesdifficulttoidentifyandtoaddress.

TheColombiangovernmentenvisionedthepeaceprocessandtransition(s)tojustice

asexceptionalmeasuresthatrequirethesuspensionofordinarycriminaljustice.390Ruti

Teitelarguesthatinthecurrentjunctureofa“steady-statephase”oftransitionaljusticethe

applicationoftransitionaljusticemechanismswentfrombeingtheexceptiontobeingthe

norm.391Inthiscontext,shenotesthatthecategoryoftransitionhasbecome“apersistent

trope,”inwhichjusticeistransitional.392ForMeister,itischaracteristicforperiodsof

“transitions”tocarveoutatime“inwhichoursinsarenolongeracontinuationofthepast.“393

Throughredemptivelawthatrespondstospecificphysicalharm,transitionaljustice

frameworksrejecttoacknowledgethecontinuityofpastevilandtheenduringexperienceof

structuralrightsviolationsinthepresent.Byreferringtothedecline–“post-ness”–of“more

future-orientatedprojects”,JohnTorpeydemonstratestheworkingsoftransitionaljusticeas

atransitionalsubstitutethatdiminishespoliticalexpectations.394Lineartransitionsembody

anabsenceofsystemicchangebecausetheyareinacontinuousinterimperiod.Thus,linear

388GuillermoA.O’Donnell,PhilippeC.Schmitter,andLaurenceWhitehead,eds.,TransitionsfromAuthoritarianRule.ComparativePerspectives(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1986),6.389Sharp,“EmancipatingTransitionalJusticefromtheBondsoftheParadigmaticTransition,”151.390Ibid.13.391Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”71;Sharp,“EmancipatingTransitionalJusticefromtheBondsoftheParadigmaticTransition,”154.392Teitel,“TransitionalJusticeGenealogyHumanRightsinTransition,”85.393Meister,AfterEvil,13394Torpey,MakingWholeWhatHasBeenSmashed :OnReparationsPolitics,8.

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andnormativetransitionaljusticeframeworksassuchmerelymakethecontinuingabsenceof

justicetoday“moreacceptablethanitwouldhavebeenwhenevilprevailed.“395Therefore,the

projectoftime-limitedandlineartransition(s)tojusticemarkstheenduringnatureofserial

displacementasbeing“off”time.Itdepreciatesthepresentperiodasatimeforsystemic

justice.

However,displacedpersonsarticulatedanenduringexperienceofserialdisplacement

thatcallsforsystemicjustice.Theaccountsofintra-urbandisplacedpersonsdidnotonlypoint

tomarginalizationandcollectiveandindividualvulnerabilityinrelationtothelackof

effectiverights.Theyalsoindicatedthearrivalinthecityasanempoweringeventthat

allowedforarestructuringoftraditionalgenderroles,accesstoeducation,andpossibilities

forincreasedpoliticalactivism.396Despitetheurgencytorendervisiblethedisplacedperson’s

positionofvulnerabilityandmarginalizationdiscussedinthisstudy,itisimportantto

conceiveofthedisplacedasfirstandforemostapoliticalactor.Juliánexplains,

“ThedisplacementwasanexperiencethatIhadneverimagined,anexperienceofknowingwhomanagesthiscountryandhowitismanagedandtheoriginofviolence,andwhatIappreciateisthatIlearnedtobeincommunity,tomeetmanylovelypeople.“397Formsofresistancederivefromthemultipleformsofinteractionbetweenthehabitantsof

thosemarginalizedneighborhoods398thatstressautonomy,self-determinationand

independence.399Carlosnotes,“Ithinkpeaceshouldbeginfromhere,fromourterritories,”400

395Ibid.,84.396OsorioPerez,Territorialidadesensuspensodesplazamientoforzado,identidadesyresistencias,26.397“Eldesplazamientomesirviocomozonaexperienciaquenuncahabiaimaginado,unaexperienciadeconhecerquienmanejaesepaisycomomanejaydelorigendelaviolencia,yloqueagradezcoesqueaprendiaestarencomunidadaconhecermuchagentehermosa.“InterviewwithJulián,July21,2016,Medellin.398MariaTeresaUribeHandicapé,“Notaspreliminariessobreresistenciasdelasociedadcivilenuncontextdeguerrasytransacciones,”EstudiosPoliticosNo.29,Medellin,Julio-diciembre(2006):64.399MariaTeresaUribeHandicapé,“Notaspreliminariessobreresistenciasdelasociedadcivilenuncontextdeguerrasytransacciones,”75.400“Creoquelapazempiezadeaqui–denuestrosterritories.”InterviewwithPedro,Medellin.

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referringtohisownperipheralneighborhoodandcommunityinthecity.Marthaaffirmsthat

peacehastobeginfromthepersonalbutinrelationtoaradicaltransformationofthe

system,401andEvaclaimsapeacenotonlyforonebutforall.402Theseaccountsreferto

systemicprojectsofjusticeratherthantosimplepoliticsofindividualreparationinrelation

tospecificsuffering.Theyspeaktotherelationshipbetweenthevictimandstructural

beneficiariesofpastcrime.Theneedsresultingfromtheenduringnatureofserial

displacementgobeyondtheartofgovernanceofpunctualandtime-limitedbenefitsof

reparations.Justiceisrenegotiatedinthemomentsofdailylifeandcontingentonit.403There

isnobeginningandnoend,butchangeandcontinuity.InMedellin,thedifficultiesderiving

fromarangeofdynamics–includingthelimitedtimeframeinwhichresidentscanregisterfor

intra-urbandisplacement,theslippingofviolenceintotheeverydayasasecondevil,the

territorialstigmathatinformsself-censorshipandthedifficultiesofdevelopingcivictrustas

thedisplacedislimitedinher/hispartakinginthebroaderpoliticalcommunity–illustratea

pervasiveneglectofthissystemicjusticelongedforbyaffectedpersons.Theabsenceof

systemicjusticeintheeverydayevokesabiasedandhegemonicstance404ofcurrent

transitionaljusticepoliticsonhowtoredresspastwrongs.

Moreover,“institutionalfetishism”anddepoliticized“technocraticassistancepolicy”

distractfromanybroaderpoliticalprojectofjustice.405Themostrecentdevelopmentsofthe

Colombianpeaceprocessofferhumanitarianassistanceandshort-termeconomicreparations

401“Lapaztienequeempezardesdelopersonalperoenrelaciónconelsistema…conlatransformaciónradicaldelsistema.”InterviewwithMartha,July22,2016,CarmendeViboral,Antioquia.402InterviewwithEva,July10,2016,Medellin.403AlcaláandBaines,“EditorialNote,”386.404See,BalakrishnanRajagopal,“Counter-HegemonicInternationalLaw:RethinkingHumanRightsandDevelopmentasaThirdWorldStrategy,”ThirdWorldQuarterly27,no.5(2006):768;GreadyandRobins,“FromTransitionaltoTransformativeJustice,”341.405VasukiNesiah,“TransitionalJusticePractice:LookingBack,MovingForward,”ScopingStudy,May2016,ImpunityWatch2016,22.

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withoutproposingadequatepossibilitiesoflong-termhousinginthecity.Thisimpedesa

moreequaldistributionofresourcesandspaceinthecityasbroaderpoliticaltransformation.

Therefore,itlimitstransformativejusticeas“transformativechange”thatchallengesexisting

structuresofexclusion.

Ultimately,sufferingisrealandithappensonanunequalglobalscale.Wejustneedto

recallSusanSontag’swords,addressingapredominantlyWesternaudience“Tospeakof

reality[inrelationtosufferingofothers]becomingaspectacleisbreath-taking

provincialism.”406Thispresentstudyisanaccountofhowmemoriesliveonacrossseveral

generations,whichdemonstratesongoingvulnerability(andrelatedsuffering)overspaceand

time.However,onemustcallforcautionintheorizingaboutspecificharm,asitrisksa

decouplingofhistoricalpossibilitiesforchangeandsystemictransformationfromhuman

rightsandtransitionaljusticeinanera“afterevil.”407

WendyBrownargued,“Noeffectiveprojectproducesonlytheconsequencesitaimsto

produce.Whatevertheiravowedpurpose,then,dohumanrightsonlyreducesuffering?Do

they(promiseto)reduceitinaparticularwaythatprecludesornegatesotherpossible

ways?”408Focusingonthecontinuousconsequencescausedbyhistoricalinjuriessuchas

displacement,programmatictransitionaljusticebecomespalliativeofpastsuffering.Robert

Meisterpointstothe“illusionofhistoricalclosure,”whichhedefinesas“theideathatthe

opportunityforjusticehasbeenmissed,andthatcompassionforpastsufferingisamoral

statethatjustifiesone’scontinuingtobenefitfrompastconditionsthatonenowwouldhave

406SusanSontag,RegardingthePainofOthers(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2003),110.407Meister,AfterEvil,1.408WendyBrown,“‘TheMostWeCanHopeFor...’:HumanRightsandthePoliticsofFatalism,”TheSouthAtlanticQuarterly103,no.2(June10,2004):453.

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opposed.“409Mycriticism,asIarguehere,doesnotspeaktothefactthatwecannotthinkof

redressinghistoricalinjusticesbecausebywayofredressingthem,wewouldforgetabout

whyandhowtheyexisted.Iratherarguethatredressthroughlineartransitionstojustice

upholdsillusionsofclosuresoflastinginjuries.Thoseclosurescontradicttheveryexperience

ofdisplacedpersonsintheeveryday–wheretheyconstructtheirsenseofjustice.Theyalso

displaceclaimsforsystemictransformationthataddressesslowviolenceinNixon’sterms.In

contrast,itisfromthedemandsofsocialinclusion,structuralsocio-economicstability,

politicalrecognitionandtransformativereparationthatadiscoursecanbearticulatedin

whichthedisplacedpersonsunderstandthemselvesaspoliticalactors.410

Inthiscontext,transitionaljusticeexposesanengagementwithprocessesand

practicesthataremeaningfultoindividuals’everydaylives.Italludestothequestionhowto

describethepresentnessofthepastinwaysthatmakethepastindebtedtothepresent.Itis

criticaltoreversethediscussedcurrenttendencyofcontemporaryhumanrightsdiscourse

andtransitionaljusticepoliticsandrelatedunderstandingsofviolence.Thisreversaloffersa

newangleofthecontinuityofenduringviolenceovertimeandspace,itseverydayexperience

ofserialvictimizationandthedisplacedperson’sroleaspoliticalactorcapableofactionand

thoughtthatistrulytransformative.

409Meister,AfterEvil,7.410ConferenciaEpiscopalColombianaetal.,DesplazamientoforzadoenAntioquia,1985-1998,50.

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“Ragerisesonlywhenthereisareasontosuspectthatconditionscouldbechangedandarenot.”411

-HannahArendt.

IV.Conclusion.

Thisstudyhasshownthattheexperienceofviolencebythedisplacedinthecityof

Medellinisinformedbycontinuity.First,bythecontinuityoftime,sinceintergenerational

memoriesofviolencemarkplacesasplacesofno-returnandconfiguretheterritorialstigma

ofthedisplaced.Second,bythecontinuityoftheexperienceofdisplacementinspace,because

internaldisplacementtranslatesinthecityandconstitutesanenduringphenomenonof

advancedmarginalizationandre-victimizationwithintheurbanrealm.Thosespatio-temporal

dynamicscauseapermanentvulnerabilitythatcanbeunderstoodasslowviolenceinNixon’s

terms.TheColombiantransitionaljusticemechanismslackaspecificallyurbanfocusin

Medellinbasedonthepreventionofintra-urbandisplacement,whichcouldpossiblyaccount

fortheveryexperienceofcontinuityarticulatedbythedisplacedpersonsintheurbanrealm.

Thesubjectivefeelingofinjusticeandlackofcivictrustremainsasthecontinuityofthis

experiencepersists–renderedinvisiblethroughlimitedeffectiverightsandcitizenship.

Hence,thosedynamicsrelegatethedisplacedpopulationinthecitiestonon-places,tothe

senseofnon-belongingandtotheimaginaryofnon-peace.

Fragmentsalludetoaparticularwayofinhabitingtheworld.412Analyzingfragmented

personal(hi-)storiesofdisplacementshedslightontheordinarinessofviolenceexperienced

411HannahArendt,“ReflectionsonViolence,”inSelectedEssaysFromtheFirstThirtyYearsofNewYorkReviewofBooks,eds.B.EpsteinandR.B.Silvers,NewYork:NewYorkreviewofBooks(1993):65-66.

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intheeveryday.Thoseaccountsfromenduringlifeexperiences,therefore,unsettlenarrow

assumptionsaboutthepossibilitiesofredressforspecificmomentsofpastrightsviolations.

Hence,afocusonhowjusticeisexperiencedandconstructedinacontinuousmodeinthe

everydayrevealsreasonswhyconventionaljusticepracticeswithinthetransitionaljustice

“toolkit”cannotrespondtoongoingspatio-temporalinjury.Thelensoftheeverydayreveals

justicetobedynamic,systemicandcontinuouslyintheprocessofrenegotiation.

ThecurrentfocusofthetransitionaljusticeframeworkinColombiaonspecificharm,

whichisredressablethroughparticularpoliciesthataimforclear-cutendingsofpast

wrongdoings,doesnotlookatthesystemicunderpinningsthatmadethatviolencepossible

overtime.Ifpost-conflictjusticeshouldbemaximallyeffectiveforthelocalpopulation,413

transitionaljusticedebatesneedtotaketheexperiencesofpeopledisplacedwithinthecity

seriously.

Yet,transitionaljusticeasinterimtimebetweenthediscreditedpastbut“beforejustice

begins,”withitsmechanismsandtoolboxesofpoliciesofredress,limitsthinkingaboutour

pastwrongdoingsasapartofthepresent,–ascontinuity.Politicsofredressofspecificharm

puttheevilinthepast.Yet,asMeisterhasargued,“thatthepastwasevildoesnotrequireone

tobelievethattheevilispast.“414Thefragmentedstoriesofthedisplacedpersonsandthe

unwieldyworkingsofslowviolencemaythenalludetotwoaspects.First,pastviolenceis

lasting,anchoredintheeveryday.Second,aturntosystemicjusticehasoncemoretobemade

urgentinpresenttimes.InthiscriticalpoliticaljunctureintheColombianpeaceprocess

today,themunicipalityofMedellinstressedinrelationtothelocaltransitionaljusticeprocess

412Das,LifeandWords[ElectronicResource],7.413NeilJ.Kritz,“ProgressandHumility:TheOngoingSearchforPostconflictJustice,”EmeritusDistinguishedResearchProfessorofLawM.CherifBassiouni,ed.,PostConflictJustice(Ardsley,N.Y:Brill-Nijhoff,2002),59.414Meister,AfterEvil,14.

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theimportanceof“encouragingrespectforlifeandthesocio-culturaltransformationthrough

acultureofpeacethatfacilitatesthepeacefulresolutionofconflicts.“415Inordertostrengthen

acultureofpeaceandsystemicjusticeinMedellin,however,itisparamounttoaddressintra-

urbandisplacementintermsofboth,itspoliticalandpolicyimplicationsandtherelated

subjectivesenseofinjusticearticulatedbythepersonsthatanimatedandcontributedtothis

study.

Thenthequestionremains:Canthosenegativespaces–ofnon-belonging,non-place

andnon-peace–sparkempowermentandresistancethatrendersvisiblethecontinuityof

slowviolenceinrelationtotheurbanspace?

Thetheoriesofsocialspace,itsemergence,(re-)production,displacement,declineand

(re-)appropriation,alludetothequestionthatMarianneHirschasksinrelationto

postmemory:“Canour(post-)memoriesofviolence,lossandthefadingawayofhomesbe

transformedintoactionandresistance?”416MemoryconsistsaccordingtoWalterBenjamin,in

apotentialitythatcanattimes“flashup”uncontrollablytorevealnewpossibilities.417How

memoryandspaceislivedandre-appropriatedthenbecomesunpredictableanduncertain.

Thisconceptgainsrelevancebyconsideringhowthedisplacementwithinthecityand

especiallyfromruraltourbanspacesgeneratesempowermentamongthosethatare

displaced.418Theconstantpostponingofthelongexpectedandoverduesystemic

transformationdoesnotmerelyresultinresignation.Itsparksrage,solidarityandcritical

415“Fomentarelrespetoporlavidaylatransformaciónsocioculturalatravésdeunaculturadepazquefacilitelaresoluciónpacíficadeconflictos.”UrsulaBaïgorriaKöppel,“GarantíasdenorepeticiónparaMedellín.”October2015,accessedonDecember23,2016,https://www.medellin.gov.co/irj/go/km/docs/pccdesign/SubportaldelCiudadano_2/PlandeDesarrollo_0_0_0_0/Publicaciones/Shared%20Content/Documentos/2015/PresentacionGNR.pdf.416Hirsch,“TheGenerationofPostmemory,”104.417WalterBenjamin,Illuminations(NewYork:SchockenBooks,1986),256.418MariaTeresaUribeHandicapé,“Notaspreliminariessobreresistenciasdelasociedadcivilenuncontextdeguerrasytransacciones,”67.

94

thinkingabouthowtoradicallychangelastinginjustice.Whatseemstobeimportantto

highlightisthecapacityofthedisplacedcommunitiestoconfronttheircollectiveexperiences

ofviolenceinscribedininheritedmemory.Thismakesitpossibleforthemtofighttheir

conditionsaspoliticalactors.

95

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197–214.doi:10.1080/00313220600769331.Zolkos,Magdalena."Redressivepoliticsandthenexusoftrauma,transitionaljusticeandreconciliation.”inTransitionalJusticeTheoriesed.SusanneBuckley-Zisteletal.,(Routledge,2013):156-179.Interviews.AllinterviewswereconductedthroughMOVICEMedellininJuly2016.Allnamesofthepersonsaffectedbydisplacement(non-scholars)areanonymousinthisstudy.a.ConductedInterviewswithDisplacedPersons(anonymous).InterviewwithAriella,July9,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithPablo,July9,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithEva,July10,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithKatja,July11,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithCarmen,July13,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithAna,July14,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithMaria,July15,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithNadia,July16,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithCarlos,July17,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithNatalia,July18,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithJulián,July21,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithMartha,July22,2016,CarmendeViboral,Antioquia.InterviewwithCarla,July23,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithRosa,July23,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithElisa,July28,2016,Medellin.b.ConductedInterviewswithExperts.InterviewwithRodrigo(encodedname),ColectivodeAbogadosCarlosRestrepo(Cajar),July5,2016,Bogota.InterviewwithAdrianaBaigorria,CasadelaMemoria,July11,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithClaraArtehortuaArrendondo,July12,2016,Medellin.

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InterviewwithMarina,(encodedname)MOVICE,July17,2016,Medellin.InterviewwithMarthaSánchezVilla,CorporaciónRegión,July24,2016.InterviewwithCarlaCalleSanchezandMariaLopez(encodednames)attheRegistroÚnicodelasVíctimas,July,25,Medelllin.InterviewwithHernandoMuñoz,DepartamientodeHumanidades,UniversidaddeAntioquia,July28,2016,Medellin.QuestionsforSemi-StructuredInterviews.Thosequestionsguidedtheinterviews.Therewerenottheonlyquestionsaskedbutratherservedasaroadmap.a.ConductedInterviewswithDisplacedPersons(anonymous).1)WherehaveyoulivedbeforecomingtoMedellin?2)HowdidyouarriveinMedellin?CouldyoutellmemoreaboutthereasonsforcomingtoMedellin?3)Howdoyourememberyourdisplacement?Isthereanymemorythatwasparticularlyimportantforyou?4)Whatweretheconsequencesofyourdisplacement?DidyouregisteryourdisplacementatRUV?5)HaveyoumovedtodifferentpartsofthecityinMedellin?Wasityourchoicetomove?6)Wouldyousaythatyourneighborhoodismarginalizedregardingthewholeofthecity?7)HowdidyouperceivetheStateduringyourdisplacement?8)Howisyourmemorylinkedtophysicalspaces?9)SinceColombiaisinaprocessoftransitionaljusticeandalotofmechanismshavebeenappliedtoendtheconflict,what–outofyouropinion–isthemostimportantmeasuretobetakentoimprovethelifeofthevictimsoftheconflict?Doyouimaginepeace?Ifyes,how?b.ConductedInterviewswithExperts.1)Whatarethemajorfactorsforthere-emergenceofviolenceinMedellin?2)Whatarethecausesforinternaldisplacement?3)HowdoesinternaldisplacementinthecontextofColombiatranslateintointra-urbandisplacement?4)Doesthereexistanexusbetweenpoliticalviolence,re-criminalization/re-marginalizationofvictimsofstatecrimeandintra-urbandisplacement?5)WhicharethesegmentsofMedellin’spopulationmosteffectedbythosecrimes?6)Whatisspecificaboutintra-urbandisplacementinthecontextofMedellininrelationtootherColombiancities?7)What,inyouropinion,couldbeviabletransitionaljusticeremediesforthedamagescausedbyinternal/intra-urbandisplacementandstateviolenceinthecontextofMedellin?8)Howdoesthatplayoutintermsof(intergenerational)inheritedmemory?IRBProtocolNumber:IRB-AAAQ8417