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III.S ON THE EINSTEIN PODOLSKY ROSEN PJOHN S. BELLtI. Introduction

THE paradox of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen [1] was advanced as an argument that quantum mechanicscould not be a complete theory but should be supplemented by additional variables. These additional variables were to restore to the theory causality and locality [2}. In this note that idea will be formulatedmathematically and shown to be incompatible wi th the statistical predictions of quantum mechanics. I t isthe requirement of locality, or more precisely that the result of a measurement on one system be unaffectedby operations on a distant system with which it has interacted in the past, that creates the essential difficulty. There have been attempts [3} to show that even without such a separability or locality requirement no "hidden variable" interpretation of quantum mechanics is possible. These attempts have beenexamined elsewhere [4] and found wanting. Moreover, a hidden variable interpretation of elementary quantum theory [5} has been explicitly constructed. That particular interpretation has indeed a grossly nonlocal structure. This is characteristic, according to the result to be proved here, of any such theory whichreproduces exactly the quantum mechanical predictions.

II. FormulationWith the example advocated by Bohm and Aharonov [6], the EP R argument is the following. Consider

a pair of spin one-half particles formed somehow in the singlet spin state and moving freely in oppositedirections. Measurements can be made, say by Stern-Gerlach magnets, on selected components of thespins ;;1 and U2' If measurement of the component ;;1' a, where a is some unit vector, yields the value+ 1 then, according to quantum mechanics, measurement of U2' a must yield the value -1 and vice versa.Now we make the hypothesis [21, and it seems one at least worth considering, that if the two measurements are made at places remote from one another the orientation of one magnet does not influence theresult obtained wi th the other. Since we can predict in advance the result of measuring any chosen component of u2' by previously measuring the same component of u1 it follows that the result of any suchmeasurement must actually be predetermined. Since the initial quantum mechanical wave function does no tdetermine the result of an individual measurement, this predetermination implies the possibility of a morecomplete specification of the state.

Le t this more complete specification be effected by means of parameters A. It is a matter of indifference in the following whether A denotes a single variable or a set, or even a set of functions, and whetherthe variables are discrete or continuous. However, we write as i f A were a single continuous parameter.The result A of measuring u1 .:it is then determined bya and A, and the result B of measuring ;2.6 in thesame instance is determined by b and A, and.Work supported in part by th e U.S. Atomic Energy COildllissiontOn leave of absence from SLAC an d CERN

Originally published in Physics, 1, 195-200 (1964) .

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404 BELLA(6, X) = 1, B ( ~ , X) = 1. (1)

The vital assumption (2) is that the result 8 for particle 2 does not depend on the setting S, of the magnetfor particle 1, nor A onI f p(X) is the probability distribution of X then the expectation value of the product of the two com.... ....,ponents 01 . 8 and 0 2 ' 0 is

P ( a , ~ ) = dXp(X)A(a, X ) B ( ~ , X ) (2)This should equal the quantum mechanical expectation value, which for the singlet state is

(3)But it will be shown that this is not possible.

Some might prefer a formulation in which the hidden variables fall into two sets, with A dependent onone and 8 on the other; this possibility is contained in the above, since X stands for any number of variabies and the dependences thereon of A and 8 are unrestricted. In a complete physical theory of thetype envisaged by Einstein, the hidden variables would have dynamical significance and laws of motion;our X can then be thought of as initial values of these variables at some suitable instant.

III. IllustrationThe proof of the main result is quite simple. Before giving it, however, a number of illustrations mayserve to put it in perspective.Firstly, there is no difficulty in giving a hidden variable account of spin measurements on a singleparticle. Suppose we have a spin half particle in a pure spin state with polarization denoted by a unit

.. ..vector p. L ~ t the h i ~ d e ~ variable be (for example) a unit vector X with uniform p r o b a ~ i l i ~ distributionover the hemisphere X P > O. Specify that the result of measurement of a component 0 8 is.. ..,sign X' 8 , (4)

where 8' is a unit vector depending on aand Ii in a way to be specified, and the sign function is + 1 or-1 according to the sign of its argument. Actually this leaves the result undetermined when A 8' ..= 0,but as the probability of this is zero we will not make special prescriptions for it . Averaging over A theexpectation value is

where 8'until...,is the angle between 8

.. ... ,=co s 8

(5)aby rotation towards ;;

(6)

(7)So in this simple case there is no difficulty in the view that the result of every measurement is determinedby the value of an extra variable, and that the statistical features of quantum mechanics arise because tile value of this variable is unknown in individual instances.

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EPR PARADOX 405Secondly, there is no difficulty in reproducing, in the fonn (2), the only features of (3) cOilu"only usedin verbal discussions of this problem:

(.... ....P a, a = - P(a, -a ) = -1 (8).. 't \ ... ..,P (a, 01 = 0 I f a 0 = 0

For example, let A now be unit vector X, with uniform probability distribution over al l directions, and take

This gives

A(.. .,.) .. .,.a, A = sign a A8 (a, b) = - sign X

.. .., 2P (a, 0) '" - 1 + - 8 ,"

(9)

(10)

where 0 is the angle between a and b, and (10) has the properties (8). For comparison, consider the result of a modified theory (6) in which the pure singlet state is replaced in the course of time by an isotropic mixture of product statesj this gives the correlation function

- . ! . s . ~ 3It is probably less easy, experimentally, to distinguish (10) from (3), than (11) from (3).Unlike (3), the function (10) is not stationary at the minimum value -1(at 8 .. 0). It will bethat this is characteristic of functions of type (2).

(11)

Thirdly, and finally, there is no difficulty in reproducing the- quantum mechanical correlation (3) if theresults A and 8 in (2) are allowed to depend on and s espectively as well as on a a n d ~ . For example, replace s n (9) by ii', obtained frolil a y rotation towards g until

1 - 8' = cos 8 ,"where 8' is the angle S' and g. However, for given values of the hidden variables, the resultsof measurements with one magnet now depend on the setting of the distant magnet, which is just what wewould wish to avoid.

IV. ContradictionThe main result will now be proved. Because p is a nonnalized probability distribution,

dAp(A) = 1, (12)and because of the properties (I), P in (2) cannot be less than -1 . It can resch -1 at a g only i f

A(a, A) - -8(a, A) (13)except at a set of points A of zero probability. Assuming this , (2) can be rewritten

(14)

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406 BELLIt follows that c s another unit vector

P(8, g) -P(8, c) - dAp(A) [A(8, A) A(g, A) -A(8, A) A(c, A)= dAp(A) A(8, A) A(g, A) [A(g, A) A(c, A) -1)

using (1), whenceIP(8, g) -P(8, c) I dAp(A) [1 - A(g, A) A(c, A)

The second term on the right is P (g, c), whence(1S)

Unless P is constant, the right hand side is in general of order 1 -c I for small 1 -c I. Thus P(g, c)cannot be stationary at the minimum value ( -1 at = c) and cannot equal the quantum mechanicalvalue (3).

Nor can the quantum mechanical correlation (3) be arbitrarily closely approximated by the form (2).The formal proof of this may be set out as follows. We would not worry about failure of the approximationat isolated points, so le t us consider instead of (2) and (3) the functions

where the bar denotes independent averaging of P(s: g') and -8 ' . g' over vectors 8' and g' within specified small angles of 8 and g. Suppose that for al l 8 and g the difference is bounded by ( :

(16)Then it will be shown that ( cannot be made arbitrarily small.

Suppose that for al l a and b(17)

Then from (16) - .. ..IP (a, g) + a I :S ( + 8 (18)

From (2)(19)

where(20)

From (18) and (19), with B = g,(21)

From (19) - ... - ......P(a, g) - P(a, c) = - - - -dAp (A) [A (a, A) B (g, A) - A (a, A) B (c , A)= - - - - ..dAp(A) A(8, A) B(g, A) [1 + A(g, A) B(c, A)- dAp(A) .4(8, A) B(c, A) [1 + .4(g, A) B(g, A)l

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m.s PARADOX 407Using (20) then - - ..dA .. (A) [1 + A ( ~ , A) B(c, A

+ dAp(A) [1 + A ( ~ , A) B(-g, AThen using (19) and 21)

+ { + 8Finally, using (18),

... ... ... .,Ia c - a 0 I - 2 ({ + 8) S 1 - -g ' c+2 (+8 )or

... ... .....,4 ( + 8) Ia . c - a ' 0 I (22)Take for example a. c= 0, a = c = 1/V2 Then

Therefore, for small finite 8, { cannot be arbitrarily small.Thus, the quantum mechanical expectation value cannot be represented, either accurately or arbitrarily closely, fn the form (2).

V. GeneralizationThe example considered above has the advantage that it requires little imagination to envisage the

measurements involved actually being made. In a more formal way, assuming [7] that any Hermitian operator with a complete set of eigenstates is an "observable". the result is easily extended to other systems.I f the two systems have state spaces of dimensionality greater than 2 we can always consider two dimensional subspaces and define. in their direct product, operators a. and ;72 formally analogous to thoseused above and which are zero for states outside the product subspace. Then for at least one quantummechanical state, the "singlet" state in the combined subspaces, the statistical predictions of quantummechanics are incompatible with separable predetermination.

VI. ConclusionIn a theory in which parameters are added to quantum mechanics to determine the results of individual

measurements, without changing the statistical predictions, there must be a mechanism whereby the set-ting of one measuring d e v i c ~ can influence the reading of another instrument, however Moreover,the signal involved must propagate instantaneously, so that such a theory could not be invariant.

Of course, the situation is different i f the quantum mechanical predict ions are of limited validity.Conceivably they might apply only to experiments in which the settings of the instruments are made sufficiently in advance to allow them to reach some mutual rapport by exchange of signals with velocity lessthan or equal to that of light. In that connection, experiments of the type proposed by Bobm and Aharonov[6], in which the settings are changed during the flight of the particles. are crucial.I am indebted to Drs. M. Bander and J. K. PerrinA lor very uselul discussions of this problem. Thelirst dralt 01 the paper was written durinA a stay at Brandeis University; I am indebted to c o l l e 9 ~ u e s thereand at the University 01 Wisconsin lor their interest and hospitality

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408 8EI.I.

References1. A. EINSTEIN, N. ROSEN and B. PODOLSKY, Phys. Rev. 47, 777 (1935); see also N. BOHR, Ibid. 48,696 (1935), W. H. FURRY, Ibid. 49, 393 and 476 (1936), and D. R. INGLIS, Rev. Mod. Phys. 33, 1(1961).2. "But on one supposition we should, in my opinion, absolutely hold fast: the real factual situation of

the system S2 is independent of what is done with the system S I ' which is spatially separated fromthe former." A. ElNSTElN in Albert Einstein, Philosopher Scientist, (Edited by P. A. SCHILP) p. 85,Library of Living Philosophers, Evanston, Illinois (1949).3. J. VON NEUMANN, Mathematishe Grundlagen der Quanten-mechanik. Verlag Julius-Springer, Berlin(1932), [English translation: Princeton University Press (1955); J. M. JAUCH and C. PIRON, Helv.Phys. Acta 36, 827 (1963).4. J. S. BELL, to be published.5. D. BOHM, Phys. Rev. 85, 166 and 180 (1952).6. D. BOHM and Y. AHARONOV, Phys. Rev. lOB, 1070 (1957).7. P. A. M. DIRAC, The Principles 01 Quantum Mechanics (3rd Ed.) p. 37. The Clarendon Press, Oxford(1947).