Berkshire Encyclopedia of

World History

Berkshire Encyclopedia of

World History

VOLUME2William H. McNeill

Senior Editor

Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian,David Levinson, J.R. McNeill,Heidi Roupp, Judith P. Zinsser

Editors

a berkshire reference work

Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.www.berkshireworldhistory.com

Copyright © 2005 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrievalsystem, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Cover design: Lisa Clark, LKC Design

For information:Berkshire Publishing Group LLC314 Main StreetGreat Barrington, Massachusetts 01230www.berkshirepublishing.com

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Berkshire encyclopedia of world history / William H. McNeill, senior editor ; Jerry H. Bentley ...[et al.] editorial board.

p. cm.Summary: “A comprehensive encyclopedia of world history with 538 articles that trace the develop-ment of human history with a focus on area studies, global history, anthropology, geography, science,arts, literature, economics, women’s studies, African-American studies, and cultural studies related toall regions of the world”—Provided by publisher.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-9743091-0-9 (alk. paper : v. 1)

1. World history—Encyclopedias. I. McNeill, William Hardy, 1917– II. Bentley, Jerry H., 1949–III. Christian, David, 1946–

D23.B45 2004903—dc22

2004021830

PP rroojjeecctt DDiirreeccttoorrKaren Christensen

EEddiittoorriiaall aanndd PPrroodduuccttiioonn SSttaaffffKaren Advokaat, Rachel Christensen,Tom Christensen, Emily Colangelo, Sarah Conrick,Benjamin Kerschberg, Junhee (June) Kim,Jess LaPointe, David Levinson, Courtney Linehan,Janet Lowry, Marcy Ross, Gabby Templet

PPhhoottoo RReesseeaarrcchheerrGabby Templet

CCooppyyeeddiittoorrssFrancesca Forrest, Mike Nichols, Carol Parikh,Mark Siemens, Daniel Spinella, and Rosalie Wieder

IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn MMaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd PPrrooggrraammmmiinnggDeborah Dillon and Trevor Young

DDeessiiggnneerrssLisa Clark and Jeff Potter

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MMaapp MMaakkeerrXNR Productions

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Editorial & Production Staff

List of Entries, ixReader’s Guide, xv

How to Spell It and How to Say It:100 Important People, Places, and Terms in World History, xxv

Entries

VOLUME I:

Abraham—Coal1

VOLUME II:

Cold War—Global Imperialism and Gender 376

VOLUME III:

Global Migrations in Modern Times—Mysticism844

VOLUME IV:

Napoleon—Sun Yat-sen1327

VOLUME V:

Tang Taizong—Zoroastrianism 1802

This Fleeting World: An Overview of Human History, TFW–1

CHAPTER ONE: Foraging Era, TFW–2

CHAPTER TWO: Agrarian Era, TFW–15

CHAPTER THREE: Modern Era, TFW–36

Index, 2123vii

Contents

This Fleeting World,by David Christian

Agrarian EraForaging (Paleolithic) EraModern Era

AbrahamAbsolutism, EuropeanAdolescenceAfricaAfrica, ColonialAfrica, PostcolonialAfrican ReligionsAfrican UnionAfrican-American and

Caribbean ReligionsAfro-EurasiaAge StratificationAgricultural SocietiesAIDSAirplaneAkbarAksumAlchemyAlcoholAlexander the Greatal-Khwarizmial-RaziAmerican EmpireAndean StatesAnimism

AnthropologyAnthroposphereApartheid in South AfricaArab CaliphatesArab LeagueArchaeologyArchitectureAristotleArt—AfricaArt—Ancient Greece and RomeArt—Central AsiaArt—East AsiaArt—EuropeArt—Native North AmericaArt—OverviewArt—RussiaArt—South AsiaArt—Southeast AsiaArt—West AsiaArt, PaleolithicAsiaAsian MigrationsAsokaAssociation of Southeast

Asian NationsAssyrian EmpireAugustine, St.AurangzebAustro-Hungarian EmpireAutomobileAztec Empire

Babi and Baha’iBabylonBalance of PowerBands, Tribes, Chiefdoms,

and StatesBarterBeninBerlin ConferenceBiological ExchangesBolívar, SimónBritish East India CompanyBritish EmpireBuddhismBullroarersByzantine Empire

Caesar, AugustusCaesar, JuliusCapitalismCaravanCarrying CapacityCartographyCatherine the GreatCatholicism, RomanCeltsCerealsCharlemagneCharles VChild, LydiaChildhoodChina

ix

Entries

x berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Chinese Popular ReligionChurchill, WinstonCinchonaCitizenshipCivil DisobedienceCivil LawCivilization, Barbarism, SavageryClimate ChangeCoalCoffeeCold WarColonialismColumbian ExchangeColumbus, ChristopherCominternCommunication—OverviewCommunism and SocialismComparative Borders and

FrontiersComparative EthnologyComparative HistoryComputerConfucianismConfuciusCongress of ViennaConstantine the GreatConsumerismContainmentContraception and Birth ControlContract LawCreation MythsCrusades, TheCultural and Geographic AreasCultural EcologyCultureCyrus the Great

Dance and DrillDaoismDarwin, CharlesDating MethodsDecipherment of Ancient Scripts

DecolonizationDeforestationDelhi SultanateDemocracy, ConstitutionalDescartes, RenéDesertificationDétenteDiasporasDictionaries and EncyclopediasDiplomacyDisease and NutritionDiseases—OverviewDiseases, AnimalDiseases, PlantDisplaced Populations,

Typology ofDressDrugsDu Bois, W. E. B.Dutch East India CompanyDutch Empire

Early Modern WorldEarthquakesEastern EuropeEconomic Growth, Extensive and

IntensiveEcumenicismEducationEgypt—State FormationEgypt, AncientEinstein, AlbertElectricityElizabeth IEmpireEnergyEngines of HistoryEnlightenment, TheEquatorial and Southern Africa,

4000 BCE–1100 CE

ErosionEsperanto

Ethnic NationalismEthnicityEthnocentrismEurocentrismEuropeEuropean UnionExpansion, EuropeanExpeditions, ScientificExploration, ChineseExploration, SpaceExtinctions

FamineFascismFestivalsFeudalismFireFirearmsFirst, Second, Third, Fourth

WorldsFoodForaging Societies, ContemporaryForms of Government—OverviewFreedomFrench EmpireFrontiersFur Trade

Galileo GalileiGama,Vasco daGamesGandhi, MohandasGay and Lesbian Rights

MovementGeneral Agreement on Tariffs

and TradeGeneticsGenghis KhanGenocideGeographic ConstructionsGerman EmpireGlass

Global CommonsGlobal Imperialism and GenderGlobal Migration in Modern

TimesGlobalizationGold and SilverGrand TourGreece, AncientGreen or Environmental

MovementsGreen RevolutionGregory VIIGuevara, CheGuildsGum Arabic

HammurabiHan WudiHanseatic LeagueHarappan State and Indus

CivilizationHarun al-RashidHatshepsutHausa StatesHenry the NavigatorHerodotusHinduismHitler, AdolfHo Chi MinhHolocaustHomerHong MerchantsHorticultural SocietiesHudson’s Bay CompanyHuman Evolution—OverviewHuman Rights

Iberian Trading CompaniesIbn BattutaIbn KhaldunIbn SinaImperialism

Inca EmpireIndigenous PeoplesIndigenous Peoples MovementsIndo-European MigrationIndustrial TechnologiesInformation SocietiesInitiation and Rites of PassageInner EurasiaInternational Court of JusticeInternational Criminal CourtInternational LawInternational Monetary SystemsInternational Organizations—

OverviewInterregional NetworksInterwar Years (1918–1939)Isabella IIslamIslamic LawIslamic World

JainismJapanese EmpireJefferson, ThomasJesusJoan of ArcJudaismJustinian I

Kamehameha IKanem-BornuKangxi EmperorKenyatta, JomoKhmer KingdomKing, Martin Luther, Jr.KinshipKongoKushan Empire

Labor Systems, CoerciveLabor Union MovementsLanguage, Classification of

Language, Standardization ofLaoziLatter-day SaintsLeague of NationsLeisureLenin,VladimirLeonardo da VinciLetters and CorrespondenceLiberalismLibrariesLincoln, AbrahamLiterature and WomenLocke, JohnLogisticsLong CyclesLuther, Martin

Macedonian EmpireMachiavelli, NiccoloMagellan, FerdinandMahaviraMalariaMaliManichaeismManorialismMansa MusaMao ZedongMaritime HistoryMarriage and FamilyMarx, KarlMass MediaMathematicsMatriarchy and PatriarchyMehmed IIMenciusMercantilismMeroëMesoamericaMesopotamiaMetallurgyMigrationsMilitary Engineering

list of entries xi

Military Strategy and TacticsMilitary Training and DisciplineMillennialismMiranda, Francisco deMissionariesMississippian CultureModernityMoneyMongol EmpireMosesMotecuhzoma IIMughal EmpireMuhammadMultinational CorporationsMuseumsMusic—GenresMusic and Political ProtestMysticism

NapoleonNapoleonic EmpireNationalismNation-StateNative American ReligionsNatural GasNatural LawNatureNavigationNewton, IsaacNkrumah, KwameNonviolenceNorth Atlantic Treaty

OrganizationNubians

OilOral HistoryOrganization of American StatesOrientalismOrthodoxy, ChristianOsman IOttoman Empire

Pacific, Settlement ofPaleoanthropologyPan-AfricanismPaperParliamentarianismPastoral Nomadic SocietiesPaul, St.Peace Making in the Modern EraPeace ProjectsPentecostalismPeriodization—OverviewPeriodization, Conceptions ofPersian EmpirePeter the GreatPilgrimagePiracyPlasticsPlatoPolitical ThoughtPolo, MarcoPopulationPopulation Growth as Engine

of HistoryPorcelainPortuguese EmpirePostcolonial AnalysisPostmodernismProduction and ReproductionProgressProperty Rights and ContractsProtestantism

Qin Shi HuangdiQuinine

Race and RacismRadioRailroadRamses IIRaynal, Abbé GuillaumeRed Cross and Red Crescent

Movement

Religion—OverviewReligion and GovernmentReligion and WarReligious FreedomReligious FundamentalismReligious SyncretismRenaissanceRevolution—ChinaRevolution—CubaRevolution—FranceRevolution—HaitiRevolution—IranRevolution—MexicoRevolution—RussiaRevolution—United StatesRevolutions, CommunistRicci, MatteoRoman EmpireRoosevelt, EleanorRoosevelt, Franklin DelanoRubberRumiRussian-Soviet Empire

Sacred LawSailing ShipsSaladinSaltSasanian EmpireScience—OverviewScientific InstrumentsScientific RevolutionSecondary-Products RevolutionSecularismSenghor, LéopoldSex and SexualityShaka ZuluShamanismShintoSiddhartha GautamaSikhismSilk Roads

xii berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Sima QianSlave TradesSmith, AdamSocial DarwinismSocial HistorySocial SciencesSocial WelfareSociologySocratesSokoto CaliphateSonghaiSpanish EmpireSpice TradeSportsSrivijayaStalin, JosephState Societies, Emergence ofState, TheSteppe ConfederationsSugarSui WendiSui YangdiSüleymanSumerian SocietySun Yat-sen

Tang TaizongTeaTechnology—OverviewTelegraph and TelephoneTextilesThomas Aquinas, St.ThucydidesTimberTime, Conceptions ofTimurTotemismTourismTrade Cycles

Trading Patterns, Ancient AmericanTrading Patterns, Ancient EuropeanTrading Patterns, China SeasTrading Patterns, Eastern

EuropeanTrading Patterns, Indian OceanTrading Patterns, MediterraneanTrading Patterns, MesoamericanTrading Patterns, PacificTrading Patterns, Trans-SaharanTransportation—OverviewTravel GuidesTreaty of VersaillesTúpac AmaruTurkic EmpireTutu, Desmond

Ugarit‘Umar ibn al-KhattabUnited NationsUniverse, Origins ofUrban IIUrbanizationUtopia

VictoriaViking Society

Wagadu EmpireWar and Peace—OverviewWarfare—AfricaWarfare—ChinaWarfare—EuropeWarfare—Islamic WorldWarfare—Japan and KoreaWarfare—Post-Columbian Latin

AmericaWarfare—Post-Columbian North

America

Warfare—Pre-Columbian Meso-america and North America

Warfare—Pre-Columbian SouthAmerica

Warfare—South AsiaWarfare—Southeast AsiaWarfare—Steppe NomadsWarfare, AirWarfare, ComparativeWarfare, LandWarfare, NavalWarfare, Origins ofWarsaw PactWaterWater ManagementWestern CivilizationWomen’s and Gender HistoryWomen’s Emancipation

MovementsWomen’s Reproductive Rights

MovementsWomen’s Suffrage MovementsWorld Cities in History—

OverviewWorld Maps, ChineseWorld System TheoryWorld War IWorld War IIWriting Systems and MaterialsWriting World History

YijingYongle Emperor

Zheng HeZhu YuanzhangZimbabwe, GreatZionismZoroastrianism

list of entries xiii

AfricaAfricaAfrica, ColonialAfrica, PostcolonialAfrican ReligionsAfrican UnionAfrican-American and Caribbean

ReligionsAfro-EurasiaAksumApartheid in South AfricaArt—AfricaBeninDiasporasEgypt—State FormationEgypt, AncientEquatorial and Southern AfricaHausa StatesKanem-BornuKenyatta, JomoKongoMaliMansa MusaMehmed IIMeroëNkrumah, KwameNubiansPan-AfricanismPastoral Nomadic SocietiesSenghor, LéopoldShaka ZuluSlave Trades

Sokoto CaliphateSonghaiTrading Patterns, Trans-SaharanTutu, DesmondWagadu EmpireWarfare—AfricaZimbabwe, Great

AmericasAmerican EmpireAndean StatesArt—Native North AmericaAztec EmpireBiological ExchangesBolívar, SimónChild, LydiaDu Bois, W. E. B.Einstein, AlbertFur TradeGuevara, CheHudson’s Bay CompanyInca EmpireJefferson, ThomasKing, Martin Luther, Jr.Latter-day SaintsLincoln, AbrahamMississippian CultureMotecuhzoma IINative American ReligionsOrganization of American StatesPentecostalismRevolution—Cuba

Revolution—HaitiRevolution—MexicoRevolution—United StatesRoosevelt, EleanorRoosevelt, Franklin DelanoSlave TradesSugarTrading Patterns, Ancient AmericanTrading Patterns, MesoamericanTúpac AmaruWarfare—Post-Columbian Latin

AmericaWarfare—Post-Columbian North

AmericaWarfare—Pre-Columbian

Mesoamerica and North America

Warfare—Pre-Columbian SouthAmerica

Western Civilization

AsiaAfro-EurasiaAkbarArt—Central AsiaArt—East AsiaArt—South AsiaArt—Southeast AsiaArt—West AsiaAsiaAsian MigrationsAsoka

xv

Reader’s Guide

xvi berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Association of Southeast AsianNations

AurangzebBabi and Baha’iBritish East India CompanyBuddhismChinaChinese Popular ReligionConfucianismConfuciusCyrus the GreatDaoismDelhi SultanateDutch East India CompanyGenghis KhanHan WudiHarappan State and Indus

CivilizationHinduismHo Chi MinhHong MerchantsInner EurasiaIslamic LawIslamic WorldJainismJapanese EmpireKhmer KingdomKushan EmpireLaoziMahaviraMao ZedongMenciusMesopotamiaMongol EmpireMughal EmpireOrientalismPacific, Settlement ofPastoral Nomadic SocietiesPersian EmpirePolo, MarcoPorcelainQin Shi Huangdi

Revolution—ChinaRevolution—IranRevolutions, CommunistRicci, MatteoRumiSasanian EmpireShintoSiddhartha GautamaSikhismSilk RoadsSima QianSpice TradeSrivijayaSteppe ConfederationsSui WendiSui YangdiSüleymanSun Yat-senTang TaizongTeaTimurTrading Patterns—China SeasTrading Patterns—Indian OceanTrading Patterns—PacificTurkic Empire‘Umar ibn al-KhattabWarfare—ChinaWarfare—Islamic WorldWarfare—Japan and KoreaWarfare—South AsiaWarfare—Southeast AsiaWarfare—Steppe NomadsWorld Maps, ChineseYijingYongle EmperorZheng HeZhu YuanzhangZoroastrianism

EuropeAfro-EurasiaAlexander the Great

Art—EuropeArt—RussiaBerlin ConferenceBritish East India CompanyBritish EmpireCaesar, AugustusCaesar, JuliusCatherine the GreatCatholicism, RomanCeltsCharlemagneCharles VChurchill, WinstonColumbian ExchangeColumbus, ChristopherCongress of ViennaCrusades, TheDarwin, CharlesDescartes, RenéDétenteDutch East India CompanyDutch EmpireEarly Modern WorldEastern EuropeElizabeth IEnlightenment, TheEurocentrismEuropeEuropean UnionExpansion, EuropeanFascismFeudalismFrench EmpireGalileo GalileiGama,Vasco daGerman EmpireGrand TourGreece, AncientGregory VIIGuildsHanseatic LeagueHenry the Navigator

HerodotusHitler, AdolfHolocaustHomerIberian Trading CompaniesIndo-European MigrationInterwar Years (1918–1939)Isabella IJoan of ArcLenin,VladimirLeonardo da VinciLocke, JohnLuther, MartinMacedonian EmpireMachiavelli, NiccoloMagellan, FerdinandManorialismMarx, KarlMercantilismNapoleonNapoleonic EmpireNewton, IsaacNorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationOrthodoxy, ChristianOttoman EmpireParliamentarianismPeter the GreatPlatoPolo, MarcoPortuguese EmpireProtestantismRaynal, Abbé GuillaumeRenaissanceRevolution—FranceRevolution—RussiaRoman EmpireRussian-Soviet EmpireSmith, AdamSocratesSpanish EmpireStalin, JosephThomas Aquinas, St.

ThucydidesTrading Patterns, Ancient

EuropeanTrading Patterns, Eastern

EuropeanTrading Patterns, MediterraneanTreaty of VersaillesUrban IIVictoriaViking SocietyWarfare—EuropeWarsaw PactWorld War IWorld War II

Arts andLiteratureArt—AfricaArt—Ancient Greece and RomeArt—Central AsiaArt—East AsiaArt—EuropeArt—Native North AmericaArt—OverviewArt—RussiaArt—South AsiaArt—Southeast AsiaArt—West AsiaArt, PaleolithicBullroarersChild, LydiaCreation MythsDance and DrillDictionaries and EncyclopediasEnlightenment, TheLetters and CorrespondenceLeonardo da VinciLibrariesLiterature and WomenMuseumsMusic—GenresMusic and Political Protest

RenaissanceWriting Systems and MaterialsWriting World HistoryYijing

BiographyAbrahamAkbarAlexander the Greatal-Khwarizmial-RaziAristotleAsokaAugustine, St.AurangzebBolívar, SimónCaesar, AugustusCaesar, JuliusCatherine the GreatCharlemagneCharles VChild, LydiaChurchill, WinstonColumbus, ChristopherConfuciusConstantine the GreatCyrus the GreatDarwin, CharlesDescartes, ReneDu Bois, W. E. B.Einstein, AlbertElizabeth IGalileo GalileiGama,Vasco daGandhi, MohandasGenghis KhanGregory VIIGuevara, CheHammurabiHan WudiHarun ar-RashidHatshepsut

reader’s guide xvii

Henry the NavigatorHerodotusHitler, AdolfHo Chi MinhHomerIbn BattutaIbn KhaldunIbn SinaIsabella IJefferson, ThomasJesusJoan of ArcJustinian IKamehameha IKangxi EmperorKenyatta, JomoKing, Martin Luther, Jr.LaoziLenin,VladimirLeonardo da VinciLincoln, AbrahamLocke, JohnLuther, MartinMachiavelli, NiccoloMagellan, FerdinandMahaviraMansa MusaMao ZedongMarx, KarlMehmed IIMenciusMiranda, Francisco deMosesMotecuhzoma IIMuhammadNapoleonNewton, IsaacNkrumah, KwameOsman IPaul, St.Peter the GreatPlato

Polo, MarcoQin Shi HuangdiRamses IIRaynal, Abbé GuillaumeRicci, MatteoRoosevelt, EleanorRoosevelt, Franklin DelanoRumiSaladinSenghor, LéopoldShaka ZuluSiddhartha GautamaSima QianSmith, AdamSocratesStalin, JosephSui WendiSui YangdiSüleymanSun Yat-senTang TaizongThomas Aquinas, St.ThucydidesTimurTúpac AmaruTutu, Desmond‘Umar ibn al-KhattabUrban IIVictoriaYongle EmperorZheng HeZhu Yuanzhang

Commerce—Organizationsand InstitutionsBritish East India CompanyDutch East India CompanyGuildsHanseatic LeagueHong MerchantsHudson’s Bay Company

Iberian Trading CompaniesMultinational Corporations

Commerce—Systems andPatternsBarterCapitalismColumbian ExchangeEconomic Growth, Intensive and

ExtensiveGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and

TradeInternational Monetary SystemsLabor Systems, CoerciveMercantilismMoney PiracyProperty Rights and Contracts Silk RoadsSlave TradesTrade CyclesTrading Patterns, Ancient

AmericanTrading Patterns, Ancient

EuropeanTrading Patterns, China SeasTrading Patterns, Eastern

EuropeanTrading Patterns, Indian OceanTrading Patterns, MediterraneanTrading Patterns, MesoamericanTrading Patterns, PacificTrading Patterns, Trans-SaharanWorld System Theory

Commerce—Trade Goods and ProductsAlcoholCerealsCoal

xviii berkshire encyclopedia of world history

CoffeeDrugsFoodFur TradeGlassGold and SilverGum ArabicNatural GasOilPaperPlasticsPorcelainRubberSaltSlave TradesSpice TradeSugarTeaTextilesTimber

CommunicationCommunication—OverviewDictionaries and EncyclopediasEsperantoLanguage, Classification ofLanguage, Standardization ofLetters and CorrespondenceLibrariesMass MediaRadioTelegraph and TelephoneWriting Systems and Materials

Conflict andPeace Making—Diplomacy andPeace MakingBalance of PowerBerlin ConferenceCold WarCongress of Vienna

ContainmentDétenteDiplomacyInterwar Years (1918–1939)NonviolencePeace Making in the Modern EraPeace ProjectsTreaty of Versailles

Conflict andPeace Making—War and Conflict Cold WarCrusades, TheFirearmsGenocideHolocaustLogisticsMilitary EngineeringMilitary Strategy and TacticsMilitary Training and

DisciplineReligion and WarRevolution—ChinaRevolution—CubaRevolution—FranceRevolution—HaitiRevolution—IranRevolution—MexicoRevolution—RussiaRevolution—United StatesRevolutions, CommunistWar and Peace—Overview Warfare—AfricaWarfare—ChinaWarfare—EuropeWarfare—Islamic WorldWarfare—Japan and KoreaWarfare—Post-Columbian

Latin AmericaWarfare—Post-Columbian

North America

Warfare—Pre-Columbian Meso-america and North America

Warfare—Pre-ColumbianSouth America

Warfare—South AsiaWarfare—Southeast AsiaWarfare—Steppe NomadsWarfare, AirWarfare, ComparativeWarfare, LandWarfare, NavalWarfare, Origins ofWorld War IWorld War II

Cultural Contactand RelationsColonialismComparative Borders and

FrontiersDecolonizationDiasporasDisplaced Populations,

Typology ofEthnic NationalismEthnicityEthnocentrismEurocentrismExpansion, EuropeanExpeditions, ScientificExploration, ChineseExploration, SpaceGrand TourIndigenous Peoples Interregional NetworksMaritime HistoryMissionariesNavigationOrientalism PilgrimageRace and RacismSlave Trades

reader’s guide xix

Social DarwinismTourismTravel GuidesWorld System Theory

Daily LifeAdolescenceAge StratificationChildhoodDressEducationFestivalsGamesInitiation and Rites of PassageKinshipLeisureMarriage and FamilySex and SexualitySportsTextiles

Disciplines andFields of StudyAnthropologyArchaeologyCartographyComparative EthnologyComparative HistoryGeneticsMuseumsPaleoanthropologySocial HistorySocial SciencesSociologyWomen’s and Gender History

Environment and EcologyAnthroposphereBiological ExchangesClimate ChangeDeforestation

DesertificationEarthquakesEnergyErosionExtinctionsFamineFireGreen or Environmental

MovementsGreen RevolutionNatureTime, Conceptions ofWater Water Management

Eras, Empires,States, andSocietiesAfrica, ColonialAfrica, PostcolonialAksumAmerican EmpireAndean StatesAssyrian EmpireAustro-Hungarian EmpireAztec EmpireBabylonBeninBritish EmpireByzantine EmpireCeltsChinaDelhi SultanateDutch EmpireEarly Modern WorldEgypt—State FormationEgypt, AncientFrench EmpireGerman EmpireGreece, AncientHarappan State and Indus

Civilization

Hausa StatesInca EmpireIslamic WorldJapanese EmpireKanem-BornuKhmer KingdomKongoKushan EmpireMacedonian EmpireMaliMeroëMesoamericaMesopotamiaMississippian CultureMongol EmpireMughal EmpireNapoleonic EmpireNubiansOttoman EmpirePersian EmpirePortuguese EmpireRoman EmpireRussian-Soviet EmpireSasanian EmpireSokoto CaliphateSonghaiSpanish EmpireSrivijayaState Societies, Emergence ofState, TheSteppe ConfederationsSumerian SocietyTurkic EmpireUgaritViking SocietyWagadu EmpireZimbabwe, Great

EvolutionExtinctionsForaging (Paleolithic) Era (please

see This Fleeting World)

xx berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Human Evolution—OverviewPaleoanthropologyUniverse, Origins of

Government,Politics, and LawAbsolutism, EuropeanArab CaliphatesBands,Tribes, Chiefdoms, and StatesCitizenshipCivil DisobedienceCivil LawCommunism and SocialismConfucianismContract LawDemocracy, ConstitutionalFascismFeudalismForms of Government—OverviewGlobal CommonsGlobal Imperialism and GenderHuman RightsImperialismInternational LawIslamic LawLiberalismManorialismNationalismNatural LawParliamentarianismReligion and GovernmentSacred LawSecularismSocial WelfareUtopiaZionism

Health andDiseaseAIDSBiological ExchangesCinchona

Disease and NutritionDiseases—OverviewDiseases, AnimalDiseases, PlantMalariaQuinine

Internationaland RegionalOrganizationsAfrican UnionArab LeagueAssociation of Southeast Asian

NationsCominternEuropean UnionInternational Court of JusticeInternational Criminal CourtInternational Organizations—

OverviewLeague of NationsNorth Atlantic Treaty

OrganizationOrganization of American StatesRed Cross and Red Crescent

MovementUnited NationsWarsaw Pact

MigrationAsian MigrationsDiasporasDisplaced Populations,

Typology ofEquatorial and Southern Africa,

4000 BCE–1100 CE

Expansion, EuropeanGlobal Migration in Modern

TimesIndo-European MigrationMigrationsPacific, Settlement of

Pastoral Nomadic SocietiesUrbanization

PeriodizationAgrarian Era (please see This

Fleeting World)Civilization, Barbarism, SavageryForaging (Paleolithic) Era (please

see This Fleeting World)Long CyclesModern Era (please see This

Fleeting World)Periodization, Conceptions ofPeriodization—Overview

Philosophy,Thought,and IdeasAnthroposphereCivilization, Barbarism, SavageryConfucianismCultureFreedomModernityOrientalismPolitical ThoughtPostcolonial AnalysisPostmodernismProgressWestern CivilizationWorld Maps, Chinese

PopulationAge StratificationCarrying CapacityContraception and Birth ControlPopulation Population Growth as Engine

of HistoryUrbanizationWorld Cities in History—

Overview

reader’s guide xxi

Religion and BeliefSystemsAfrican ReligionsAfrican-American and Caribbean

ReligionsAnimismBabi and Baha’iBuddhismCatholicism, RomanChinese Popular ReligionCreation MythsDaoismEcumenicismHinduismIslamJainismJudaismLatter-day SaintsManichaeismMillennialismMissionariesMysticismNative American ReligionsOrthodoxy, ChristianPentecostalismPilgrimageProtestantismReligion—OverviewReligion and GovernmentReligion and WarReligious FreedomReligious FundamentalismReligious SyncretismSacred LawShamanismShintoSikhismTotemismZionismZoroastrianism

ResearchMethods Cultural and Geographic AreasCultural EcologyDating MethodsDecipherment of Ancient ScriptsOral HistoryPeriodization, Conceptions ofPostcolonial AnalysisWriting World History

Social andPoliticalMovementsApartheid in South AfricaConsumerismContraception and Birth ControlDecolonizationEthnic NationalismGay and Lesbian Rights MovementGreen or Environmental

MovementsHuman RightsIndigenous Peoples MovementsLabor Union MovementsPan-AfricanismReligious FundamentalismRevolution—ChinaRevolution—CubaRevolution—FranceRevolution—HaitiRevolution—IranRevolution—MexicoRevolution—RussiaRevolution—United StatesRevolutions, CommunistWomen’s Emancipation

MovementsWomen’s Reproductive Rights

MovementsWomen’s Suffrage Movements

Technology and ScienceAlchemyArchitectureComputerElectricityEnergyEnlightenment, TheExpeditions, ScientificIndustrial TechnologiesInformation SocietiesMathematicsMetallurgyPaperRenaissanceScience—OverviewScientific InstrumentsScientific RevolutionSecondary-Products

RevolutionTechnology—OverviewWater Management

Themes—Models andProcessesEmpireEngines of HistoryFirst, Second, Third, Fourth

WorldsGlobalizationLong CyclesMatriarchy and PatriarchyNation-StateProduction and ReproductionState, TheWorld System Theory

Themes—PlacesAfricaAfro-Eurasia

xxii berkshire encyclopedia of world history

AsiaEastern EuropeEuropeFrontiersGeographic ConstructionsInner Eurasia

TransportationAirplaneAutomobileCaravanNavigationRailroadSailing ShipsTransportation—

Overview

Ways of LivingAgricultural SocietiesForaging Societies, ContemporaryHorticultural SocietiesIndigenous PeoplesInformation SocietiesPastoral Nomadic Societies

Women andGenderAIDS ChildhoodContraception and Birth ControlDressGay and Lesbian Rights

Movement

Global Imperialism and Gender

Human RightsInitiation and Rites of PassageKinshipLetters and CorrespondenceLiterature and WomenMarriage and FamilyMatriarchy and Patriarchy Sex and SexualityWomen’s and Gender HistoryWomen’s Emancipation

MovementsWomen’s Reproductive Rights

MovementsWomen’s Suffrage Movements

reader’s guide xxiii

Ralph Waldo Emerson once said, “A foolish con-sistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” Each

time Berkshire Publishing Group sets to work on cre-ating an encyclopedia, we review our guidelines onhow we will present the names and terms that havechanged in the course of history or through languagealterations. We strive for consistency, though not thefoolish kind against which Emerson warned.

Languages and geographic terms evolve regularly,and sometimes staying current means that we can’t becompletely consistent. Adding to the challenge is thefact that words in languages not based on the Latinalphabet (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Hebrew)must be transliterated—spelled in the language ofanother alphabet or “romanized” into English. Andeven within a language, transliteration systems change.Many people who grew up knowing the Wade-Gilessystem of Chinese romanization (with such spellings asPeking and Mao Tse-tung) had to become accustomedto seeing words using the pinyan romanization systemintroduced in the 1950s (with new spellings such asBeijing and Mao Zedong).

By and large, we look to Merriam-Webster’s CollegiateDictionary, 11th Edition (known as M-W 11), as ourspelling authority, with Merriam-Webster’s BiographicalDictionary and M-W’s Geographic Dictionary for termsnot in M-W 11. However, sometimes we overruleMerriam-Webster for a compelling reason. For example,historian Ross Dunn—who wrote the Berkshire Ency-

clopedia of World History’s article on Ibn Battuta (andwho is a leading expert on Battuta)—spells the namewithout the final “h,” while M-W spells it “Battutah.” Inanother case, the West African town of Timbuktu is sowell known by that spelling that we opted for it in pref-erence to M-W’s preferred “Tomboctou.”

Finally, there is the matter of using diacriticalmarks—accent marks, ayns (‘) and hamzas (’), andother markings—that provide phonetic distinctions towords from other languages. The use of diacritics isalways a big question for a publisher on internationaltopics. We—and the scholars we work with—tend toprefer to use various marks, from European-languageaccent graves to Japanese macrons and Arabic ums andahs. But we have found that they can distract, and evenintimidate, the general reader, so our policy has gen-erally been to minimize their use. In time, as U.S. stu-dents become more comfortable with non-Englishforms and as we publish for global audiences, we willbe able to make greater use of these marks, which aredesigned to be helpful to the reader.

That said, we thought it would be useful (and fun)to provide a listing of the “Top 100” terms—suggestedby our editors—that have alternate spellings and names.We’ve also listed pronunciations for non-Englishnames and terms. (The syllable in capital letters is theaccented one; note, however, that Chinese and otherlanguages do not necessarily stress syllables as is donein English.)

xxv

How to Spell It and How to Say It:100 Important People, Places,

and Terms in World History

xxvi berkshire encyclopedia of world history

PeoplePreferred form Pronunciation Alternates

Alexander the Great Alexander, Alexander of Macedon

Asoka a-SHO-ka Ashoka

Augustine, St. Augustine of Hippo

Aurangzeb or-ang-ZEB ‘Alamgir

Caesar, Augustus Augustus Caesar, Caesar Augustus

Chiang Kai-shek chang kye-shek Jiang Jieshi

Confucius con-FYU-shus Kong Fuzi, K’ung Fu-tzu

Gandhi, Mohandas GHAN-dee, mo-HAN-des Mahatma Gandhi

Galileo Galilei ga-li-LAY-o ga-li-LAY not Galilei, Galileo

Genghis Khan JEN-gis kon Chinghis, Chinghiz, Chingiz

Han Wudi hon woot-see Han Wu-ti

Ibn Battuta ib-un ba-TOO-ta Ibn Battutah

Ibn Sina ib-un see-na Avicenna

Jesus Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth

Kangxi emperor kong-hsee K’ang-hsi

Khubilai Khan KOO-blah kon Kublai, Qubilai

Laozi laud-zuh Lao-tzu, Lao Tzu

Leonardo da Vinci le-o-NAR-do da VIN-chee da Vinci, Leonardo

Mao Zedong mao zeh-DON Mao Tse-tung

Mencius MEN-chee-us Mengzi, Meng-tzu, Meng Tzu

Moses Moshe

Motecuhzoma II mo-tek-w-ZO-ma Montezuma II; Moctezuma

Muhammad mo-HA-med Mohammad, the Prophet Muhammed,Mehemet

Napoleon na-POLE-eon Napoleon Bonaparte

Qin Shi Huangdi chin sher hwang-dee Ch’in Shih Huang-ti

Saladin SAL-a-den Salah al-Din, Selahedin

Siddhartha Gautama si-DAR-ta GAU-ta-ma Buddha,The

Sima Qian suma chee-en Ssu-ma Ch’ien

Sui Wendi sway wen-dee Sui Wen-ti

Sui Yangdi sway yahng-dee Sui Yang-ti

Süleyman soo-lay-MON Süleyman the Magnificant, Süleyman I,Suleiman the Lawgiver

Sun Yat-sen soon yat-sen Sun Yixian

Tang Taizong tahng taizong T’ang T’ai-tsung

how to spell it and how to say it xxvii

People (continued)Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates

Thomas Aquinas, St. a-KWY-nas not Aquinas,Thomas

Timur TEE-more Timur Lenk,Tamerlane,Tamburlaine

Urban II Otho also Otto, Odo, Eudes—of Lagery

Zheng He jeng huh Cheng Ho

Zhu Yuanzhang joo you-ahn-jahng Chu Yüan-chang

PlacesPreferred form Pronunciation Alternates

Afro-Eurasia Afroeurasia; Africa, Europe, and Asia

Aksum Axum

Beijing bay-jin Peking

Bukhara boo-KAR-a Bokhara, Boukhara

Cambodia Khmer Republic, Kampuchea

Chang River chan Yangzi,Yangtze

Czech Republic and Slovakia chek, slow-VA-kee-a Czechoslovakia

East Indies Insular Southeast Asia

Egypt United Arab Republic

Guangzhou gwang-joe Canton

Habsburg Hapsburg

Huange River hwang Huange He,Yellow River

Inner Asia Central Asia

Iran Persia

Iraq Mesopotamia

Istanbul iss-tan-BULL Constantinople, Byzantium

Kandahar KON-da-har Qandahar

Kara-Kum ka-ra-KOOM Karakum

Kazakhs kah-zaks Khazaks

Khwarizm KWA-ra-zem Kwarezm, Khwarazm, Khuwarizm

Kongo Congo

Kushan empire koosh-an Kushana, Kusana

Mesoamerica Middle America, Central America

Mughul Moghol, Mogol

Mumbai MUM-bye Bombay

Myanmar MY-AN-mar Burma

Samarqand SA-mar-kand Samarkand

(Continues on next page)

xxviii berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Places (continued)Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates

Shilla kingdom shil-la Silla kingdom

Songhai Songhay

Sri Lanka shree LAN-ka Ceylon

Thailand TIE-land Siam

Timbuktu tim-BUCK-too Timbukto,Tombouctou

USSR Soviet Union, Soviet Empire, Russia

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia known collectively as Indochina

West Indies Caribbean

Religious , Political, and Cultural Terms

Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates

al-Jazeera as-jah-ZEER-a Al Jazeera, Al-Jazeera

al-Qaeda al-KAY-da Al Qaeda, al-queda

al-Razi al-rah-zee ar-Razi

Analects of Confucius Sayings of Confucius

Bhagavad Gita ba-ga-vad GEE-ta Bhagavadgita

Bible, The Old and New Testaments

Brahma Brahman, Brahmin

czar tsar

Daoism Taoism

indigenous peoples primitive, native, nonindustrial

Latter-day Saints Mormons

Muslim Moslem

Native Americans Indians, American Indians

Persian Achaemenian, Achaemenid empire

Qing dynasty ching Ch’ing dynasty

Quran Qur’an, Koran

Sasanian Sassanian, Sasanid, Sassanid empire

Shia SHEE-a Shi’a

Sharia sha-REE-a Shari’a, Islamic law

Siva SHEE-va Shiva

Song dynasty Sung dynasty

Tang dynasty T’ang dynasty

how to spell it and how to say it xxix

Religious , Political,and Cultural Terms (continued)

Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates

Torah Five Books of Moses

Vodun voo-DOO Voodoo,Vodou

World War I First World War,The Great War

World War II Second World War

Yijing I-ching, Yi-jing

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September 2004.Version 1.

The five-page How To Spell It and How To Say It maybe copied and distributed free of charge in itsentirety for noncommercial educational use only.No more than thirty copies can be distributed at atime without written permission. It may not be

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Cold War

Following World War II, a new kind of war, a so-called“Cold War,” broke out.This new war centered on ide-

ological and political conflicts, particularly the conflictbetween capitalism and Communism. This Cold War,which turned hot several times, particularly in Korea andVietnam, endured for nearly fifty years and affected mostof the globe as countries increasingly had to choose sideswith one of the superpowers (the United States and theSoviet Union) in an increasingly bipolar world. Duringconferences at Yalta (1943) and Potsdam (1945) itbecame clear that the individual nations that made up theallied powers had very different views regarding theshape of the postwar world.

On 5 March 1946, the year after the war ended, the for-mer British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made aspeech in Fulton, Missouri, (now known as his “Iron Cur-tain Speech”) in which he defined the terms of this newconflict. According to Churchill, “From Stettin in theBaltic and Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain hasdescended across the Continent.” In this speech, Churchillharshly criticized the actions of the Soviet Union. Fromthis moment on, the same Stalin who had been referredto as “Uncle Joe” during the war effort was now once againtransformed into a dangerous and dictatorial enemy.

The Cold War in Europe and the United StatesIn the United States, Cold War policies were set out inseveral early government documents. The first of these,which came to be known as the Truman Doctrine, waspromoted in a speech on 12 March of 1947. In thisspeech, President Harry Truman declared, “I believe thatit must be the policy of the United States to support freepeoples who are resisting attempted subjugation byarmed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe thatwe must assist free peoples to work out their own des-tinies in their own way.” In June of 1947, Secretary ofState George Marshall set out the European RecoveryProgram (later known as the Marshall Plan), which pro-

vided for economic aid to back up the ideology of theTruman Doctrine. The final plank in the Cold War plat-form of the United States was set out by George Kennanin an article in Foreign Affairs. The “containment policy”that Kennan espoused became the rationale for mostUnited States foreign policy behavior in the next fortyyears. Kennan’s policy of “containing” Communistnations later gave rise to the “Domino Theory,” that is, theidea that if one country fell to Communism, otherswould follow (particularly in Asia).

The earliest strain in the Cold War came in Germanyas the United States and Western nations merged theirzones to create a West German federal government andworked to rebuild West Germany while denouncing theSoviet Union’s policies in East Germany. The introduc-tion of a new currency in West Germany led to a Sovietblockade of West Berlin, which lay within East Germanyand thus within the Soviet zone of occupation. Inresponse to the blockade, the Allies managed to supplyWest Berlin through a massive airlift that lasted for overa year. Ultimately, Germany was divided between eastand west and in 1961 the Berlin Wall went up, physicallydividing the city of Berlin into two zones of power.

The Cold War also led to the creation of NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), an organizationthat provided for the mutual defense and assistance ofWestern European nations against any hostile action bythe Soviet Union.The Soviet Union responded by creat-ing an alliance with Eastern European countries, knownas the Warsaw Pact.

AsiaThe agreements made at Yalta had provided a structurefor postwar cooperation in Asia but these initial agree-ments soon fell apart. The Soviet Union had agreed toenter the war in the Pacific three months after the defeatof Germany and Stalin abided by this agreement. Roo-sevelt had agreed to allow the Soviet Union to establisha base at Port Arthur, China, in exchange for Stalin’sagreement to sign a treaty of alliance with Chiang Kai-shek’s Republic of China. A Communist movement,viewed as a direct attempt by the Soviet Union to achieve

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the worldwide revolution that had been advocated byLenin, had emerged in China in the 1930s. The Com-munist and non-Communist parties in China hadattempted to cooperate after the Japanese invasion buthad been largely unsuccessful and both groups wereanticipating a renewed struggle after the defeat of Japan.In 1949, the Nationalist government fled to Taiwan andMao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China.The United States refused to recognize Mao’s govern-ment, instead maintaining ties to the Nationalist govern-ment in Taiwan.The United States lamented the “loss ofChina” and vowed to take whatever steps were necessaryto prevent the spread of Communism throughout Asia.

The situation in Korea also deteriorated rapidly. Theremoval of Korea from Japanese control had been one ofthe stated objectives of the allies inWorldWar II. Prior tothe surrender of Japan in 1945, the United States and theSoviet Union had occupied the country, temporarilydividing it at the thirty-eighth parallel.The allies plannedto hold elections after the restoration of peace and allowthe newly elected government to rule an independentKorea. However, tensions between the United States andthe Soviet Union had led to the establishment of separategovernments in North and South Korea.The Communistgovernment in North Korea, with the approval of Stalinand the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea on 25 June

cold war 377

Dividing Berlin during the Cold WarThe exchange below took place during the week afterthe closing of the border between East and West Berlinand the erection of the Berlin Wall. For the next eight-een years, East Germans would be forbidden fromcrossing into West Germany.

United States Note to the U.S.S.R. on Berlin,August 17, 1961

The Embassy of the United States presents its com-pliments to the Minister of Foreign Affairs and uponinstructions of its Government has the honor todirect the most serious attention of the Governmentof the U.S.S.R. to the following.

On August 13, East German authorities put intoeffect several measures regulating movement at theboundary of the western sectors and the Soviet sectorof the city of Berlin.These measures have the effect oflimiting, to a degree approaching complete prohibi-tion, passage from the Soviet sector to the westernsectors of the city.These measures were accompaniedby the closing of the sector boundary by a sizabledeployment of police forces and by military detach-ments brought into Berlin for this purpose. . . .

By the very admission of the East German author-ities, the measures which have just been taken aremotivated by the fact that an ever increasing numberof inhabitants of East Germany wish to leave this ter-ritory. The reasons for this exodus are known. Theyare simply the internal difficulties in East Germany.

Soviet Reply To Identic Notes Dated August 17of United States, United Kingdom, and Franceon Berlin, 18 August 1961

In connection with the note of the Government of theUnited States of America in August 17, 1961, theGovernment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub-lics considers it necessary to state the following:

The Soviet Government fully understands and sup-ports the actions of the Government of the GermanDemocratic Republic which established effective con-trol on the border with West Berlin in order to bar theway for subversive activity being carried out fromWest Berlin against the G.D.R. and other countries ofthe socialist community. . .

West Berlin has been transformed into a center ofsubversive activity, diversion, and espionage, into acenter of political and economic provocationsagainst the G.D.R., the Soviet Union, and othersocialist countries. Former and present West Berlinmunicipal leaders have cynically called West Berlinan “arrow in the living body of the German Demo-cratic Republic,” a “front city,” a “violator of tran-quility,” the “cheapest atom bomb put in the centerof a socialist state” . . .

Source: Lincoln,W. B. (1968). Documents in world history, 1945–1967 (pp. 70–72). SanFrancisco: Chandler Publishing Company.

1950.As a result of a boycott of the U.N. Security Coun-cil by the Soviet Union, the United States was able to passa resolution that labeled North Korea as an aggressivenation and called for U.N. forces to be sent to Korea.TheU.N. forces, led by American general Douglas MacArthur,defeated North Korean troops and expelled them fromSouth Korea. Subsequently, MacArthur and the U.N.forces crossed the thirty-eighth parallel and adopted anew mission, which aimed to unite all of Korea under anon-Communist government. China had issued severalwarnings that they might intervene if U.N. forces crossedthe thirty-eighth parallel but these warnings were ignored.When the Chinese made good on their threat to supplyboth men and matériel, U.N. forces had to retreat backinto South Korea. A defensive line was established nearthe thirty-eighth parallel. Peace negotiations dragged onwithout result and the KoreanWar eventually ended in astalemate.At the end of the war, Korea remained divided.

The other major “hot” war in the post–World War IIperiod was also fought through the lens of Cold War ten-sions. The initial war in French Indo-China began as aresult of the French decision to try to reestablish controlof their colony after the war.War broke out between theFrench and Ho Chi Minh’s Indo-Chinese CommunistParty in 1946.After the French fortress at Dien Bien Phufell to Communist forces the French agreed to negotia-tions and the Geneva Conference in 1954 brought anend to the first Indochina war.The United States had sentconsiderable aid to the French in order to prevent thespread of Communism, while pressuring the French toagree to Vietnamese independence at a future date. TheGeneva agreements had called for elections in Vietnambut as it became clear that free elections would mostlikely result in a Communist victory, the United Statessought other solutions. The United States was increas-ingly unwilling to risk another Asian domino to theCommunists. Thus, the United States supported NgoDinh Diem, who refused to agree to the elections calledfor by the Geneva Accords. Despite U.S. assistance SouthVietnam was on the verge of collapse by 1963. TheUnited States responded by sending military advisers and

increased material supplies. In 1965, the United Statesunder President Lyndon Johnson began to send U.S.troops to Vietnam. President Nixon, under increasingpressure to end the war, bombed not just Vietnam butalso Laos and Cambodia.The Treaty of Paris in Januaryof 1973 ended the conflict. Two years after the warended, South Vietnam fell to the Communists.

The spread of the Cold War to Asia led SoutheastAsian nations to form an alliance in 1954, the SoutheastAsia Treaty Organization (SEATO).This alliance was aneffort to cooperate economically and also to resist furtherCommunist encroachment in Southeast Asia. It includedrepresentatives of Australia, France, Great Britain, NewZealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and theUnited States.

AfricaAfrica was more indirectly affected by Cold War tensions.Both the United States and the Soviet Union directed eco-nomic assistance plans and policies aimed at securingCold War alliances. But in the postwar world, Africannations were occupied by the struggle for independenceand faced significant challenges upon obtaining inde-pendence. Independence was achieved earlier in northand central Africa, where there were fewer white settlers,than in South Africa, where the white-dominated gov-ernment struggled to maintain its position of power andthe policies of apartheid.

The Middle EastThe Middle East achieved its independence after WorldWar II. Regional differences, territorial disputes, and theBritish mandate that divided territory between Palestineand the newly created nation of Israel contributed toinstability in the area. The Arab-Israeli conflict also con-tributed to violence in the region. Arab nations cooper-ated in an attempt to defeat the Israelis and reclaim theterritory occupied by the citizens of that nation.The emer-gence of various militant religious groups radically alteredthe nature of many Middle Eastern governments, partic-ularly in Iran. During the Cold War, regional problems

378 berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We willbury you! • Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971)

were further complicated by the political interests of theUnited States and the Soviet Union, both of whom val-ued the region, partly because of the vast oil resources inthe Middle East. Its strategic location and vast productionof petroleum made the Middle East of value to all indus-trialized nations. The United States contributed moneyand material aid to the Israeli government and intervenedin the area in an attempt to maintain its interests, botheconomic and military, in the area while the Soviet Unionfought and lost a war in Afghanistan.

Latin AmericaThe United States had inaugurated a policy of noninter-vention in Latin America in the 1930s but reversed thispolicy after World War II. Communist movements andfear of the spread of Communism in addition to eco-nomic interests in the area were primarily responsible forthe change in policy. In Guatemala, Jacobo ArbenzGuzmán came to power and began to reduce the influ-ence and interests of U.S. businesses. The United FruitCompany, controlled by U.S. interests, noted that theCommunists were involved in the changes and asked forassistance. A U.S.-led military operation successfullydeposed Arbenz Guzmán and the new governmentrepealed his land reform measures and jailed and mur-dered Communists.A small guerrilla movement of Com-munists and other nationalists emerged and violencecontinued for three decades.

In 1959, Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba, enact-ing a social and political revolution in Cuba based onMarxist ideas. He also initiated land reform, seizing allland from owners who had more than 165 acres. Eco-nomic sanctions by the United States and other countrieswho refused to trade with Cuba caused a rapid decline inthe Cuban economy.

Cuba became a key nation in the Cold War strugglebetween the United States and the Soviet Union. TheUnited States attempted to overthrow Castro by landingCuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs in 1961. After this failedinvasion, Castro sought protection from the Soviet Unionand vowed to spread Communism to other areas in Latin

America. Although Castro failed to bring other Commu-nist governments to power in Latin America, his alliancewith the Soviet Union brought the world to the edge ofa nuclear war during the Cuban missile crisis.The SovietUnion had agreed to install missiles in Cuba and to sup-port Castro against further actions by the United States.In response, President John Kennedy ordered a navalblockade of Cuba, to prevent missiles from being sent toCuba. Ultimately, Nikita Khrushchev backed down andagreed to dismantle existing sites and pledged not toinstall missiles at a future date.This direct confrontationand the realization of how close the world had come tonuclear war led to the installation of a direct phone linebetween the United States and the Soviet Union and sub-sequently to a thaw in relations and talks regarding thereduction of nuclear arms.

cold war 379

Developing Nations and the Cold WarDuring the Cold War era, economic developmentwas a key issue for many developing nations. InApril, 1955 delegates from 29 Asian and Africannations meet at Bandung, Indonesia and reachedthe following agreement on economic cooperation.

The Asian-African Conference recognized theurgency of promoting economic development inthe Asian-African region. There was generaldesire for economic cooperation among the par-ticipating countries on the basis of mutual inter-est and respect for national sovereignty. Theproposals with regard to the economic cooper-ation within the participating countries do notpreclude either the desirability or the need forcooperation with countries outside the region,including the investment of foreign capital. Itwas further recognized that the assistance beingreceived by certain participating countries fromoutside the region, through international orunder bilateral agreements, had made a valuablecontribution to the implementation of theirdevelopment programmes.

Source: Kahin, G. M. (1955). The Asian-African Conference, Bandung, Indonesia,April, 1955 (p. 76). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

The End of the Cold WarAlthough there were earlier improvements in the relationsbetween the United States and the Soviet Union andagreements to limit nuclear weapons (SALT I and SALTII), real change occurred only with the collapse of Com-munism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.WhenMikhail Gorbachev became premier of the Soviet Unionin 1985 he began attempting to reform the Communistsystem. The two best-known aspects of his reform pro-gram are perestroika, the attempted decentralization andrestructuring of the economy, and glasnost, a movetoward free speech and a free press. Instead of the reformand revival that Gorbachev hoped would transpire, rev-olutions occurred in Eastern Europe and when the SovietUnion did not send troops to restore order, the Commu-nist governments in Eastern Europe simply fell.The mostprominent symbol of the collapse of the Communist

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regimes in Eastern Europe was the dismantling of theBerlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent reunification ofGermany in the 1990s. After an attempted Communistcoup in the Soviet Union in 1991, the Union of SovietSocialist Republics also collapsed. Individual republicssuch as the Ukraine withdrew from the union and Gor-bachev resigned as president of the union after anattempted coup by military and old-style Communists,which led to the rise of Boris Yeltsin as a political figure.

With the collapse of Communism, the Cold War thathad dominated European politics for nearly fifty yearswas essentially over. Although Communism itself stillexisted in China, Cuba, and a few other areas, the dis-mantling of the Soviet Union seemed to signify its declineand the victory of democracy. The decline of the rivalrybetween the United States and the Soviet Union easedtensions and pressure on nations in Asia and Latin Amer-

How to Spot a CommunistThese instructions were developed for the Americanpublic by the U. S. First Army Headquarters and dis-seminated through the popular media in the 1950s.

If there is no fool-proof system in spotting a Com-munist, there are, fortunately, indications that maygive him away.These indications are often subtle butalways present, for the Communist, by reason of his“faith” must act and talk along certain lines. While a certain heaviness of style and preference for longsentences is common to most Communist writing, adistinct vocabulary provides the . . . more easily rec-ognized feature of the “Communist Language.” Evena superficial reading of an article written by a Com-munist or a conversation with one will probablyreveal the use of some of the following expressions:integrative thinking, vanguard, comrade, hooten-anny, chauvinism, book-burning, syncretistic faith,bourgeois-nationalism, jingoism, colonialism, hooli-ganism, ruling class, progressive, demagogy, dialec-tical, witch-hunt, reactionary, exploitation, oppres-sive, materialist. . .

The “Communist Logic”. . . is diametrically op-posed to our own.Thus the Communist refers to the

iron curtain police states as “democracies,” and anydefensive move on the part of the Western powers iscondemned as “aggression.” The Communist thusbuilds for himself a topsy-turvy world with a com-pletely distorted set of values. For this reason, it ispractically impossible to win an argument with ahard-core Communist. . . .

The Communist mind cannot and will not engagein a detached examination of ideas. Talking to aCommunist about his own ideas, then, is like lis-tening to a phonograph record. His answers willinvariably follow a definite pattern because he cannever admit, even hypothetically, that the basis forhis ideas may not be sound. This attitude is typicalnot only for the individual but also on a nationalscale. . . . The answer is final and no arguments arepermitted so far as the Communists are concerned.

The Communist, then, is not really “logical.” Thefinality of his arguments and the completeness of hiscondemnation marks him clearly, whether as aspeaker, a writer or a conversation partner.

Source: U.S.A., An American magazine of fact and opinion. June 22, 1955 (supplement).