Beneficial Uses of Municipal Wastewater Residuals - Biosolids

Canadian Water and Wastewater Association

Final Report

Prepared by:

Goce Vasileski Senior Environmental Researcher

34 Northview Road Ottawa, ON K2E 7E4

Tel: 613-421-1023 E-mail: gocevasile@yahoo.com.au

September 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3 2. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………… 3 2.1 Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………………… 3 3. METHODOLIGY ……………………………………………………………………………………. 4 4. FINDINGS …………………………………………………………………………………………... 4 4.1 General Findings …………………………………………………………………………………… 4 4.2 Specific Findings …………………………………………………………………………………… 4 5. RECOMMENDATIONS ……………………………………………………………………………. 5 6. CASE STUDIES ……………………………………………………………………………………. 5 6.1 Benefits ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 6.2 Potential Uses ………………………………………………………………………………………. 5 6.2.1 AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATION ………………………………………………………… 6 6.2.1.1 Fertilizer/Soil Conditioner for Human Crops Production ……………………………………….. 6 6.2.1.2 Fertilizer for Animal Crops Production …………………………………………………………… 7 6.2.2 NON-AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATION ………………………………………………….. 7 6.2.2.1 Forestry ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 7 6.2.2.2 Land Reclamation ………………………………………………………………………………….. 8 6.2.2.3 Mine Sites Reclamation …………………………………………………………………………… 9 6.2.2.4 Horticulture and Landscaping …………………………………………………………………….. 11 6.2.3 ENERGU RECOVERY - RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES …………………………… 12 6.2.3.1 Thermal Energy Recovery – Heat Generation ………………………………………………….. 12 6.2.3.2 Fuel Production – Oil from Sludge Process …………………………………………………….. 13 6.2.3.3 Raw Material for Cement Production and Fuel Substitution in Kilns …………………………. 14 6.2.3.4 Energy Recovery – Incineration ………………………………………………………………….. 15 6.2.3.5 Energy Recovery – Gasification ………………………………………………………………….. 16 6.2.4 RECYCLING AND USE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL ………………………………… 17 6.2.5 COMMERCIAL USE OF BIOSOLIDS …………………………………………………………… 18 6.2.6 OTHER PROJECTS, PROGRAMS AND STUDIES …………………………………………… 20 7. CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………………………………. 23 8. GLOSSARY ………………………………………………………………………………………… 24

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1. SUMMARY Biosolids are a by-product of municipal wastewater treatment. All municipal wastewater treatment plants produce biosolids, which are the stabilized residuals that settle from the water during the various treatment processes. Biosolids are rich in both organic matter and essential plant nutrients and can be utilized in a variety of ways, directly as a soil amendment and fertilizer, and indirectly as a feedstock in the fabrication of value-added products. This report summarizes examples, proposals and other issues relevant to the beneficial use of the municipal wastewater residuals. The findings have been tabulated and summarized in a way to attempt to identify the existing examples/case studies of beneficial uses of biosolids. A database/spread sheet report of URLs found is composed and the information on each URL provided. 2. INTRODUCTION Sludges are formed in the sewage treatment plants and are the unavoidable result of treating the domestic sewage and industrial effluent. Failure to regularly remove the sludges from the sewage treatment works inevitably results in the works failing, which then have an adverse effect on the receiving watercourse. Management of the sludges requires a secure outlet. Increasing legislation and environmental pressures on conventional sludge disposal has led to the development of on high tech sludge processing and treatment solutions throughout Canada, Europe, USA, Australia, and rest of the world. In Australia stringent standards and increasing landowner concerns are influencing treatment and disposal selection. This has resulted in consideration of overseas technology for the higher levels of treatment, in order to find the best value triple bottom line solution. Recycling sludges into biosolids is not a new management concept. For thousands of years, Chinese society returned sewage sludges to farmland in an effort to maintain soil quality and conditions. In parts of Europe and elsewhere, biosolids have been applied on agricultural land for a century and longer. In the United States, biosolids recycling is as old as farm reclamation, even as old as power generation from wind, solar and hydro-power sources. In general terms, the agricultural sector tends to promote use of manures and compost, but to date there appears to be little information promoting use of biosolids as a complement to the traditional use of manures and fertilizers for the agricultural sector. New processes, technologies and waste management strategies mean that the wastes are more environmentally acceptable, and threats to human health and the environment have been reduced or eliminated. A number of new and ongoing projects and initiatives related to the use of biosolids have prompted the need for a review of the existing policy, legislation, best management practices and guidelines (standards, objectives) in the management and beneficial use of biosolids. These activities also include sludge from industrial processes with high organic contents (e.g. pulp and paper, food processing). An important factor affecting the use of biosolids in all sectors (land application, reclamation, reforestation, thermal energy recovery, production of soil enhancers, etc.) is public acceptance, particularly the acceptance of the communities in the area where the biosolids will be applied. There is still an overwhelming perception that products generated from human waste have to be harmful either by causing odours and/or by containing toxic pollutants or pathogens. Common public concerns and the biggest issue identified with respect to the use of biosolids. Public opposition has halted several planned biosolids projects. To address this perception the Canadian Water and Wastewater Association (CWWA) decided to approach the issue by undertaking an extensive web-based search and literature review of current and past examples of biosolids beneficial use practices. This project provides a link between the municipal (urban), agricultural (rural) and industrial sectors in working towards sustainability. 2.1 Objectives This project provides an overview of the beneficial uses of municipal wastewater residuals - biosolids - and management practices available and used across the world. It illustrates the efforts in place for human and environmental protection and sustainable development. The project also aids in identifying where more work is required to gain public confidence in the beneficial use of biosolids.

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The project goals are to: • compile the most comprehensive picture to date on use and disposal of biosolids, providing critical

information for CWWA and other agencies, producers, vendors and stakeholders; • understand the breadth of the use of residual materials often considered wastes; • build consumer confidence in use of these materials and the resulting products; • establish a replicable document for future repetitions to improve homogeneity for analysis of trends and

strategies and assist in the identification of areas where additional guidance is needed; • focus on areas where urban centers and agricultural communities can work in a mutually beneficial manner

and build a case for government support 3. METHODOLOGY This project involved:

• A literature review to learn from data collection efforts and examples with references to management and use of biosolids, septage, manure, sludge, organic residuals and compostable materials;

• A comprehensive on-line survey of biosolids regulation, quality, end use and disposal and individual treatment works, including identification and compilation of relevant documents and development of an accessible database;

• Additional data collecting and comparison to data from other sources (national and international associations, clean water agencies, prior surveys, etc.);

• Refinement of a working protocol for future data collecting efforts; • Drafting interim and final reports including recommendations for next steps.

The on-line search and literature review included searches for agricultural and wastewater treatment associations, municipal wastewater treatment plants, disposal and removal sites and industrial and commercial facilities. Key words included but were not limited to: sewage sludge, septage, biosolids, beneficial use, incineration, disposal, compost, energy recovery, soil supplements, fertilizers, organic residues, (and specific ones – pulp and paper, food processing). 4. FINDINGS 4.1 General Findings - Terminology and the variety of definitions for one word which has same meaning (e.g. four for biosolids; three for

beneficial use, etc.) is extensive; - The agricultural community acknowledges the use of biosolids; whereas, in some instances biosolids and

sewage sludge are considered waste and treated so under legislation; - The agricultural sector tends to promote the use of manures and compost, but to date there appears to be little

information promoting use of biosolids as a complement to the traditional use of manures and fertilizers; - There is little publicly available information as to the case studies and benefits of using the products; - Sectoral associations could promote public awareness and understanding on websites, workshops,

demonstration, etc. 4.2 Specific Findings - Municipal authorities promote a new wastewater treatment strategy and technology “poop into profit” where the

treated sewage is cleaned, baked and turned into marketable product (e.g. fertilizer pellets); - The industrial sector tends to introduce the use of organic residuals as an essential component of the sustainable

development through the utilization of biosolids as raw material (e.g. cement and energy/bio-gas production); - Biosolids have been proven to be a very effective soil amendment for reclamation and/or restoration and civil

engineering application (e.g. mine lands, sports and recreational facility, landscaping, construction of parks, etc.); - The potential benefits of biosolids utilization, especially on mined lands, appears to far outweigh any

environmental risks;

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- A review of the pertinent case studies/examples shows that the long-term land, water and ground water quality risk from the application of any type of biosolids appears to be minimal.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Develop a standard approach and beneficial options for commercial sale, energy use and manufactured products where appropriate

2. Encourage the cross over between agriculture and municipalities of use of biosolids; 3. Intensify the management strategies used to ensure biosolids are acceptable for land application, forestation,

reclamation, landscaping, energy production, etc.; 4. Stimulate explicit acceptance and application by agriculture of biosolids as beneficial products with nutritive

and other mineral value for crops and as soil amendments; 5. Incorporate the information on all organic residuals to reinforce the positive aspects of their beneficial use,

including information on environmental and human health impacts; 6. Animate all the sectors involved as well as government to undertake additional studies/programs that

includes the following components: i) Educational programs focused on the value of beneficial use programs (using these products

as soil enhancers/additives, sources of nutrient, or as other beneficial products - raw material, biofuel production, etc.);

ii) Support of research in health safety and environmental matters concerning the collection system, the selected beneficial use and treatment solutions;

iii) Expand source control program as required and contacts with business leaders, health officials and government agencies.

6. CASE STUDIES 6.1 Benefits The benefits of biosolids are dependent on several factors. However, generally the benefits include:

Valuable source of organic matter; Rich nutrient fertilizer; Sludge phosphorus is valuable on cropland; Good iron fertilizer better than commercial fertilizers for iron; Assists in the improvement of soil structure; Reduced landfill disposal; Ground water protection – organic nitrogen in sludge is much less likely to cause ground water pollution than

chemical nitrogen fertilizers. 6.2 Potential Uses There are many potential uses of biosolids and specific opportunities include:

• Agricultural land application o Fertilizer/soil conditioner for human crops production o Fertilizer for animal crop production – pastures

• Non-agricultural land application o Forest crops (land restoration and forestry) o Land reclamation (roads, urban wetlands) o Reclaiming mining sites o Landscaping, recreational fields and domestic use

• Energy Recovery – Energy Production o Heat generation, Incineration and Gasification o Oil and Cement Production

• Commercial Uses

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6.2.1 AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATION Treated and untreated human waste products have been applied to food crops in many cultures. Recycling to agricultural land completes natural nutrient cycles and enables farmers to improve the economics of crop production. Also, recycling to land can make a contribution in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, compared with landfilling, and will therefore make a contribution to the climate change policies. The enactment of regulation fosters a surging interest in land application, not only of treated municipal wastewater and sludge, but also of all sorts of organic residues. Most programs for land application of residuals started as projects of wastewater renovation and alternative disposal for wastes rather than soil amendment projects. 6.2.1.1 Fertilizer/Soil Conditioner for Human Crops Production The utilization of sewage waste on land for enhancement of crop production is an age-old practice. Prior to the invention of chemical fertilizers to enhance crop production, farmers depended solely on various organic products and wastes. These organic wastes and products included farm animal litters and manures, household biodegradable wastes, sewage sludge and even human manure in some societies. Biosolids application to agricultural land has been used for a number of years. Biosolids usually are applied at rates designed to supply crops with adequate nitrogen. They also contain other nutrients that reduce fertilizer requirements. Before the modern times, organic residuals were usually applied directly to the land without processing, although some residuals may have been composted. After the invention of mineral fertilizers, the utilization of organic residuals as soil amendments decreased. The following case studies are most explicit examples of the beneficial land application of biosolids for human food production: 1. Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, USA This small regional authority in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, has had a long-standing recycling program with nearby farmers. The Upper Montgomery Joint Authority (UMJA) processes municipal wastewater and produces two reusable products: tertiary treated effluent for recharge to the Green Lake Reservoir; and biosolids for agricultural use. By employing sewer use controls and aerobic digestion, UMJA maintains standards for high quality, Class B biosolids. UMJA’s award winning biosolids recycling program has been growing for nine years. Costs: The costs for each biosolids management method used by UMJA are shown below. These figures show that agricultural use is the lowest cost option. Although varying amounts of biosolids are diverted to each option, we can compare them directly by showing them on a cost per dry ton basis. : Agricultural use on Crossley Farm $283/ dry ton Off site dewatering and land application $820/ dry ton Off site lime stabilization and agriculture use $869/ dry ton Landfill disposal $684/ dry ton These costs include labor, maintenance, trucking, monitoring, reporting, supplies, electricity, tipping fees and lime delivery. URL: http://www.mabiosolids.org/news.asp?id=78 and http://www.mabiosolids.org/docs/22601.pdf 2. Mont De Marsan, France Biosolids have been managed via land application in this region for many years. Corn is an essential feed crop and the associated soil maintenance and enhancement are vital. Over the years, biosolids proved to be a valuable resource and the challenge was to determine what process and product would yield the most desirable and affordable results. Before 1997, there were no regulatory controls in France on spreading biosolids on agricultural land. In 1998, France set biosolids standards for trace metals and trace organic compounds. Farmers in the South of France wanted to land apply biosolids that met a higher standard. The Mont de Marsan biosolids composting facility is designed to handle 44 tones/ day (48.5 tons) of dewatered biosolids at 15 percent solids concentration and 50 tones/day (55 tons) of green waste. The Mont de Marsan compost facility will be the model for meeting the new French NFU 44-095 biosolids regulations in other regions in France. The finished compost initially will be used on cornfields. The agricultural program is expected to increase public confidence in biosolids products, eventually leading to its use in civil works projects. URL: http://www.jgpress.com/archives/_free/000372.html

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6.2.1.2 Fertilizer for Animal Crops Production The main potential use for biosolids is as a fertilizer and/or soil conditioner to assist with the growth of animal crop production and to help improve and maintain the structure of the soil. Biosolids contain a range of valuable nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, calcium, magnesium and various other macro and micro nutrients which are essential for plant growth. Many of these nutrients are also essential components in the healthy diet of animals in order to maintain growth and for food production. These are some of the more substantial examples of beneficial use of biosolids for animal crop production: 1. Paolo Alto, California, USA The Regional Water Quality Control Plant’s (RWQCP) treatment process produces approximately 23 tons of dry sludge a day. The plant's incinerator reduces the dry sludge to approximately 4 tons of pathogen free ash. The RWQCP recycles its ash for beneficial reuse. In 1981, the ash yielded a million dollars' worth of precious metals. Today, due to the effective pretreatment programs, the ash from the RWQCP has very little metals content, but it is a low cost source of phosphate. Phosphate is one of the major nutrients for plant growth. The ash is currently used as soil amendment. URL: http://www.city.palo-alto.ca.us/environment/news/details.asp?NewsID=334&TargetID=65 and http://books.google.com/books?id=U_HeEC0x6egC&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413&dq=sewage+sludge+incineration&source=web&ots=D03g0zLJLC&sig=mnLKrYmqk9XI2ILtP96I4XSFX9M 2. Goulburn and Canberra, Australia A grazing experiment was carried out at Goulburn, NSW, in 1992 to assess the benefits and risks associated with recycling sewage waste products on pastures. Dewatered biosolids (DWB) were applied at 0-120 dry t/ha to 3 types of soils in a sheep grazing trial at Goulburn and over a period of 1.5 years data were gathered on the surface and subsurface movement of nutrients and metals in the runoff water and soil profile, respectively. Results showed that sewage waste application increased yield of green dry matter and perennial grass content. Also, a field experiment was conducted with lucerne on a strongly acidic and phosphorus deficient soil to determine the liming and phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizer value of an undigested, lime-treated sewage sludge. URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf 6.2.2 NON-AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATIONS 6.2.2.1 Forestry A relatively new use of land-applied biosolids is for applications to forestland. This use had been difficult to achieve due to technological limitations in spreading biosolids evenly through heavily forested areas. However, various residuals, including pulp and paper mill sludges, ash, industrial residues, sewage sludge and wastewater, are utilized to enhance growth in forest ecosystems. Some of the beneficial uses of biosolids case studies are listed bellow: 1. Campbell River, British Columbia, Canada Campbell River is using wastewater biosolids to fertilize poplar trees. A 10-hectare plot adjacent to the Norm Wood Environmental Centre treatment plant was planted with 4,800 hybrid poplar trees. Turf grass was planted around the perimeter of the site to capture nutrients from the biosolids and reduce runoff. The trees that received the biosolids have outgrown those planted in the buffer area by 300 percent, with an average growth of three meters in 16 months. Four wells were also installed to monitor groundwater quality. The City has reported no negative effects from the application of the biosolids. Not only is Campbell River saving the costs of transporting the biosolids, it is improving the organic content of local soil and will recover other costs by selling the harvested timber. URL: http://sustainablecommunities.fcm.ca/files/Best_Practices/FCM-CH2M_BPG_2006.pdf 2. King County, Washington, USA King County's forestry projects are part of a unique program to protect and enhance forests and wildlife habitat along the scenic I-90 corridor east of Seattle. Biosolids make an excellent soil amendment and source of nutrients for trees. This has been shown by decades of research in western Washington forests and elsewhere in the U.S. In 1987, we began fertilizing plantations on the Snoqualmie Tree Farm in east King County. The Greenway Biosolids Forestry agreement expanded the program in 1995 to include state forests in the county. The nonprofit Mountains to Sound Greenway Trust initiated this program which now includes several public and private partners: the state Department of Natural Resources, King County, the Hancock Timber Resources and the University of Washington (UW).

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URL: http://dnr.metrokc.gov/wtd/biosolids/Forest.htm and http://www.biosolids.org/docs/18941.PDF 3. New South Wales, Australia Since the early 1990s, State Forests of New South Wales have embarked on a number of trials using organic wastes such as biosolids to assess the impacts such soil ameliorants may have on tree survival and growth. The earlier period of research was focused on the use of biosolids on pine plantations in the central west and southern highlands of NSW. More recently, research efforts have turned to using biosolids and other soil amendments on low rainfall hardwood plantations in the Upper Hunter Valley. In 1991, State Forests began applying biosolids to 120 hectares of plantations in eleven sites across the southern tablelands and central west. Researchers were encouraged when increased growth rates of 30 per cent were achieved. Building on this success, in 1995, biosolids were incorporated into the soil prior to establishing the plantation. After five years of monitoring, it was found that tree height was improved by as much as 50 per cent and tree diameter by 85 per cent. Additionally, researchers found that the extra growth achieved with biosolids had not impacted on timber density – an important characteristic of timber quality and use. Andrade et al (2000) applied biosolids to a planted area of E. grandis. URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf 4. Valencia, Spain Most of the biosolids produced in the region of Valencia are disposed in landfills or used in agriculture. In this study the costs have been assessed and technical limitations to the use of biosolids in reforestation of degraded Mediterranean ecosystems. The degraded area in the inland of Valencia is selected for the pilot-project scale reforestation covering 2 ha. Domestic biosolids are applied and planted one-year-old seedlings of Pinus halepensis and Quercus ilex ssp. ballota. The economic and technical performances of different application types are assessed and monitored survival and growth of introduced seedlings. Application costs (excluding transport) ranged from 23.62 to 41.17 Euro Mg-1 fresh weight and could easily be reduced to one third of this amount with simple technical improvements. URL: http://www.orbit-online.net/publications/01-04/abstract.htm 5. Rabbit Island in Nelson, New Zealand Biosolids application on to a 1000 ha Pinus radiata plantation at Rabbit Island in Nelson is the first full-scale biosolids land application operation in New Zealand. The biosolids were aerobically digested liquid (1-3% solids) and contained high concentrations of nitrogen (8-10% N). To investigate the effects of biosolids application on tree growth, nutrition, soil and ground water quality, an experimental research trial was established at the Rabbit Island. Biosolids were applied at three loading rates: 0 (control), 300 (standard, operational rate) and 600 kg N ha-1 (high) in 1997 then every three years. URL: http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/nanjing/abstract-concurrent_session.pdf 6.2.2.2 Land Reclamation Biosolids have several characteristics that make them suitable for reclaiming and improving disturbed and marginal soils. The organic matter in biosolids improves the soil physical properties by improving granulation, reducing plasticity and cohesion, and increasing water-holding capacity. Biosolids increase soil cation exchange capacity, supply plant nutrients, and buffer soil. The most important cost factor for using biosolids in land reclamation is the cost of transporting the biosolids from the wastewater treatment facility to the reclamation site. There are many successful biosolids land reclamation stories, some of them are as follow: 1. Sierra Blanca, Hudspeth County, Texas, USA A ranch near the West Texas town of Sierra Blanca in Hudspeth County is the site of a project designed to revegetate arid and semi-arid rangeland by recycling biosolids generated from wastewater treatment plants in New York City. Since June 1992, about 80 dry tons per day of New York City biosolids – the treated byproduct of wastewater treatment that can be beneficially reused – have been transported to the 128,000-acre Sierra Blanca Ranch. URL: http://www.biosolids.org/docs/WestTX.pdf 2. King County, Washington, USA, The Mountains to Sound Greenway Trust is applying GroCo biosolids compost to revegetate logging road scars and landings in the foothills of the Cascade Mountains along the Interstate 90 corridor. The Mountains to Sound Greenway Trust is a public-private partnership dedicated to maintaining a green belt for approximately 100 miles along Interstate 90 from Ellensburg to Seattle.

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URL: http://www.agecanada.com/land%20reclamation.htm 3. Everett, Washington, USA As part of a drainage maintenance project, the City of Everett, restored 1.25 acres of land to its previous wetland characteristics by using biosolids, biosolids compost and yard debris compost. The nutrient-rich organic material provided an excellent growth medium for native wetland plant species, while stabilizing slopes. This successful venture may lead the way for other wetland restoration projects in urban environments. URL: http://www.agecanada.com/land%20reclamation.htm 4. Auckland, New Zealand In 40 years, tourists arriving in Auckland, world heritage city of volcanoes will be able to peer from their plane window as they come into land, at the city's newest cone - Pooketutu. A mountain carefully moulded from human "biosolids," into the shape of the original volcanic cone, destroyed 80 years earlier to provide fill for the airport runway. The project solves the problem of how to dispose of the 4.5 million tones or more of biosolids. URL: http://www.cwwa.ca/cbp-pcb/databases/beneficial_e.asp#newzealand and http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/beneficialuse941.pdf 6.2.2.3 Mine Sites Reclamation The most widespread reclamation use of biosolids has been for repairing land damaged by mining. They have been used to reclaim surface mined areas, abandoned mine lands, coal refuse piles, smelter wastes, and other disturbed lands. Amendment of mine soils with biosolids has been shown to increase soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, soil nutrient levels, and to promote soil ecosystem recovery. Depending on the amendments added, biosolids can serve many purposes, including pH control, metal control, and fertilization. Their adaptability allows them to conform to the specific characteristics of any reclamation site. The following are success case studies of uses of biosolids as a reclamation amendment in mine reclamation: 1. Palmerton, Carbon County, Pennsylvania, USA Since 1898 two smelters have produced zinc and other products resulting in 33 million tons of residuals at the Palmerton Superfund site in Carbon County, Pennsylvania. As a result of the heightened emissions more than 2000 acres of land lost virtually all vegetation. Metal levels caused a stop in all microbial activity creating a biological wasteland. Trees that had been dead for more than 20 years could not decompose and 30 to 60 cm of topsoil eroded from the site. Based on the levels of contamination at the site, EPA placed Palmerton on the National Priorities List in 1982. Horsehead Industries, Inc., using biosolids revegetated nearly 1,000 acres of Blue Mountain on the Palmerton site between 1991 and 1995. Costs: Horsehead Industries Inc. were not required to report their costs to the EPA; however, they have estimated a cost of approximately $10 million in revegetating approx. 1,000 acres. URL: http://www.mabiosolids.org/news.asp?id=70, http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/aml/tech/palmerton.pdf, and http://clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/biosolids.pdf 2. Bunker Hill, Idaho, Pennsylvania, USA The Bunker Hill site is located in Idaho’s Coeur d’Alene River Basin. Mining and smelting were performed in the area for more than 60 years leaving extremely high metal concentrations in the surrounding soil. As a result of various metal deposits the site has low pH levels, a high susceptibility to erosion, low microbial growth, and diminished water holding capacity. Early restoration efforts involved the construction of terraces on slopes exceeding 50 percent, application of limestone, and application of fertilizers proved unable to establish vegetation. For the past few years restoration efforts begun using biosolids along with other amendments. Costs: The cost of biosolids used averaged about $35 per wet ton including transportation and application. URL: http://clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/biosolids.pdf 3. Upper Silesia, Katowice, Poland

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The project, implemented in 1994, took place in the Upper Silesia region of southwestern Poland. Over 96 million tons of mining wastes were deposited on the site during the 20th Century. The waste piles, on the site, are spread over several thousand acres and most are phytotoxic preventing revegetation. Because of the country’s economic situation at that time any remediation technique of the waste piles needed to be inexpensive. This is the reason biosolids remediation came to the forefront as a treatment option. Biosolids are inexpensive and were available locally. URL: http://clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/biosolids.pdf 4. Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada The GVRD's Biosolids Recycling Program partnered with GVRD Regional Parks to begin transforming a 12-hectare gravel pit in Aldergrove Lake Regional Park into a park space complete with picnic area, concert bowl and canoeing lake. Biosolids, which are recovered from the GVRD's wastewater treatment plants, are treated organic solids that contain beneficial nutrients for plant growth. Operational reclamation of the gravel pit was initiated in 1999. Shortly before application, 930 bulk tones of GVRD biosolids and 3,918 bulk tones of compost were delivered to the site, and mixed with native soil at a volume ratio of 1:1:4 compost : biosolids : native soil. This mixture was applied to the mine site, incorporated to a depth of 0.15-0.30 m and seeded with a sports turf seed mixture. The reclamation of the mine included the establishment of a lake used for canoeing and providing habitat for waterfowl, amphibians and other wildlife. URL: http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sustainability/casestudies/biosolids.htm, http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/nutrifor/pdfs/PittoPark.pdf, and http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/biosolidsuseingravel1077.pdf 5. Sunshine Coast, British Columbia, Canada Located on BC’s Sunshine Coast, Construction Aggregates Limited’s Sechelt mine is the largest sand and gravel mine in Canada, occupying in excess of 250 hectares and producing 5-7 million tones of product per year. After identifying reclamation as a significant challenge and important component of their operation, the Sechelt mine explored the opportunity to use biosolids in their reclamation activities. Biosolids use at the Sechelt mine began in 1997. The initial research and demonstration project involved the application of biosolids and other residuals to retaining breams visible from the town of Sechelt. The results of this demonstration project were two-fold. The project demonstrated to mine staff, the community and other stakeholders the benefits of biosolids use in improving physical and chemical properties of soil and subsequent vegetation establishment, and increased stakeholder support of the use of biosolids through visual evidence, education and awareness. The mine utilizes all regionally provided biosolids and can also use locally produced pulp and paper sludge and lime residuals in reclamation activities. URL: http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/biosolidsuseingravel1077.pdf 6. New South Wales, Australia Biosolids have been used as an amendment prior to establishing seedlings, direct seeding or sowing pasture on the following mines: Rix's Creek, Bloomfield, Camberwell mine, Bulga South Mine, Drayton's Colliery, Ravensworth east, Howick Mine, Coal and Allied, Bayswater Power Station and Narama Mine. Hunter Water Corporation has successfully used biosolids in mine site rehabilitation in the Hunter Valley. Biosolids have been used for site rehabilitation, under tree and pasture, at South Bulga Colliery, Drayton Coal and Oceanic, Macquarie Coal CHPP. In 1999 biosolids were spread over an area at the Bulga open cut coal mine near Broke. In 2000, in conjunction with Macquarie Generation and the Natural Heritage Trust, a 40 hectare plantation was established at the Bayswater Power Station near Muswellbrook to trial a variety of soil amendments including fly ash, biosolids and green-waste. Costs: One of the most important cost considerations when using residuals is transport cost. Transporting organics for long distances of 250km can cost up to $20-25 per product tone. This is a conservative figure based on periodic back-loading. The application of wastes has the associated costs of appropriate spreading equipment and incorporation into the soil. Hire of spreading equipment may cost around $12 per tone of product (including labor). Other equipment needed, such as tractors and front-end loaders would generally also be used or available for a normal mineral fertilizer/topdressing operation. For example, in some parts of NSW dewatered cake is currently applied free of charge by authorities such as Sydney Water. The net cost to Sydney Water is $45-$55 per tone 18% solids, which includes transport, spreading, site permitting and monitoring. Some rehabilitation has been undertaken by using biosolids private contractors at Swan bank at a cost or $25-$38 product tone. URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf 6.2.2.4 Horticulture and Landscaping

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The use of biosolids for horticulture and landscaping is similar to land application and agricultural application, but with a different intent. The biosolids product, often compost, is used for soil conditioning rather than as a replacement fertilizer. Generally the biosolids product is sold in smaller bags from the treatment facility, through municipal outlets, or through retail establishments. Alternately, the material is used in bulk by consumers or by the municipality itself. Biosolids improve the manageability, water retention, and tilth of troublesome soils. Landscaping and horticultural uses of biosolids products often relate to maintenance of athletic or recreational facilities such as golf courses. Compost is perhaps the most popular biosolids-based product for landscaping uses, as compost is primarily a soil conditioner, not a fertilizer. 1. Tacoma and Bremerton, Washington, USA Tacoma and Bremerton, Washington, collaborated to apply Exceptional Quality biosolids to a new golf course, helping enable it to open several months earlier than planned and with better grass vitality. URL: http://www.agecanada.com/land%20reclamation.htm 2. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada The GVRD uses the nutrients and organic matter in its biosolids to supplement nutrient-poor soils and develop landscaping soil. Blending biosolids with carbon (e.g. woodchips) and mineral (e.g. sand) products creates a high quality landscaping soil. The GVRD and its member municipalities use this soil in projects such as the next examples: 1. East Hoy Habitat Restoration, Coquitlam, B.C.; 2. Highway 99 Green Gateways, Delta, B.C 3. Vancouver Landfill Naturescaped Garden, Delta, B.C. 4. Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve, North Vancouver, B.C. 5. City of White Rock Gold LEED Operations Works Yard, White Rock, B.C. 6. City of Vancouver Gold LEED Works Yard, Vancouver, B.C. URL: http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/nutrifor/recycling.htm 3. San Antonio, Texas, USA Composted manure makes up about half of the compost used in Texas road projects statewide, followed by composted yard trimmings and biosolids (organic sewage matter treated and processed for fertilizer). Projects in San Antonio use yard trimmings and composted biosolids produced by the city. URL: http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/04mar/03.htm 4. Sydney, Australia Australian Native Landscapes Pty. Ltd. used composted material, including 72,000 cubic meters of composted sewage sludge, for landscaping at Sydney Airport (Biocycle 1995). URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf 5. Perth, Australia A two year project on the viability of composting biosolids combined with green waste has been completed at the Institute for Environmental Science. One of the main objectives was to produce compost that complied with the National Standard for Compost, Soil Conditioners and Mulches, as well as the National Biosolids Guidelines developed by the Agricultural Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ). These guidelines cover all products that contain biosolids for beneficial reuse. The Biosolids guidelines list restrictions on metals, pathogens and pesticides and classify the products in three overall categories: restricted, landscaping and unrestricted, while for pathogens only the product is classified as either Class A or B. The Biosolids/Greenwaste mix was composted using the FABCOM System developed by Biowaste Environmental Technology. The different runs produced on several occasions complied fully with both standards. The resultant compost was distributed to various potential future markets such as market gardens, St John of God Hospital (Murdoch), plant nurseries and domestic use. URL: http://wwwscience.murdoch.edu.au/centres/ies/WAste.html 6.2.3 ENERGY RECOVERY – RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

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Biosolids contain organic material and thus have a fuel value that potentially can be realized. Harnessing the fuel value of biosolids requires construction and operation of a combustion unit. The ability to control emissions and to generate electricity from the combustion and heat recovery from biosolids presents a strong argument for the consideration of biosolids combustion as a beneficial use of the material. The advantages of biosolids combustion include: reduction of volume of solids for disposal, pathogen destruction and oxidation of toxic organics, immobilization of heavy metals, sustainable technology, cost-effectiveness, and efficient air quality protection. 6.2.3.1. Thermal Energy Recovery - Heat Generation Utilization of unused energy such as industrial waste heat is one of important measures to save energy consumption for global warming mitigation and to reduce domestic and industrial heat waste. Thermal energy of raw or treated sewage is used for air conditioning of buildings in sewage treatment plants and for regional air conditioning. This is to utilize the characteristic that sewage is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than outdoor air temperature. The waste heat from sewage sludge incineration and melting facilities can be also used for heating facilities and buildings. Moreover, the excess heat from the incineration of sludge can be used to produce steam for electricity generation. Many treatment plants throughout the world anaerobically digest their sludge, producing methane to generate power via gas engines or turbines. The increased cost of power and increased interest in renewable energy sources is making this approach more attractive to water authorities. 1. Los Angeles, California, USA The Terminal Island Renewable Energy Project (TIRE) is a pioneering and groundbreaking green initiative led by the City of Los Angeles with Terralog Technologies and in collaboration with the US Environmental Protection Agency. The demonstration project will adapt existing petroleum industry technology in an innovative way to convert the constant and growing supply of biosolids into a new source of alternative energy that helps to reduce the greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. The City of Los Angeles and Terralog Technologies in collaboration with the US Environmental Protection Agency and with research support from the US Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation will demonstrate an innovative technology to convert biosolids into clean energy by deep well injection and geothermal biodegradation. The project construction will occur at the City’s Terminal Island Treatment Plant, located in San Pedro, CA. URL: http://www.lacity.org/san/biosolidsems/TIRE.htm 2. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA At the Philadelphia location, gasification, and the thermal energy output, is coupled with a direct contact dryer. This single coordinated system reduces the sludge feed to approximately one tenth of the weight of the input. Dried biosolids product is fed into the gasified, which converts the biosolids feed into thermal energy and recyclable ash. The output thermal energy from the gasifier is directed into the biosolids dryer, which is sufficient in energy to dry the input. In other words, the inherent and residual calorific energy contained in the dried product is sufficient to dry the product without the addition of auxiliary fossil fuel. The dry ash, or “super heat dried biosolids”, discharged from the gasifier is biologically inert, odor free, disease free and potentially a soil supplement with less than one tenth of the weight of the input wet sludge and returned to the host sludge plant to be blended with a compost product. URL: http://www.primenergy.com/Projects_detail_Philadelphia.htm 3. Morioka City, Iwate, Japan The west area of Morioka Railway Station in Iwate applied district air conditioning using thermal energy of sewage. Energy consumption, CO2 emission and NOx emission were reduced by 30%, 60% and 50% respectively. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html 4. Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom Nominated for the British Construction Industry Awards 1998, this project arose due to increasing environmental pressure on sludge disposal outlets from Knostrop STW and the requirement, under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive, to cease disposal of sewage sludge at sea. The incinerator itself burns 3.3tds/h of sludge cake. The cake is discharged into a 15t bed of sand fluidized by hot air, which evaporates the remaining water and incinerates the sludge to an inert ash at a temperature in excess of 850oC. Heat is recovered from the hot flue gases: to preheat the combustion air and to generate steam, which is used to pre-dry the feed sludge in order to avoid supplementary fuel use, and to reheat the flue gases to prevent a visible plume. Knostrop was the first UK sewage sludge incinerator to

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generate electricity by means of a steam turbine. A series of sophisticated processes including an adsorption stage for the removal of mercury from the flue gases, make the Knostrop incinerator one of the most advanced in the world in terms of emission standards. URL: http://www.earthtech.co.uk/generic/documents/Knostrop_000.pdf and http://oldweb.northampton.ac.uk/aps/env/Wasteresource/1999/Mar99/99mar41.htm 5. Makuhari, Chiba Perfecture, Japan Makuhari area in Chiba applied the district air conditioning in its high-tech business area of 49ha. They supplies warm water of 47°C and cold water of 7°C to clients. The amount of sewage used for this system was about 58,000m3 / day in FY2004. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html 6. Tokyo, Japan Tokyo Metropolitan Government developed the district air conditioning in Sinsuna and Koraku area of Kouto Ward using thermal energy of sewage and waste heat from sewage sludge incineration plant. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html 7. Hamburg, Germany At Hamburg's Köhlbrandhöft WWTP the demand for external energy supply is minimized by state of the art sludge treatment. The sludge is subjected to thickening, anaerobic digestion, dewatering, drying and incineration. The sludge incineration also produces steam, which is also used in the steam turbine that follows the gas turbine. The turbines produce electricity partially expanded steam is used for the sludge drying process. Heat from the condensation of vapours from sludge drying is used to heat the anaerobic digesters. The overall process requires no external heat or fuel and produces 60% of the WWTP's electricity demand. URL: http://lequia.udg.es/lequianet/WatSciTech/04604/0397/046040397.pdf and http://www.iwaponline.com/wst/04604/wst046040397.htm 6.2.3.2 Fuel Production – Oil from Sludge Process Conversion of sludge, which is heavily contaminated by heavy metals or toxic chemicals, to oil is technically feasible. Capital and running costs of oil from sludge process are high. 1. Perth, Australia The world’s first full-scale oil from sludge demonstration facility was operated at the Subiaco Wastewater Treatment Plant in Perth, Australia. The commercial demonstration pyrolysis facility was operated for a 15-month period from September 2000 to December 2001. The EnerSludge pyrolysis system, developed by Environmental Solutions International (ESI) cost 23 Million Dollars (Austalian). Operations and maintenance costs were in excess of 1.3 Million Dollars per year. The facility is designed to treat undigested sludge at a capacity of 25 dry tons per day and produce 150 to 300 liters of oil per tone of sludge processed. The process converts the dry biosolids into char and a syngas, which, if desired, can be condensed to produce oil, non-condensed gas (NCG) and reaction water (RW). In summary, the facility demonstrated that all of the energy in the biosolids is recovered in the conversion products and that the integrated facility was a net exporter of energy. URL: http://www.wef.org/NR/rdonlyres/7DA581D9-C0D3-4E5C-B127-AC68B7ABA6DD/0/Bridle_Paper.pdf and http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/pdf/ReviewAlternativeTechnologiesForBiosolidsManagement_Sep05.pdf 2. Ube City, Japan EnerTech successfully demonstrated the SlurryCarb™ technology on a commercial scale with the construction and three year operation of a 20 ton per day facility in Ube City, Japan. EnerTech's SlurryCarb™ process is an environmentally sound method for achieving 100% beneficial reuse of biosolids and other high-moisture feedstocks. The process chemically converts biosolids into a high-energy, renewable solid fuel, solution for biosolids recycling as well as an opportunity to protect our environment by replacing fossil fuel consumption with a renewable energy source. URL: http://enertech.com/services/sitedevelopments/ucjf.html 3. Rialto, California, USA

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EnerTech Environmental, Inc. announced that construction of its first full-scale SlurryCarb™ facility in Rialto, California is underway. HDR Design-Build, Inc. began construction on April 2nd, 2007. HDR has worked closely with EnerTech throughout the design of the Rialto facility, which is expected to be fully operational by the third quarter of 2008. EnerTech’s SlurryCarb™ process economically produces a renewable fuel, called E-Fuel™, from biosolids and other high-moisture wastes. The Rialto SlurryCarb™ facility will produce approximately 145 tons of renewable E-Fuel™ from biosolids supplied by five municipalities in the Los Angeles region. The E-Fuel™ will be used by a local cement kiln as a renewable alternative to coal. URL: http://www.californiagreensolutions.com/cgi-bin/gt/tpl.h,content=343 and http://www.pwmag.com/industry-news.asp?sectionID=760&articleID=547650 6.2.3.3 Raw Material for Cement Production and Fuel Substitution in Kilns The use of biosolids in cement kilns is generally driven more by a desire for green credits than financial reward. Careful attention has to be paid to the composition of the biosolids to ensure that, the emissions are kept under control and the contaminant content does not adversely affect the cement product. In some cases the need for additional treatment of gas emissions, for contaminated biosolids, can make this option less economic. 1. Copenhagen, Denmark BioCrete is an ongoing project supported by the EU-LIFE Environment Programmme. The objective of the project is to remove technical barriers for the utilization of wastewater sludge incineration ash (bio ash) in the production of concrete, and at the same time reduce the amount of waste for disposal. The bio ash can be added to concrete to supplement or in some cases even substitute Portland cement. Research projects indicate that concrete with bio ash has acceptable strength and that heavy metals of the ash will be immobilized to such an extent that it is environmentally acceptable to use bio ash in concrete. Convenient equipment for the handling of dry bio ash has been installed at two Danish wastewater treatment plants and at 3 ready-mixed concrete production plants, and 1100 tons of bio ash was reused for the production of concrete in 2006. Bio ash is mainly used as a partly substitution for fly ash in concrete recipes, and 50% seems to be a maximum. Bio ash and fly ash are quite different materials and bio ash has less pozzolanic effect than fly ash. Aluminium based bio ash seems to be better for the production of concrete than iron based bio ash with respect to color as well as strength. URL: http://www.biocrete.dk/english/ 2. Kyoto, Japan Kyoto Prefectural Government provides 32% of its sewage sludge as raw materials for cement production. The Kawasaki Plant of DC CO., LTD, which is one of leading companies of the cement industry in Japan, receives all of sewage incineration ash and sludge from drinking water treatment from Kawasaki Municipal Government. Taiheiyo Cement Corporation, which is also one of leading companies, developed "Eco Cement", whose main raw materials are solid waste incineration ash and sewage sludge. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html and http://nett21.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/WASTE/WASTE_6/html/Doc_540.html 3. Lucerne Valley, California, USA The Mitsubishi Cement Corporation’s Cushenbury plant underwent long-term testing and eventual adoption of the biosolids injection process in 1994 and 1995 and is still in operation today. The company estimates that 20-30 per cent of NOx emissions are reduced when injecting biosolids at the rate of approximately 50 wet tonnes per day. The effect of biosolids injection on CO emissions varies between notable increases and no change at all. In all cases, with biosolids injection, CO concentrations remained well within regulatory standards thus demonstrating that NOx reductions are not obtained at the expense of increasing CO levels. In addition, full stack emission tests on Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) indicated that biosolids injection did not cause any significant changes in either metal HAP or organic HAP emissions. URL: http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/pdf/ReviewAlternativeTechnologiesForBiosolidsManagement_Sep05.pdf 4. Siggnethal, Switzerland The Holcim Cement works at Siggnethal, is one of several based in Switzerland that uses biosolids as a part of their fuel source. Traditionally, the sources of fuel for the kiln are oil and coal. However, the use of this more traditional source has decreased as other wastes have been utilized. The ratio of energy sources for the kiln energy requirements

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are now approximately oil 35%, coal 35%, biosolids 10%, animal meal 5%, car tyres 5%, organic solvent waste, etc. 10%. Some cement works use 100% alternative fuels (e.g. not oil or coal). URL: http://www.recycledwater.com.au/uploads/File/documents/BiosolidTour.pdf 5. Chiba, Japan Eco-cement is a new type of Portland cement being developed not only to solve the municipal and industrial waste problem caused by limited availability of landfill sites, but also to contribute to the protection of the environment by providing a complete recycling system of wastes that would otherwise be dumped. This new cement is designed to use municipal waste incinerator ash as up to 50% of raw materials. Eco-cement consists of the same main components as normal Portland cement and process a complete recycle system for municipal and industrial wastes. The recently constructed Eco-cement plant, in Ichihara, Japan, will use incinerator ash from 26 cities and municipalities, and has a production capacity of about 350 metric tonnes per day using the Eco-cement process. Costs: The official construction cost of this plant is 12.6 billion yen (USD$10million) and the managing cost is about 40 thousand yen (USD$325) per metric tonne of incinerated ash. The local government, who is responsible for managing the urban waste, pays this managing cost. The second Eco-cement plant, now in the final stage of design, is to be owned by an association of 31 cities and municipalities in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area with a total population of 3.8 million inhabitants. URL: http://www.wbcsd.org/plugins/DocSearch/details.asp?MenuId=MTcw&ClickMenu=&doOpen=1&type=DocDet&ObjectId=NjEz, http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html and http://www.icett.or.jp/techinfo.nsf/b289c6c99ff5f3e449256cfc003cb64d/0a3679d4ec8aeea249256cfc003d6f32?OpenDocument 6.2.3.4 Energy Recovery – Incineration Incineration of biosolids can be carried out by a range of technologies including rotary kilns, fixed hearth, moving hearth, circulating fluidized bed, etc. The most common technology for mono-incineration of biosolids is the fluidized bed sewage biosolids incinerator, FBSSI. In a typical FBSSI biosolids are combusted in a fluidized bed of hot sand, in a vertical cylindrical combustion chamber. 1. Waldwick, New Jersey, USA The Northwest Bergen County Utilities Authority operates the wastewater treatment facility in Waldwick, New Jersey, which serves the Borough and seven surrounding towns. They have been using fluid bed incineration as their sludge disposal option for over thirty years. The plant has a design capacity of 11.5 mgd on an annual average and a peak thirty day capacity of 16.8 mgd. It currently operates at an average of approximately 8.5 mgd. Sludge dewatering is via belt press to about 23% dry solids and the incinerator combusts a 50:50 mix of primary and activated sludge. Sludge is primarily municipal with less than 0.1% from industrial sources. Septage is also accepted but it constitutes a minimal amount of the total waste combusted. URL: http://www.infilcodegremont.com/images/pdf/Session_15A.pdf 2. Pickering, Ontario, Canada Durham Region currently employs two primary methods of sludge and/or biosolids management, as follows: Agricultural land application of liquid biosolids, and incineration of dewatered sludge (undigested) and biosolids at the Duffin Creek WPCP in Pickering, with ash recycling to a cement plant. Landfilling in a municipal waste landfill has been considered a contingency measure. URL: http://www.region.durham.on.ca/departments/works/sewer/biosolidsstudy/execsumm101904.pdf, http://www.durhamregionwaste.ca/departments/works/sewer/biosolidsstudy/newsletter4.pdf and http://www.region.durham.on.ca/works.asp?nr=/departments/works/duffincreek/whatandwhere.htm&setFooter=/includes/duffinFooter.txt 3. Paris, France Seine Centre is set in an urban environment, in the town of Colombe, in the western suburbs of Paris. This plant treats the wastewater discharged by a million inhabitants. The plant cost $350 million USD to build and employs the most modern technologies, both in terms of wastewater treatment and the treatment of sludge and flue gases. The sludge

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by-product (60 to 350 t/day of dry matter or 270 to 1300 m3/day of limed sludge is discharged via barge or truck to be reused in agricultural applications or incinerated in Pyrofluid incinerators. Pyrofluid incinerators have biosolids injected into a fluidized bed of sand that ensures a maximum reduction in the volume of residual sludge. The fly ash from this process is recovered in a solid form, enabling it to be used for road engineering or as a mixture in the production of cement. Today in France, the reuse of fly ash is regulated by a ‘Circular’ (10 January 1996). URL: http://www.recycledwater.com.au/uploads/File/documents/BiosolidTour.pdf 4. Abbey Wood, United Kingdom Historically, and until very recently, the sludge from the treatment works was disposed of by daily boats in the North Sea. To comply with a change in EC regulation and to make use of the sludge, Thames Water built a Sludge Powered Generator (SPG). This has been running since 1998 and can produce up to 5Megawatts – about ¾ of the site’s electricity requirement. The Sludge Power Generator is accredited to the international environmental standard ISO14001. Sludge incineration takes place in two streams fed by the sludge silos. The incineration process uses fluidized bed technology. The process is started up using natural gas burners and lances and once the incinerator is up to temperature, these are shut down and the process is self-sustaining. URL: http://www.thameswater.co.uk/en_gb/Downloads/PDFs/Wastewater_Crossness_260606.pdf 5. St. Petersburg, Russia The combined Vodokanal Sludge Incineration Project is a joint implementation project developed between the Russian Federation and the investor countries and companies of the Baltic Sea Region Testing Ground Facility (Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Germany, DONG Naturgas, Fortum, Kymppivoima, Kerevan Energia, Gasum, Outukumpu, Vapo and Vattenfall) and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) for the account of the Netherlands. The project developer and owner is the State Unitary Enterprise Vodokanal of St Petersburg, the city owned water company and the statutory water undertaker in the city. The project proposes to install two wastewater sludge incineration plants. The project will reduce GHG emissions by reducing methane releases at two existing sludge lagoons. URL: http://www.nefco.fi/documents/tgf/projects/Vodokanal_PP.pdf 6.2.3.5 Energy Recovery – Gasification Co-incineration with municipal solid waste (MSW) has been proven as a good solution. Issues have arisen at facilities due to failure to meet dioxin standards and other emissions due to the MSW component of the waste. Plasma gasification presents significant environmental benefits over conventional thermal technologies due to its conversion efficiency and the concentrated syngas stream that is produced. Due to the high combustion temperature of the gasification reactor and the high temperature of the exit gas, there is virtually no reforming of combustion by-products to form organic compounds of environmental concern such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxin/furans or phenols. As the concentrated syngas exits the gasifier, a variety of proven technologies are available to remove impurities or sequester compounds of interest. 1. Balingen, Germany The sewage works of Balingen cleans the wastewater of the town and of the surrounding cities and villages. It is designed for a connecting capacity of 125.000 inhabitants and treats about ten million cubic meters of wastewater annually. With the goal of making the sewage work energetically independent, a block type heat-power station was installed, a solar sludge drying plant was erected and a turbine was built into the runoff water pipe of the plant. In 2003, the gasification plant processed the total product of the solar drying unit at Balingen. The heat and the major part of the electricity produced were delivered to the sewage works. Overnight the plant also ran without any problems, and therefore fully automatic operation is envisioned for the future. URL: http://www.kopf-ag.de/download/kopf-sewage-sludge-gasification-8.pdf 2. Mihama and Mikata, Japan Commercial application of plasma gasification has been in operation since 2002. Japan's Hitachi Metals, Ltd. Uses Westinghouse Plasma Corporation's technology has been used in two Japanese facilities that transform municipal solid waste (MSW), automobile shredder residue and sewage sludge into steam and electricity. In December 2002, the twin cities of Mihama and Mikata, Japan commissioned a MSW and sewage sludge treatment plant. Hitachi Metals Ltd. designed and installed this plant. It processes 24 ton/d1 of MSW and 4 ton/d of sewage sludge. URL: http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/reports.html and

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http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/materials/reportsandpublications/2003/2003_Solid_Waste_Conversion.pdf 6.2.4 RECYCLING AND USE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL 1. Winneconne, Wisconsin, USA Minergy Corp. has successfully commercialized technologies for recycling high-volume wastes, including municipal sludge, paper mill sludge, and contaminated sediment and soils, into reusable, inert glass. Minergy’s approach to treating contaminated soils, sediments and sludges is to focus on the glass formation process, recognizing that an ancillary benefit of the process’s high temperature and residence time effectively destroys organic contaminants and produces an inert, usable product. Converting wastes into glass aggregate through the process of vitrification provides a permanent disposal solution while eliminating future liabilities. URL: http://www.environmental-expert.com/STSE_resulteach.aspx?cid=18768 2. Osaka, Japan Incinerated Ash Recycling Plant in Ono treatment Plant is making Water Permeable Brick from sewage incineration ash. The reclamation site for sludge disposal is physically limited. Accordingly, a technology has been developed to recycle incinerated ash and produce water-permeable brick. Incinerated ash is first mixed with clay and aggregate, and then formed and fired to produce a brick with superior water permeability. By using as paving stone, the brick made from incinerated ash is expected to contribute to storm water runoff control. The production of this fired brick was fully launched in 1998. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes4_6.html and http://www.osakacity.or.jp/en/journal/issues/40.pdf 3. Osaka, Japan Sewage sludge melting technology is considered to be effective solutions for life extension of landfill sites and transforming hazardous substances into harmless and stable matters without component elusion. Melted slug is used for materials for road bed, concrete aggregate, asphalt aggregate and backfill materials. Thermal energy which is produced at the production process of melted slug is utilized for heating of melting furnace, production of steam and electric power generation. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html and http://www.osakacity.or.jp/en/journal/issues/40.pdf 4. Tokyo, Japan Environmental problems are a worldwide concern. So recycling with a zero-emission objective is being pursued. For this purpose, a melting process whereby sludge was converted into slag has been developed and commercialized. Glass ceramics technology was studied to produce crystallized glass from sewage sludge. The technology was researched and developed jointly with the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in pursuing the basic study and pilot plant studied from 1991 to 1995. As a result, there is successfully commercialized technology to convert sewage sludge into a resource as stone-like products, followed successfully by a long pilot operation. Now the commercialized plant of 150 ton-cake/day was installed and has been producing stone products from sewage sludge since 1996. URL: http://www.nwbiosolids.org/Bulletin/Aug07BiosolidsBulletin.pdf 5. Fukuoka, Japan Anaerobic digestion supernatant contains high level of phosphorous and nitrogen which is usually returned to wastewater treatment process and becomes big burden to receiving water bodies. Therefore phosphorus recovery in wastewater treatments contributes to both alleviation of eutrophication in receiving water bodies and saving phosphorus resources. In Japan the crystallization of Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) was developed as an effective phosphorus recovery method. This kind of phosphorus recovery process is adopted in four sewage treatment plants in Fukuoka City, Japan. Fukuoka City recycled 96.7% of sewage sludge and incineration ash generated from sewage treatment plants. This is one of successful examples that local government has promoted recycling sewage related wastes. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html 6. Selangor, Malaysia This study reports the use of sewage sludge generated from sewage treatment plant as raw material in a clay brick-making process. Bricks were produced with sewage sludge additions ranging from 10 to 40% by dry weight. Bricks with more than 30 wt.% sludge addition are not recommended for use since they are brittle and easily broken even when handled gently. A tendency for a general degradation of brick properties with sludge additions was observed due to its

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refractory nature. Therefore, sludge bricks of this nature are only suitable for use as common bricks, which are normally not exposed to view, because of poor surface finishing. URL: http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/22/4/226 6.2.5 COMMERCIAL USES OF BIOSOLIDS Efforts to “market” biosolids generally refer to the sale of large amounts to commercial consumers. Biosolids also may be sold in bulk and in smaller quantities to homeowners and gardeners. They could be used as an alternative to commercial fertilizers and soil conditioners, or it could be used in conjunction with these types of products. Biosolids also have the added benefit compared to commercial products in that they contain a significant amount of organic matter (approximately 40-60%) which improves soil structure by increasing soil aeration and the water holding capacity of the soil. There are many fine examples of biosolids marketing success stories that have been presented around the world. 1. Milorganite - Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA One of the USA oldest and most recognized biosolids recycling programs is conducted by the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Since the 1920's this city has been producing a granular, heat-dried biosolids product called Milorganite. Milorganite is sold in bulk to fertilizer manufactures. Forty pound bags of Milorganite are sold to the retail market for distribution by nurseries and garden centers and 50 pound bags are marketed commercially to the turf and landscape industry for use at schools, parks and golf courses. Besides being sold throughout the United States, Milorganite has been sold in Japan, Puerto Rico, Canada, Venezuela and India. Approximately 50,000 tons of Milorganite are produced per year. URL: http://www.werf.org/downloads/pdfs/00PUM5.pdf and http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm 2. Sarnia, Ontario, Canada Prior to 2001 at the Water Pollution Control Centre in the City of Sarnia, biosolids management consisted of anaerobic digestion, lagoon storage and then disposal to landfill. Upon commissioning of the N-Viro Soil process, three digesters were shut down and a fourth was converted to a holding tank used to feed undigested sludge to the N-Viro system that use lime stabilization technology to reduce pathogens, control odours, and prevents vector attraction. The Water Pollution Control Centre average flows are 38,641 m3 per day. Sludge production is 60 wet tones per day and 16.8 dry tones per day. The N-Viro Soil production is 55 tones per day and is marketed for local agricultural use as a fertilizer. Cost: Total cost of the buildings and equipment, including renovations to the liquid sludge-storage facility and dewatering, was $5.0 Million; the cost of the N-Viro component was approximately $3.8 Million. An alkaline stabilization manufacturer has provided a cost estimate for a facility to manage 14 dry tones per day of undigested sludge. The costs assume that the facility would be located at a wastewater treatment plant and that existing dewatering equipment would be used. The capital cost estimate is $4.3 Million and includes site work, construction of buildings for product storage and a process area. The operation and maintenance estimate is $0.83 Million per year and includes a management service fee based on the assumption that the manufacturer will provide marketing services and one staff. Calculated on a dry weight basis, operating costs are estimated at $229/tonne. Lower costs can be achieved if for instance a biogas is available as the fuel source and through economies of scales if a central facility were established and material were imported from other plants. URL: http://www.city.sarnia.on.ca/visit.asp?articleid=193 and http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/pdf/ReviewAlternativeTechnologiesForBiosolidsManagement_Sep05.pdf 3. ComPro - Silver Spring, Maryland, USA The Washington Suburban Sanitary commission operates several wastewater treatment plants in and around the Washington, D.C. area. Biosolids recovered from one of the plants, the Blue Plains Regional Plant in Washington, D.C., is transported to the Montgomery County Regional Composting Facility where it is processed into a valuable, marketable product, called ComPro. ComPro is sold to retail outlets in bags or in bulk to professional landscapers, contractors, grounds managers, nurserymen, and homeowners. URL: http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm

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4. MetroGro - Madison, Wisconsin, USA The city of Madison produces an anaerobically-digested biosolids product, called MetroGro, that is marketed to local agriculture. Every year, about 30 million gallons of MetroGro are sold to fertilize 3,000 to 4,000 acres of farmland. MetroGro is delivered to the farm sites in 6,000-gallon semi-tanker trucks and the biosolids are applied using 3,500-gallon application vehicles which inject the product into the soil. MetroGro is applied primarily to fertilize corn, soybeans and alfalfa. URL: http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm 5. GroCo - Seattle, Washington, USA In 1996, Seattle’s two wastewater treatment facilities produced 20, 000 dry tons of sewage sludge. Their sludge is used to create a class B biosolids cake that is used on agricultural land and forests (reclaiming logged areas and scars left by logging roads). A portion of their biosolids is sold to a private contractor who composts and produces a general use soil conditioner called GroCo. In 1995, $100 000 in revenue was received from the sale of biosolids. This revenue offsets the cost of hauling to application sites. Avoiding landfill fees saves additional money (EPA, 1999). Recently, King County has entered into a partnership with Washington DNR, University of Washington, Sierra Club, Weyerhaeuser, and others in what's called the "Mountains to Sound Re-Greening Program." This program involves hundreds of volunteers in the restoration and revegetation of logging roads no longer needed along the scenic Interstate 90 corridor from Puget Sound to the east side of the Cascades. GroCo is being used to restore revegetate the unsightly, barren scars left by many old logging roads. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html, http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm and http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/compost/biosolid.pdf 6. AllGro - Burlington County, New Jersey, USA At the start of the program in 1998, the amendment used in the biosolids mix was wood waste. It since has been expanded to include yard and food waste. As the facility operator, Synagro markets the finished compost product under the “AllGro” name for Burlington County. The compost is sold to bulk users, including landscapers, nurseries, and golf courses. In large part because of its employment of multiple waste management methods, the plan is widely recognized as among the most comprehensive and progressive in the state. URL: http://www.biosolids.com/Features/archives/000007.shtml 7. Ogogrow - Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada The City of Kelowna composts biosolids and wood chips and markets the finished compost as Ogogrow. Rich in nutrients such as phosphorus, this product is trade-marketed and marketed commercially, and is used as a soil amendment by nurseries, landscapers, orchardists and residential customers. URL: http://www.ae.ca/aetoday/060304.html, http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/successfulbiosolids861.pdf and http://www.compost.org/Biosolids_Composting_FAQ.pdf 8. Toronto, Ontario, Canada Toronto council has approved a $4-million-a-year deal to operate the rebuilt sewage pelletizer plant at Ashbridge's Bay. The deal, with Veolia Water Canada Inc., will see treated sewage - mostly comprised of human feces - cleaned, baked and turned into, hopefully, marketable fertilizer pellets at the plant on the eastern edge of Toronto's port lands. URL: http://www.toronto.ca/water/protecting_quality/biosolids/index.htm 9. Sky-Rocket - Comox-Strathcona, British Columbia, Canada In 2005, Comox-Strathcona reopened a new fully enclosed facility that now turns biosolids into “garden gold.” SkyRocket, the nutrient-rich soil amendment created by the Comox Strathcona Regional District (CSRD), for lawns and gardens is available for sale on May 1st, 2007. SkyRocket is made of wood chips mixed with biosolids, which are cured over time to create a nutrient-rich mulch. SkyRocket has been used in land reclamation and slope stabilization projects, tree plantings by the Ministry of Transportation, and has been applied to enrich and amend soils on Vancouver Island The annual market potential for the final product is estimated to be $50,000. URL: http://www.biosolids.org/docs/WBU_082007new.doc and http://sustainablecommunities.fcm.ca/files/Best_Practices/FCM-CH2M_BPG_2006.pdf

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10. Lugo, Spain Agroamb is a young Spanish company, located in the Northwest of Spain (Galicia), specialized in the soil application of biosolids, an emergent sector in this region. Agroamb has three projects of investigation in collaboration with the universities of Santiago de Compostela and Vigo, evaluating the use of different biosólidos (sewage sludge, ashes, flours, manures, etc) for elaborating organic fertilizer and its economic and environmental viability. Agroamb produces a fertilizing product from sewage sludge and other organic bio-products (plant waste, slurry, ashes...) in its treatment and transfer plant with an approximate surface area of 7000 m2 fed by renewable energy. URL: http://www.portofentry.com/site/root/resources/case_study/4024.html 11. Slash - Pretoria, South Africa Due to limited prime agricultural land, South Africa is heavily reliant on the use of acidic and nutrient deficient soils, to meet the needs for increased food production. Environmental legislation has placed restrictions on the application of sewage sludge to agricultural land. The prime concern is being the accumulation of heavy metals and risk of disease. Previous research has however indicated that sewage sludge can be pasteurized and the toxic metals present in the sewage sludge immobilized, when it is treated with a mixture of Class F fly ash and lime. The product has been developed, named SLASH®, that showed significant amelioration properties when applied to acidic soils, resulting in enhanced crop productivity. URL: http://www.flyash.info/2001/envben2/80truter.pdf 12. Terra Liquid and Terra Lime Cake - London, United Kingdom Terra Eco has 2500 farmer customers and they treat 15,000 ha /annum with 455,000m3 cake and 700,000 m3 liquid. Biosolids are applied 1 year in 4 at relatively high application rates. Terra liquid is a quality organic soil conditioner and fertilizer (liquid biosolids), which is ideal for a range of combinable crops and grassland. Terra Lime Cake is produced by blending sludge cake with quick lime (CaO). Water in the cake reacts with the quicklime, producing heat, together with the high pH this stabilises the sludge and kills pathogens. The dry product combined the beneficial nutrients from the cake with a significant neutralising value from the quicklime. URL: http://www.recycledwater.com.au/uploads/File/documents/BiosolidTour.pdf 13. Cambi THP - Larvik Kommune, Norway The Agricultural Agency of Norway has issued an approval for the hydrolyzed, digested, dewatered sludge from HIAS to be used on any agricultural crop. The Norwegian legislation for the use of sewage sludge in the agriculture restricts any use on vegetables and grassland unless advanced treatment gives reason to make exception. This is the first time in Norway that such an exception has been made. The reason for this exception is the controlled disinfection that is made by the Cambi THP. The Norwegian Agricultural University has previously tested the Cambi sludge for fertilizing value. The result of this test showed that the product gave a nitrogen value comparable with chemical fertilizer and a much better long-term effect. In fact the Cambi dewatered cake is very suitable for agricultural use being well-stabilized and easy to store and handle. URL: http://www.hias.no/ and http://www.cambi.no/news/Hiasmai2000.htm14. Sao Paulo, Brazil São Paulo state water utility Sabesp is developing a program to turn sewage sludge into a sellable agricultural fertilizer. Sabesp plans to dry the treated sludge and create biosolids in the form of pellets, which can be marketed to the agricultural sector. The company plans to recuperate the 14mn reais (US$6.7mn) it is investing in the project within 14 years, based upon projected yearly revenues of 4mn reais if the product is sold at 0.37 reais per kilogram. The first investment in the project will go towards adapting the wastewater treatment plant at Barueri. This is Sabesp's largest plant of its kind, treating 310t of waste per day. The utility's biggest obstacle to the commercial development of the product has been in obtaining its environmental licensing from the agriculture ministry and the São Paulo state environment authority (Cetesb). These licenses are still in negotiation. URL: http://www.biosolids.org/news_weekly.asp?id=1997 and http://www.cwwa.ca/cbp-pcb/databases/beneficial_e.asp 6.2.6 OTHER PROJECTS, PROGRAMS AND STUDIES 1. Everett, Washington, USA At a site in Everett, Washington, the Clean Washington Center sponsored a 2-year project, from 1994-1996, to test two types of compost in the restoration of damaged wetlands. Decades ago, a sawmill sat in the sandy area between the wetlands. Once the mill was torn down, the area was left relatively barren, which made the railroad tracks and bike

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path adjacent to the upper wetland prone to flooding. The project utilized compost extensively to keep the adjacent railroad tracks and bike path from flooding. The project’s construction team used yard debris compost and mixed compost made of biosolids and yard debris. URL: http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/compost/reforest.pdf 2. Lancaster County, Nebraska, USA In the last five years, over 150,000 tons of biosolids have been used as a source of fertilizer and organic matter to cropland in Lancaster County. The value of biosolids, based on the nutrient value alone, is over $100,000 annually to the cooperating farmers in our program. On weekdays throughout the year, de-watered biosolids are transported to the approved crop fields in Lancaster County for land application. Approved land must have a battery of soil tests to determine application rates. There are federal and local restrictions that prevent application of this material near wells, rivers or streams and public water supplies. In the case of wet soil conditions that prevent delivery in the field, biosolids are trucked to the North Bluff landfill for storage on a concrete storage slab. URL: http://lancaster.unl.edu/enviro/biosolids/overvew.htm 3. Calgro TM - Calgary, Alberta, Canada The CalgroTM is the official trade name used by The City of Calgary to describe Calgary’s highly successful “Biosolids to Land” program using subsurface injection. For over 23 years, the CalgroTM Program has continued to be cost-effective, well-run, well-monitored, and well-received by Calgary farmers. With its cost effectiveness, viability, and environmental friendliness, the CalgroTM Program provides long-term sustainability to Calgary’s wastewater biosolids management. Subsurface injection of biosolids is more effective, safer and more environmentally friendly than biosolids surface spreading. URL: http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/thecalgrotm949.pdf 4. Region of Niagara, Ontario, Canada The Region of Niagara initiated a project to prepare a Biosolids Management Master Plan to provide direction for biosolids management activities in the Region to the year 2025. The goal of the project is to recommend a management strategy that is economically viable, meets regulatory requirements, can be maintained in the long term and is supported and endorsed by stakeholders. Currently, the Region uses the services of a contractor to remove liquid biosolids from the Region’s treatment plants and apply them to agricultural lands within the Region that have been pre-approved to accept biosolids. Landowners and farmers receive this service at no cost. This program has provided a successful and beneficial final use for biosolids produced in the Region. URL: http://www.regional.niagara.on.ca/living/water/pdf/ExecSumm.pdf and http://www.regional.niagara.on.ca/living/water/Biosolids-Management-Master-Plan.aspx 5. European Union In EU land spreading of dewatered sludge, in other words, agricultural reuse, is most popular sewage sludge recycling route. However many countries adopted stricter regulations, land spreading of raw sewage sludge is gradually decreased. Sludge treatments such as composting, digestion, lime treatment and thermal drying become to be applied before land application. Since the late 1970s, sludge and its disposal has become a major political issue for the European Union. Environmental policies have led to the banning of disposal of sewage sludge at sea and the encouragement of application to land in preference to landfill or incineration. 51% of the EU's sludge production is applied to land in 2005. Land application is still widely applied since it is the most economically attractive option. URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html 6. Kingston, United Kingdom The City of Kingston has retained a consultant team composed of Earth Tech Canada Inc. and Totten Sims Hubicki Associates, to assist in the development of a long term Biosolids Management Plan and Implementation Strategy for the City’s three water pollution control plants. The objective of this study is to develop a long term plan for managing biosolids in Kingston, in view of recent technical advances, scientific research and evolving legislation. Although the long-term biosolids strategy will include well-proven technologies, innovative new technologies and partnerships will also be investigated. The goal of this study is to develop a sustainable and effective strategy that can accommodate future changes in community expectations, regulations and technical innovation. The existing cost for biosolids management is $3.5 M for a 20 year period at present worth cost or $44.79/tone. The cost (2002) paid to the Contractor for land application is $11.93/m3 for biosolids in liquid form and $21.00/m3 for dewatered biosolids. URL: http://www.cityofkingston.ca/pdf/environment/biosolids_finalreport.pdf7. Australia and New Zealand

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An Australasian steering committee has been formed to develop a program for the Australian and New Zealand water industries to effectively engage stakeholders in sustainable biosolids use. The proposed name of the program once developed and approved is the Australian Biosolids Partnership (ABP) or Australasian Biosolids Partnership (ABP) if New Zealand remains involved. The project will develop a comprehensive program to assist individual water authorities, and the water industry as a whole, to effectively engage local communities, end users and regulators, in developing sustainable biosolids projects. URL: http://www.vicwater.org.au/?sectionid=97 8. Cairo, Egypt A study launched in Cairo in 1995 has shown that wastewater treatment can address not only the Egyptian city’s water pollution problems but also open new opportunities for business and agriculture. The Greater Cairo Wastewater Project will produce about 0.4 million tonnes of sludge or biosolids annually from wastewater treatment. The study was initiated under the Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme funded by the European Investment Bank and promoted by the Cairo Wastewater Organization. Initial results show that sludge can be effective in growing wheat, berseem clover, forage maize and grape vines. Digested sludge offers significant nitrogen fertilizer replacement value to farmers; no harmful effects of biosolids on crops were detected in field trials; and the benefits of spreading biosolids on newly reclaimed soils are expected to increase with cumulative applications. Farmers in Egypt are prepared to pay for bio-solids due to the scarcity of manure and the high costs of inorganic fertilizers. URL: http://www.afrigadget.com/author/robert/ 9. Gaborone City, Botswana Ngole, et al. (2006) reported that sludge production in Botswana especially in Gaborone City has increased recently as a result of the rapid rate at which the city is growing and the introduction of advanced wastewater treatment techniques. In Botswana, in an effort to increase arable farming around major settlements, funding is available to small horticultural projects and the trend is to use sludge. The use of sludge is encouraged considering the fact that soils in semi-arid regions like Botswana are generally poor with low water retention capacity, and are characterized by low plant nutrient status. URL: http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/managementofwastewater81.pdf 10. Harare, Zimbabwe Land application and the agricultural use of wastewater sludge and subsequent effect on soil and water quality is documented for Zimbabwe, especially studies in the Harare area. Muchuweti et al. (2006) indicated a growing public concern in Zimbabwe over the illegal cultivation of vegetables on soils amended with sewage sludge or irrigated with mixtures of sewage and sewage sludge. This could be one of the driving factors for the research focus on agricultural and land application. URL: http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/managementofwastewater81.pdf 11. Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, In 1997, there were no full-scale biosolids utilization systems in Mexico and the usual methods for disposal were either direct discharge into watercourses, on-site storage or containment in unregulated landfill sites. Over a three-year period, the Ciudad Juarez water utility, with the assistance of the United Nations University International Network on Water, Environment and Health, began a development process that included: forming a partnership with the local universities, the federal agricultural research agency, environmental NGOs, professional associations and other stakeholders; Engaging municipalities, government agencies and private firms from Canada and the U.S. to share experiences in land application practices; Establishing a working, multi-stakeholder development committee; Holding an average of fifty public information and stakeholder participation meetings per year; Revising state and municipal regulations to reflect requirements for beneficial utilization of biosolids; Conducting a large-scale, land application demonstration project on 30 hectares of farmland through several crop cycles and types; Establishing a local, multi-stakeholder Biosolids Utilization Committee, modeled after an existing BUC in Ontario, CA, to oversee the system; Developing and delivering modularized Biosolids Training Programs for the stakeholder groups involved in biosolids utilization; Constructing an on-site biosolids holding facility and developing the bid documents for a land application concession. A sustainable biosolids utilization system is now in place. URL: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/freshwater/fms1/4.asp 12. Guilin, China According to the analysis of the sludge of Sewage Treatment Plants in Guilin, the sludge contains relatively high organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and relatively low heavy metals. The heavy metals contents are accord with the National Standard of Sludge for Agricultural Use. Based on the results of agricultural experiments, the

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sludge organic complex fertilizer has a good effect. The output of rice is increased by 13%to 19%over contrast region when the fertilizers are applied. The fertilizer efficiency is a little higher than or equal to the normal complex fertilizer. When the organic fertilizer is applied to sugarcane at the same conditions, the output of sugarcane is 22%higher than that of the used normal complex fertilizer, 29%higher than that of the used the mixed fertilizer of urea, calcium magnesium phosphate, and potassium chloride. URL: http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-gxkxyxb200003011.html 7. CONCLUSIONS Sewage biosolids is an unavoidable waste, generated as a result of treating the domestic sewage and industrial effluent. Failure to regularly remove the biosolids from the sewage treatment works inevitably results in the works failing and then adverse effects on the receiving watercourse. The biosolids arising thus requires a secure outlet. This project suggests that although there are numerous instruments relating to some aspect of the management of biosolids, there are a variety of issues that prevent a clear understanding of the benefits of biosolids utilization. The very first issue is the number of different legislative and non-legislative tools available but still not clearly providing the public with the benefits to their health and agricultural health. The other one is the number of differing terminology that can confuse the public. As a result, the consumers are apprehensive and the immediate response to suggestions that biosolids should be used on cropland, or composted with manures, or incinerated to produce energy, etc. the public backs off citing potential hazards to health and the environment. Nevertheless, the potential benefits of biosolids utilization appear to far outweigh any environmental risks. The land application of biosolids as fertilizer is generally more straight forward despite the stringent requirements. Biosolids have been proven to be a very effective soil amendment for reclamation of mined lands. Pathogen transmittal is not a problem if the biosolids have undergone appropriate pathogen reduction processes and proper application procedures are followed. Data collected from web site, literature and other documents present a comprehensive picture of the management of wastewater residuals in the world. An estimated 75% of the examples found show wastewater solids are applied to soils, including mine/site reclamation, forestry fertilizing, composting, landscaping, wetland and habitat restoration, etc., whereas, 7% is disposed to landfills. Approximately 12% of the study cases illustrate biosolids are incinerated. The incinerator ash is land applied as fertilizer or athletic-field amendment. The remainder is used in energy recovery processes and gasification and as raw material for cement production, glass aggregate and/or in bio-oil production. The treatment of biosolids to the Class A level seems to be increasing. Many state biosolids regulatory program continue to advance, addressing current new topics (e.g. nutrient management, energy production, raw material, etc.). Overall, current data suggest a significant change worldwide either in the wastewater residuals management or the rate of biosolids recycling and its beneficial uses in the last decade. 8. GLOSSARY

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A glossary of terminology has been prepared based on the findings.1 This is meant to illustrate the diversity in definitions used across the world and Canada with respect to management and use of municipal wastewater residuals. “Biosolids” are organic product obtained from the physico-chemical and/or biological treatment of wastewater. Biosolids result from primary wastewater treatment (primary biosolids), or from secondary wastewater treatment (secondary biosolids), and these two types of biosolids are often combined (mixed biosolids). These biosolids can be derived from the treatment of either municipal wastewater or industrial wastewater. “Biosolids” means inorganic or organic solid residuals from a sewage facility, or septic tank sludge, resulting from a municipal sewage treatment process which has been sufficiently treated to reduce vector attraction and pathogen densities, such that it can be beneficially recycled. “Biosolids” means stabilized municipal sewage sludge resulting from a municipal waste water treatment process or septage treatment process which has been sufficiently treated to reduce pathogen densities and vector attraction to allow the sludge to be beneficially recycled in accordance with the requirements of this regulation. “Biosolids” are defined as the solid, semi-solid or liquid residue generated during the treatment of domestic sewage in a treatment works. Biosolids include solids removed from primary, secondary, or advanced wastewater treatment processes but do not include screenings, material removed in the grit chamber, or scum removed from primary clarification. The term “biosolids” is in widespread use amongst water quality professionals. Their generally accepted definitions refer to agriculture uses or land application. For example, biosolids are defined as sewage sludge that has been treated to meet the regulatory requirements for land application. The New Oxford Dictionary of English, 1998 edition, defines it as “biosolids: plural noun: organic matter recycled from sewage especially for use in agriculture.” However, these definitions do not preclude using the term “biosolids” to refer to treated municipal wastewater solids that are incinerated or placed in a landfill or a surface disposal unit. “Beneficial Use” means any application of sludge on land specifically designed to take advantage of the nutrient and other characteristics of this material to improve soil fertility or structure and thereby some natural resource management objective. Synonymous expressions used in this project are: “end use,” “biosolids recycling” and “biosolids recycling to soil.” It is important to note that today the term “beneficial use” is appropriately applied to uses of biosolids in other ways than application to soils, such as for energy production. Such beneficial uses are increasing. Indeed, as energy becomes an ever-more important aspect of sustainable development (including biosolids management), “beneficial use” could be defined as “putting a particular biosolids product to its best and highest use by maximizing the utilization of nutrients, organic matter, moisture, and/or other qualities, including extracting the maximum amount of energy possible.” “Compost” means a solid mature product resulting from composting but does not include compost to which the Fertilizers Act (Canada) applies. “Compost” means the treatment of waste and organic matter by aerobic decomposition and microbial action to produce a stable, inert material. “Composting” means a managed process of bio-oxidation of composting materials, including a thermophilic phase. “Composting materials” means organic material generated by an agricultural operation described in clause. “Apply manure, composting materials or compost” means to spread manure, composting materials or compost on agricultural land, or to spread manure, composting materials or compost on and to incorporate or inject manure, composting materials or compost into agricultural land. 1 The definitions were taken from each piece of legislation, guidelines etc., and then alphabetized. The intention was not to tie any one definition back to a specific piece of legislation.

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“Disposal” is used in this report to refer to disposition of solids in ways that do not take advantage of these soil-enhanced qualities – this includes incineration, land filling and surface disposal. “Fertilizer” means any substance or mixture of substances, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium or other plant food, manufactured, sold or represented for use as a plant nutrient. “Fertilizer” includes a fertilizer derived through biotechnology. “Nutrient” means fertilizers, organic materials, biosolids, compost, manure, septage, pulp and paper sludge, and other material applied to land for the purpose of improving the growing of agricultural crops or for the purpose of a prescribed use, but does not include any material that the regulations specify does not come within the definition of “nutrient”. “Residual materials” that can be used to maintain or improve, separately or simultaneously, plant nutrition, as well as the physical and chemical properties and biological activity of soils. "Sewage" includes domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial wastes. “Sewage” means any liquid waste of domestic, commercial or industrial origin containing animal, vegetable or mineral matter in suspension or solution and includes rainwater or storm water that enters any sewage works. “Sludge” means the semi-liquid material that is removed from a wastewater treatment system as an end product of the treatment process. “Sludge” means the accumulated wet or dry solids that are separated from wastewater during treatment, including the precipitate resulting from the chemical or biological treatment of wastewater. “Solid waste" means refuse, ashes, garbage, domestic waste, compost or any other waste prescribed by regulation whether or not the waste has any commercial value or is capable of being used for a useful purpose. "Waste" means a substance that would cause or tend to cause an adverse effect if added to the environment, and includes rubbish, slimes, tailings, fumes, smoke from mines or factories, other air emissions, or other industrial wastes, effluent, sludge, sewage, garbage, refuse, scrap, litter or other waste products of any kind. "Waste" includes rubbish, litter, junk, or junked obsolete or derelict motor vehicles, or obsolete or derelict equipment, appliances or machinery; slimes, tailings, fumes, waste of domestic, municipal, mining, factory or industrial origin; effluent or sewage; human or animal wastes; solid or liquid manure; or waste products of any kind whatsoever or the run-off from storm events. "Waste" includes rubbish, offal, slime, tailings, effluent, sludge, sewage, garbage, refuse, scrap, litter or other substances or waste products that would or could cause an adverse effect. "Waste material" means refuse, garbage, rubbish, litter, scrap and discarded material, including tailings, effluent, sludge, sewage, offal, and machinery, and a product, vehicle or other item that is dumped, discarded, abandoned or otherwise disposed of. “Wastewater system” means a system for collecting, treating and disposing of wastewater and includes any or all of the following: - sewers and pumping stations that make up a wastewater collection system; - sewers and pumping stations that transport untreated wastewater from a wastewater collection system to a

wastewater treatment plant; - wastewater treatment plants; - facilities that provide storage for treated wastewater; - wastewater sludge treatment and disposal facilities; - sewers that transport treated wastewater from a wastewater treatment plant to the place where it is disposed of; - treated wastewater outfall facilities, including the outfall structures to a watercourse or any appurtenances for

disposal of treated wastewater to land or to wetlands. “Wastewater treatment plant” means any structure, thing or process used for physical, chemical, biological or radiological treatment of wastewater, and includes a structure, thing or process used for:

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a) wastewater storage; b) treated wastewater use and disposal; c) sludge treatment, storage and disposal. “Waste treatment system” means any plant or installation used, or intended to be used to treat a contaminant prior to disposal on land, or into air or water and includes a sewerage system.

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