Theories of religion

Functionalism Substantive – Weber - religion needs a belief in

god or the supernatural to be defined as a religion e.g. Catholicism, Christianity and Hinduism.

Functional – Durkheim - definition of religion depends on the function it provides for society e.g. ultimate questions about life and death.

Constructionist – interpretivist approach – how the individual defines religion e.g. scientology is a religion for its followers but not deemed as such by the Gov’.

Substantive is exclusive, so it disregards all faiths without gods or the supernatural.

Impossible to generalise the definition of religion as it is different for everybody.

Not all organisations who perform like a religion are actually religions e.g. football matches and collective chanting/singing.

Functional definition is inclusive so it gives credit to religions and faiths without supernatural beliefs.

Durkheim Sacred and the profane – key feature of religion is

the differentiation of the sacred and the profane (what is special and not special). This involves practices and rituals surrounding the sacred. The sacred represents power and society.

Totemism - Arunta Aboriginal Clan in Australia, members come together in collective worship of a totem (a symbol of the clan’s origins and identity). This collective worship reinforces solidarity and belonging.

Collective conscience – shared norms, values and belief that make social cohesion possible. Regular collective worship reinforces collective conscience and maintains social integration. Individuals feel like they belong to something greater than themselves.

Cognitive functions – religion provides us with the means of communication in categories such as time, cause, space. Religion is origin of concepts and categories we need for reasoning and understanding the world.

Worsley – the distinction between sacred and profane is not always sharp and many clans share the same totem.

Applies better to small-scale societies with a single religion.

Mestrovic – cannot be applied to modern society where diversity has fragmented the collective conscience.

Psychological functions – Malinowski When an outcome is uncertain but important –

e.g. Trobriand Islanders West Pacific – lagoon fishing is safe and requires no spiritual rituals. Ocean fishing is dangerous and uncertain; therefore, they practice canoe magic for a safe return.

At times of life crisis – events such as birth, death, marriage etc. Religion helps minimise disruption, death is the main reason for religion as it helps to console and provide reason for death

Values and Meanings – Parsons Religion creates and legitimises society’s central

values, religion sacralises core social norms and values e.g. Protestantism has sacralised core American values of meritocracy and self-discipline.

Religion also provides a primary source of meaning such as answers to ultimate questions about suffering and the human condition.

Civil Religion – Bellah An overarching belief system that attaches sacred

qualities to society itself. E.g. American way of life unites all faiths to pledge allegiance and sing the national anthem – collective rituals.

Functional alternatives Organisations that provide the same functions as

a religion and provoke the same feelings from its members e.g. the Nazi Party in WW2 Germany.

Functional alternatives and a civil religion are arguably not a religion.

Functionalists neglect the negative aspects of religion e.g. conflict and oppression.

Ignores religion as a source of division not unity. Looks positively on some of the realistic functions

religion provides for individuals as well as society.

Religion as an ideology – Marx Religion is a belief system that distorts people’s

perception of reality. The bourgeoisie have manipulated religion to serve the interests of capitalism.

False class consciousness – religion misleads the poor into thinking their suffering is virtuous which prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.

Spiritual gin – Lennin, religion is a mystical fog that obscures reality. Divine right of kings legitimised the powerful holding control.

Religion and alienation – Marx Alienation within the capitalist factory where the worker endlessly repeats the same task, devoid of all meaning and skill, unable to see the finished product. Religion acts as opium that dulls the pain for exploitation rather than treating the real cause.

Ignores positive functions of religion, Neo-Marxists see some forms of religion aiding class consciousness not hindering it.

Althusser – rejects the concept of alienation, that it is unscientific and that humans don’t have a true self that varies outside of work.

Hill & Turner – religion had little impact on the W/C as many were too busy working to go to church or were ill or looking after children.

Hindu caste system that legitimises the position of others in society, doctrines such as karma and reincarnations act as the opiate.

Evidence of Patriarchy – feminism Religious texts – their roles and opinions of

women. Religious customs – girls on their periods

‘unclean’. Places of worship – restricted participation.

Armstrong, early religions often placed women at the centre e.g. female goddesses, priesthoods.

Religion is not the cause of subordination, it is the rise of patriarchal ideology within society.

Religious forms of feminism Woodhead – Hijab or veil worn by Muslim women

is a sign of their liberation not oppression, as well as to gain entry into school and the workplace.

Brusco - Pentecostal religions empower women and give them respect, this gives them power over their husband’s behaviour e.g. Colombia, women are able to stop their husbands from excessively drinking and spending family money.

Women find support in bible study groups. The CoE, female priests since 1992 and female

bishops, 2015. 1/5 of priests are female.