STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY NICOLAE TESTEMITANU OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

Rodica GRAMMA, Adriana PALADI

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Didactic material for medical students

COMPENDIUMChisinau, 2011

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY NICOLAE TESTEMITANU OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

Chair of Philosophy and Bioethics

Rodica GRAMMA, Adriana PALADI

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Didactic material for medical students

COMPENDIUMChisinauCentrul Editorial-Poligrafic Medicina2011

CZU 316.62+ 316.77 (075.8) G 76Aprobat de Consiliul Metodic Central al USMF Nicolae Testemianu,

proces verbal nr. 2 din 18.03. 2010

Recenzeni: Angela Spinei - doctor n filosofie, confereniar universitar (USM) Tudor Grejdianu dr. hab. n medicin, profesor universitar (USMF)Redactor tiinific: Teodor N. rdea dr. hab. n filosofie, profesor universitar Coordonator: Vitalie Ojovanu, doctor n filosofie, confereniar universitar

n elaborare se realizeaz o incursiune n cele mai importante teme ale tiinelor comportamentale, definindu-se concepte de baz, relatndu-se variate abordri, realizri i probleme ale domeniului. Noiunile cheie ale lucrrii sunt: comportament, comunicare, personalitate, sntate, eficien etc. Compendiumul este adresat studenilor, cadrelor didactice i tuturor celor interesai de problematica domeniului.

The work includes the introduction into the most important themes of behavioral sciences, via definition of the basic concepts, via exposure of different approaches, achievements and problems of domain. The key words of the work are: behavior, communication, personality, health, efficiency etc. The work is designed for the students, professors and all interested in the subjects of matter.

DESCRIEREA CIP A CAMEREI NAIONALE A CRII

Gramma, Rodica; Paladi, Adriana

Behavioral sciences: Compendium. Didactic material for medical students / Rodica Gramma, Adriana Paladi; red. t.: Teodor N.rdea; State Univ. Medicine and Pharmacy Nicolae Testemianu of Rep. of Moldova, Chair of Philosophy and Bioethics. Ch.: CEP Medicina. 2011 158 p.

50 ex.ISBN 978-9975-913-82-9[316.62 +316.77]:61(075.8) G76

ISBN 978-9975-913-82-9

Catedra Filosofie i Bioetic,

CEP MedicinaPreface

1. Introduction in Behavioral Sciences

1.1. Behavior as a Concept ..

1.2. Factors Influencing Human Behavior ...

1.3. Abnormal Behavior ..2. Behavior and Personality

2.1. Human Personality2.2. Behavior and Temperament. Temperament Typology.2.3. Behavior and Human Somatic .2.4. Jung's Theory of Psychological Types .3. Behavior and Society

3.1 The Society and its Structure 3.2. The Concepts of Social Status and Role ...3.3. Health Care as a Social System 3.4. The Social Role of Doctors and Patients ..3.5. Deviations from the Role Obligations in the Doctor-Patient

Relationship .4. Communication. Definitions and Functions

4.1. What is Communication? .4.2. Communication Process....4.3. Communication Functions ..4.4. Communication and Health...5. Metacommunication and Cultural Differences

5.1. Metacommunication as Interpretation ..

5.2. Verbal Communication 5.3. Paraverbal Communication ..

5.4. Body Language .5.5. Extraverbal Communication

5.6. Interaction of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication .

5.7. Appearance of Medical Students and Doctors. The Dress Code.. 6. Barriers and Cleavages in Communication 6.1. Communication Distorting Factors ..6.2. Stereotypes, Stigma and Discrimination ..

6.3 Active Listening6.4 Barriers and Solutions for an Effective Medical Communication ...........................................................................

7. Behavior and Cultural Contexts

7.1. The Concept of Culture 7.2. Etiquette and Cultural Differences ...7.3. Conflict - Definition and Resolution 7.4. Intercultural Communication.8. Health Risk Behaviors and Communication in Risk Conditions.

8.1. Dangerous Factors Determining Appearance of Illness ...8.2. Risky Health Lifestyles ....8.3. Behavior Change Communication

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Table of contentPreface

What and how man is there are questions the humanity is interested in for the ages but only in the modern times the more or less rigorous answers are acquired. The modern sciences, shifting the accents and priorities in studying humans and moving in deep, enrich our knowledge, enabling us for a better understanding of human nature. What is really significant in this context is that the modern argued approach to man, as to the bio-psycho-social integrity, changes the dominant in present therapeutic attitudes towards person as to the exclusively biologic entity. The hallmark for replacement of biological therapeutic paradigm with that psychosomatic one is the inclusion in medical schools curriculum the matter called Behavioral Sciences.

What are Behavioral sciences? It is a very complex domain; it is actually a generic title of a cluster of discipline such as medical sociology, medical psychology, communication sciences etc.

The textbook contains essential general issues in Behavioral sciences and is designed to make an introduction in this field. Being conceived to cover the most general and important subjects of the domain, it consists of eight themes the content of which reveal the significance of such topics as: Normal and Abnormal Behavior, Health risks behavior, Social roles of doctors and patients, Physician patient relationship, Human psychological types, Communication and its significance in therapeutic context etc. At the end of every theme the final questions and tasks are proposed so that to facilitate the learning and at the same time to impulse for a critical thought. References to the theme give the opportunity to study deeply the subject of interest.

The book is intended to familiarize the students with basic achievements of behavioral sciences and to make them able to apply acquired knowledge in their medical activity as well as in their daily life. At the end of studying students are expected to know the human psychological types and human behavior types, to understand their professional role (as doctors) as well as the social role of their patients, to have the competences in constricting an adequate communication and relationship in therapeutic context etc. Knowledge acquainted with as a result of this textbooks reading will aid the students to be more self-confident and accordingly more efficient in their future professional activity.

Chapter 1Introduction in Behavioral Sciences

Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledgePlato1.1. Behavior as a Concept

The concept of behavior became an important construct in early 20th century psychology. It was considered to be the phenomenon passable for scientific analyses, and consequently the phenomenon studying of which can lead us to the better understanding of human and development. How can be defined this concept?

Behavior or behaviour is term refers to the actions of a system or organism, usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. More generally, behavior can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from the organism to the environment. It is most commonly believed that complexity in the behavior of an organism is correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. In the light of this supposition human behavior is the most evolved or complex type. In Science and Human behavior B.F. Skinner mentioned that human behavior is a difficult subject matter, not because it is inaccessible, but because it is extremely complex. Since it is a process, rather than a thing, it cannot easily be held still for observation. It is changing, fluid, and evanescent, and for this reason it makes great technical demands upon the ingenuity and energy of the scientist. But there is nothing essentially insoluble about the problems which arise from this fact. Nowadays behavior and especially that human is studied by the many academic disciplines, conventionally included in the domain called domain of behavioral sciences

Thus the term behavioral sciences (or behavioral sciences) encompass all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human behavior through controlled and naturalistic experimental observations and rigorous formulations. Behavioral sciences include two broad categories: neural - decision sciences - and social - communication sciences.

Decision sciences involves those disciplines primarily dealing with the decision processes and individual functioning used in the survival of organism in a social environment. These include anthropology, psychology, cognitive science, organization theory, psychobiology, and social neuroscience.

On the other hand, communication sciences include those fields which study the communication strategies used by organisms and its dynamics between organisms in an environment. These include fields like anthropology, organizational behavior, organization studies, sociology and social networks.

The material to be analyzed in a science of behavior comes from two basic sources: observation and experiment. Observation is an act of recognizing and noting a fact or occurrence often involving measurement with instruments. Experiment can be define as an act or operation for the purpose of discovering something unknown or of testing a principle, supposition, etc. It is a test, trial, or tentative procedure etc. Therea many kinds of observation and experiment. B.F. Skinner classified and described them in this way:(1) Casual observations. They are especially important in the early stages of investigation. Generalizations based upon them, even without explicit analysis, supply useful hunches for further study.

(2) In controlled field observation, the data are sampled more carefully and conclusions stated more explicitly than in casual observation. Standard instruments and practices increase the accuracy and uniformity of field observation.

(3) Clinical observation has supplied extensive material. Standard practices in interviewing and testing bring out behavior which may be easily measured, summarized, and compared with the behavior of others. Although it usually emphasizes the disorders which bring people to clinics, the clinical sample is often unusually interesting and of special value when the exceptional condition points up an important feature of behavior.

(4) Extensive observations of behavior have been made under more rigidly controlled conditions in industrial,military, and other institutional research. This work often differs from field or clinical observation in its greater use of the experimental method.

(5) Laboratory studies of human behavior provide especially useful material. The experimental method includes the use of instruments which improve our contact with behavior and with the variables of which it is a function. Recording devices enable us to observe behavior over long periods of time, and accurate recording and measurement make effective quantitative analysis possible. The most important feature of the laboratory method is the deliberate manipulation of variables: the importance of a given condition is determined by changing it in a controlled fashion and observing the result.

Current experimental research on human behavior is sometimes not so comprehensive as one might wish. Not all behavioral processes are easy to set up in the laboratory, and precision of measurement is sometimes obtained only at the price of unreality in conditions. Those who are primarily concerned with the everyday life of the individual are often impatient with these artificialities, but insofar as relevant relationships can be brought under experimental control, the laboratory offers the best chance of obtaining the quantitative results needed in a scientific analysis.

(6) The extensive results of laboratory studies of the behavior of animals below the human level are also available. The use of this material often meets with the objection that there is an essential gap between man and the other animals, and that the results of one cannot be extrapolated to the other. To insist upon this discontinuity at the beginning of a scientific investigation is to beg the question. Human behavior is distinguished by its complexity, its variety, and its greater accomplishments, but the basic processes are not therefore necessarily different. Science advances from the simple to the complex; it is constantly concerned with whether the processes and laws discovered at one stage are adequate for the next. It would be rash to assert at this point that there is no essential difference between human behavior and the behavior of lower species; but until an attempt has been made to deal with both in the same terms, it would be equally rash to assert that there is.

A discussion of human embryology makes considerable use of research on the embryos of chicks, pigs, and other animals. Treatises on digestion, respiration, circulation, endocrine secretion, and other physiological processes deal with rats, hamsters, rabbits, and so on, even though the interest is primarily in human beings. The study of behavior has much to gain from the same practice.

1.2. Factors Influencing Human BehaviorHuman behavior as the population of behaviors exhibited by humans is determined by many factors. It is influenced by biology, through genes, neurotransmitters and other biological mechanisms; by environment, through social factors; and psychology, through the structure of the human brain and its many, varied functions. No one mentioned area can entirely determine human behavior. It is influenced through all of them. That mean it is influenced through the interaction of biological, sociological and psychological factors. In what is follow we will focus on these three factors and on the way these work together.

Biological basis of behavior

The nervous system

Behavior, which can vary from driving a car to making a difficult mathematical exercise, depends on various processes in the human body. The relation between these processes is regulated by the nervous system. Here is an example of what your body has to do in order to make you stop for a red traffic light. First you have to perceive the light, which means that the light has to be caught by the eye. The eye sends signals to the brain. The brain compares the signals with those received from the other eye and stores the signals temporarily in your memory. (You know you have to stop for the red light.) After that you have to push the brake pedal. To make this happen, your brains have to send a signal to the leg muscles to push the feet on the brake pedal. All these signals from and to your brains are transported through nerve cells.

The nervous system is the most complex system of the human body. The human brain itself consists of at least 10 billion neurons. Every moment of the day your nervous system is active. It exchanges millions of signals corresponding with feeling, thoughts and actions. A simple example of how important the nervous system is in your behavior is meeting a friend.First, the visual information of your eyes is sent to your brain by nervous cells. There the information is interpreted and translated into a signal to take action. Finally the brain sends a command to your voice or to another action system like muscles or glands. For example, you may start walking towards him. Your nervous system enables this rapid recognition and action.

There are three general functions of the nervous system in man and animals:

1. Sensing specific information about external and internal conditions (in the example above, this is seeing your friend).

2. Integrating that information (this is the understanding of the information coming from the eyes).

3. Issuing commands for a response from the muscles or glands (this is the reaction of walking towards him).

The nervous system provides us the ability to perceive, understand and react to environmental events. That is why the nervous system is so extremely important for human behavior.

Genetic influences, the role of genes on behavior

How much of the behavior is accounted for by genetic factors or heritability? This question is adresed by behavioral genetics - a field of research in psychology which began in England with Sir Francis Galton and his study of the inheritance of genius in families. He discovered that genius 'runs in families' and concluded that it is to a significant degree a heritable behavioral trait. Since Galton a lot of people tried to prove that genetics play an important role in many aspects of behavior. Those people proved that complex behaviors related to personality, psychopathology and cognition are all influenced to some degree by genetics. They have also found that genetics alone is never enough to explain behavior, because behavior is also influenced by the enviroment.

Today, most psychologists believe that behavior reflects both genetic and environmental aspects. They try to explain variability in a trait like intelligence or height or musicality in terms of the genetic and enviromental differences among people within that population.

Effect of the production of hormones on behavior

The word hormone is derived from the Greek word hormao and means to excite or stir into action. Hormones are chemicals secreted into the bloodstream by specialized organs and carried to other parts of the body to perform their task. Organs that secrete and manufacture hormones are known as endocrine glands. Exocrine glands such as tear glands secrete their products outside the body. Whereas exocrine glands are also called ductal glands, endocrine glands are ductless. Endocrine glands come in a variety of sizes and are located through the whole body.

Hormones are found throughout the animal kingdom and even in plants, but only the vertebrates have specialized organs to produce and to store hormones. In many cases the structure of a hormone is the same over a wide variety of animals, although its function can be different.Some human hormones are not secreted by endocrine glands but come from sources as neurons in the hypothalamus, or cells in the digestive tract. Recently the heart has been found to produce a hormone that helps regulate the blood pressure.

Until the beginning of the 20th century the communication within the body was exclusively attributed to the nervous system. However, investigators discovered that the endocrine system is also important for this function. Yet, the role of endocrine glands was anticipated in several ancient civilizations in which they were eaten to modify health or behavior. In the fourth century B.C. Aristotle described the effects of behavior in birds when removing the testes (castration). Although he did not what mechanism was involved, it was clear to him that the testes were important for the male characteristics. Nowadays we know that the testes produce a certain hormone (testosterone) that causes a lower voice and stronger muscles in male human beings.

Psychological factors

There are three psychological basic sub-systems which act on human behavior: motivation, cognition and emotion.

Motivation

Motivation is the driving force of human behavior. It is a force by which humans achieve their goals. One of the most widely discussed theories of motivation is Abraham Maslow's theory. Accordingly to him driving forces for human action are human heeds, structured by him hierarchically from basic to most complexes as follows: Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.), Safety / Security / Shelter / Health, Belongingness / Love/ Friendship, Self-esteem / Recognition / Achievement, Self-actualization. Having a need (desire) human start to act in order to satisfy it. The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.

Generally speaking motivation is classified in two types: intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is called also internal. They say that the person is intrinsically motivated if his action (behavior) is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, rather than relying on any external pressure. For instance students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in); believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck).Extrinsic motivation is called also external. It comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.

Motivation is many times associated with volition. Nevertheless there is difference among them. Motivation usually is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts.

Cognition Cognition is a complex mental phenomenon that refers to knowledge, to the way people acquired and use their knowledge. Cognition includes processes like perception, attention, remembering, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions.

Perception

Perception is the process of attaining understanding of the environment by organizing and interpreting information got from the traditionally recognized five senses of sight (ophthalmoception), hearing (audioception), taste (gustaoception), smell (olfacoception or olfacception), and touch (tactioception), and other nontraditional senses like temperature (thermoception), kinesthetic sense (proprioception), pain (nociception), balance (equilibrioception) and acceleration (kinesthesioception). Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness.

Memory and attention

Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. The environment stimulates one or more sensory systems. This environmental information then passes three levels of memory called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. At each level, cognitive processes operate on the information, giving it meaning, refreshing it and integrating it. In the sensory memory, the information is encoded to go to the short term memory. There the information is encoded to go to the long term memory. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorization, is an example of sensory memory. Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory. While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically.

The amount of information that can be processed is limited. The main bottle-neck is attention. If you are distracted by a TV program, while you are trying to study, your attention will be divided over both the book and the TV. When you would study without having the TV on, you would have more attention to 'spend' on your study. Cognitive processes determine which of the available information will be used and which will be ignored.

Imagination and thought

Imagination is the ability of forming mental images, sensations and concepts, in a moment when they are not perceived through sight, hearing or other senses. Imagination is a fundamental facility through which people make sense of the world, create the meanings. Make the distinction between two forms of imagination: "reproductive or "constructive" imagination. Imagination can be confused with the process of thinking, but this are two different processes, even thou interdependent. "Thought" generally refers to any mental or intellectual activity which relates with processing of information, with the producing and arrangements of ideas accordingly with ones needs, attachments, objectives, plans, commitments, ends and desires.

Using language

Human language can be defined in various ways. One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and produce and understand utterances. Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. This definition stresses the fact that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings. Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment. The different definitions stress different aspects of lanquage, simultaniously showing the great significans of language for thinking, learning and social existance of humans. By the mean of leanguage we produse and expres our ideas, we learn from the experience of others, we comunicate with others for the better social existnce.

IntelligenceDavid Wechsler defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. Howard Gardner say that a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge. Sternberg & Salter consider intelligence as a goal-directed adaptive behavior. Thus, numerous definitions of intelligence have been proposed till now, but many of them contain such term as ability of problem solving.

To indicate the intelligence of humans several tests have been developed. We will explain some of them. The first intelligence test was developed by Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of the famous Charles Darwin. Galton was interested in the differences in intelligence between human beings, and he believed that certain families were more intelligent than others. Galton administered a battery of tests measuring qualities such as reaction time, breathing capacity and head size.

The intelligence test as we know it was formulated by the French psychologist Binet. He assumed that intelligence should be measured by tasks requiring reasoning and problem solving abilities. Binet thought that a slow learning child was like a normal child but retarded in metal growth. So he concluded that a slow learning child would perform the same as a younger child in intelligence tests. He devised a scale of mental age. Average mental age (MA) scores correspond to chronological mental age (CA). A bright child's MA is above his CA, and a slow learning child's MA is below his CA. An advantage of the mental aged scale is that it can easily be interpreted.

The American psychologist Lewis Terman used Binet's method to develop a scale for intelligence. This index is called Intelligence Quotient (IQ), and this scale expresses intelligence as a ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA):

IQ = MA/CA 100

The 100 is used to make the result better to compare. Numbers like 101, 125 and 89 are easier to handle than 1.01, 1.25 and .89. It is easy to conclude that when a child is smarter than the average (his MA is higher than his CA), his IQ will be above 100, and otherwise. Failure on one kind of item is scored the same way as a failure on another item. So this test does not show any particular strengths or weaknesses.

To distinguish between various aspects of intelligence, the Wechsler Intelligence scale is developed. This test is almost identical to Binet's test, but it is divided in two parts, a verbal scale and a performance scale. Another failure of the tests is that performance increases with practice. There are books containing intelligence tests, and when you practice them a couple of time, you know how to handle every problem so you will score pretty high on an IQ-test.Emotions

The word emotion includes a wide range of observable behaviors, expressed feelings, and changes in the body state. This diversity in intended meanings of the word emotion makes it hard to study. For many of us emotions are very personal states, difficult to define or to identify except in the most obvious instances. Moreover, many aspects of emotion seem unconscious to us. Even simple emotional states appear to be much more complicated than states as hunger and thirst.

To clarify the concept of emotions, three definitions of various aspects of emotions can be distinguished:

1. Emotion is a feeling that is private and subjective. Humans can report an extraordinary range of states, which they can feel or experience. Some reports are accompanied by obvious signs of enjoyment or distress, but often these reports have no overt indicators. In many cases, the emotions we note in ourselves seem to be blends of different states.

2. Emotion is a state of psychological arousal an expression or display of distinctive somatic and autonomic responses. This emphasis suggests that emotional states can be defined by particular constellations of bodily responses. Specifically, these responses involve autonomously innervated visceral organs, like the heart or stomach.

3. Emotions are actions commonly "deemed", such as defending or attacking in response to a threat. This aspect of emotion is especially relevant to Darwin's point of view of the functional roles of emotion. He said that emotions had an important survival role because they generated actions to dangerous situations.

Some psychologists have tried to subdivide emotions in categories. For example Wilhelm Wundt, the great nineteenth century psychologist, offered the view that emotions consist of three basic dimensions, each one of a pair of opposite states: pleasantness/unpleasantness, tension/release and excitement/relaxation. However, this list has become more complex over time. Plutchik suggests that there are eight basic emotions grouped in four pairs of opposites:

1. joy/sadness

2. acceptance/disgust

3. anger/fear

4. surprise/anticipation

In Plutchik's view, all emotions are a combination of these basic emotions, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience.

Emotions differ not only accordingly to criteria of primary/secondary. They can be distinguished after their occurrence in time. Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (for example, surprise), whereas others can last years (for example, love). The latter could be regarded also as a long term tendency not as a proper emotion. A distinction is then made between emotion episodes and emotional dispositions. Dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions, though about different objects. For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do.

Social influencesHumans are social creatures. There is a fundamental human need to belong to social groups, because survival and prosperity is more likely if we live and work together. However, to live together, we need to agree on common beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors that reduce in-group threats act for the common good. These biliefs, valuies and principles are expresed in social tradition, laws, ethical codes and delivered among humans by the mean of diferent social sistem: educational system, juridical sistem, massmedia system etc. Society influence the behavior of its members in many ways. It pass laws through its governmental institutions, creating severe punishments for particular antisocial behaviors. It develop a strong desire for ethics and morals, through its religious institutions as well as secular education (begining with it elimentary or family level end ending with highest institutional level ) and tradition (seen as an ansambe of rituals that pressure people to behave in a predictable fashion and that why seen as source of social stability).

As we grow and develop in society, we internalize the values of the society around us by making these our own. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize values (attitudes and expectations) is called socialization. Individuals do not automatically absorb, but gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unaware of his acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is usually accomplished through the imitation of role models. We learn to conform to rules of other people. And the more we see others behaving in a certain way or making particular decisions, the more we feel obliged to follow suit.

When a person in a society or group does not conform to the rules of society or group, then they may be considered a deviant and both private and public advice may be given to them on how to fit in. If they still do not obey norms, they will be marginalized (punished) by society or will be ejected and membership of the group revoked.

A form of deviant behavior is criminal behavior. Generally social influence is defined as change in an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors that results from interaction with another individual or a group. Particularly when we discuss about concrete type of behavior we have to mention the concert factor which determined it. Thus when in concern is criminal behavior for instance in children and young people same risk factors are to be mentioned:Family

Poor parental supervision and discipline; Family conflict; Family history of problem behaviour; Parental involvement / attitudes condoning problem behaviour; Low income and poor housing.

School

Low achievement, beginning at primary school; Aggressive behaviour, including bullying; Lack of commitment, including truancy; School disorganisation.

Community

Community disorganisation and neglect; Availability of drugs; Disadvantaged neighbourhood; High turnover and lack of neighbourhood attachment.

Individuals, friends and peers

Alienation and lack of social commitment; Attitudes that condone problem behaviour; Early involvement in problem behaviour; Friends involved in problem behaviour.

Protective factors are linked to positive outcomes even when children are growing up in adverse circumstances and heavily exposed to risk. These are:

Strong bonds with family, friends and teachers; Healthy standards set by parents, teachers and community leaders; Opportunities for involvement in families, schools and the community; Social and learning skills to enable participation; Recognition and praise for positive behaviour.

1.3. Abnormal BehaviorThe behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. Even there is a large diversity of human behavior people tend to divide it in two broad categories: normal and abnormal one. When starting a discussion of abnormal behavior, people sometimes ask, "How can anybody tell what is abnormal, anyway?" The definition of the word abnormal is simple enough: deviating from the norm. However, applying this to psychology poses a complex problem: What is normal? Whose norm? For what age? For what culture? Some would simply classify what is "good" as normal and what is "bad" as abnormal, but this is a vague and narrow definition and brings up many of the same questions for the definition of "good" as does the definition for "normal". There are many more ways of determining a more objective reference point. The following criteria are used to determine whether a person behavior is abnormal or not:

1. Statistical abnormality (deviation from statistical norms). A behavior may be judged abnormal if it is statistically unusual in a particular population. The word abnormal means 'away from the norm'. Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent would be classified as abnormal too.

2. Violation of socially-accepted standards (deviation from social norms). An abnormal behavior might be defined as one that goes against common or majority or presumed standards of behavior. By this definition, a person is abnormal if violating the expectations and values of a community. For example, one might be judged abnormal in one's failure to behave as recommended by one's family, church, employer, community, culture, or subculture. The main problem with the "violation of standards" definition of abnormality is that it is based upon cultural standards that change from place to place and time to time. What is abnormal in one culture may be regarded as acceptable in a different culture. What is regarded as abnormal at one time may be regarded as normal several decades later. For example, watching TV may be considered abnormal in the Amish culture, where modern conveniences are avoided. Violation of standards does not necessarily correlate with statistical rarity. Physical abuse of a spouse is considered abnormal in the United States, although it occurs in up to a fifth of marriages.

3. Maladaptiveness of behavior. This criteria approach abnormality by starting with a theory of personality development. If normal development can be defined, then abnormality is defined by the failure to develop in this way. For example, if adults normally arrive at a moral stage that prohibits killing other people, and someone does not arrive at this stage, that person might be called abnormal. This third criterium is how the behavior affects the well-being of the individual and/or social group.

4. Subjective abnormality. The fourth criterium considers abnormality in terms of the individual's subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Judging abnormality by subjective discomfort raises a different set of problems. In the type of abnormality called neurosis, personal distress may be the only symptom, because the individual's behavior seems normal. Psychotic people, the most seriously disordered of all mental patients, often feel perfectly normal and suffer little distress, despite having markedly "crazy" and unrealistic thought processes that could lead to behavior harmful to themselves or others.

5. Legal approuch. The legal definition of abnormality declares a person insane when he is not able to judge between right and wrong.

6. Biological injury. Abnormal behavior can be defined or equated with abnormal biological processes such as disease or injury. Examples of such abnormalities are brain tumors, strokes, heart disease, diabetes, epilepsy, and genetic disorders.

Many of the classic psychiatric syndromes we will discuss in this chapter are now recognized as brain diseases involving abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, the chemicals that neurons use to communicate. On the other hand, people tend to refer to any behavior they do not like as a disease or a disorder. The idea that alcoholism is a disease, for example, is quite controversial, although it is a widely accepted idea.

Biological approaches to defining abnormal behavior of many types seem to be gaining ground, because there are so many advancing technologies for defining biological problems. Brain scans, analysis of neurotransmitters, and genetic analysis all provide objective ways of identifying biological disturbances. The vast majority of abnormal behaviors discussed in this chapter (with a few exceptions such as the personality, somatoform, and factitious disorders) are now thought to have a biological basis. Many respond to medication, used alone or with psychotherapy.

Even when there are biological factors that contribute to a problem, the environment usually plays a role as well. Biological approaches to defining abnormality may encourage people to overlook environmental factors that are easier to change than genetics or brain disorders. A study of adopted children showed that two distinct risk factors encouraged alcoholism: (1) familial alcoholism (one or both genetic parents were alcoholic) and (2) drinking in the family environment (the adoptive parents had drinking problems). Either heredity or environment could increase risk of alcoholism, and obviously only the environment can be manipulated or changed after a person is born, if one wants to prevent alcoholism from developing.Specific behavioral disorders

1. Divided Brain

This disease is also called split-brain, and the problem the patient has is that the both brain parts cannot communicate with each other.

The brain has two hemispheres, the right and the left hemisphere. Those two hemispheres do look like mirror images of each other, but a closer examination reveals certain asymmetries. When the two hemispheres are measured during an autopsy, the left one is almost always larger than the right one. This anatomical difference are related to differences in functions between the two hemispheres: the left hemisphere is specialized for the use of language, while the right one is specialized for mental imagery and the understanding of spatial relationships.Speech and the production of sounds are usually located in the left hemisphere. But some left-handed people have speech centers located in the right hemisphere or divided between the two. Seeing is also complicated, the two eyes of you give their information to the opposite hemisphere; your right eye gives his information to the left hemisphere, and your left eye to the right hemisphere. The brain transforms this information so we see 'normal'. As a result of this the left hemisphere sees the right hand in the right visual field, this is correct because your right hemisphere controls you left body-half and otherwise. When someone is suffering a split-brain his both hemispheres cannot communicate. In a test, a person with a split brain is seated in front of a screen. Because of his split brain he cannot use his right hand to take something he sees with his left eye. When a word appears on the left side of the screen, the eye passes the information through to the right hemisphere so he won't understand the word because language depends on the left hemisphere.

Because people with split brain can not combine the information of both hemispheres, their behavior is pretty strange. Because he is not aware of everything that happens he can look stupid and his behavior can be illogical and vague.2. SchizophreniaSchizophrenia is the label given to a group of psychotic disorders characterized by distortion of reality, withdrawal from social interaction and disorganization of thought. The word schizophrenia is derived from the Greek words for to split (schidzein) and mind (phren). This splitting is related to fragmenting of the thought processes.

Schizophrenia occurs in all cultures, also those that are remote from western civilization and its stress. Because the disorder often reoccurs and because the patient's suffer long from it, half of all psychiatric hospital beds are occupied by patients suffering schizophrenia. Schizophrenia usually appears in young adulthood. Sometimes the disorder develops slowly, but sometimes it has a sudden onset. These are often a result of stress with people living an isolated life. Whether the disorder develops slowly or suddenly, the signs are many and varied. The primary characteristics can be summarized as the following, although not every schizophrenic person will show all of them:

1. Disturbance of thought and attention; people suffering schizophrenia often cannot think logically and as the result of this they cannot write a story, because every word they write down might make sense, but are meaningless in relation to each other, and they cannot keep their attention to the writing.

2. Disturbances of perception; during acute schizophrenic episodes, people say that the world appears different to them, their bodies appear longer, colors seem more intense and they cannot recognize themselves in a mirror.

3. Disturbances of affect; schizophrenic persons fail to show 'normal' emotions. For example, a patient may smile while talking over tragic events

4. Withdrawal from reality; during schizophrenic episodes, the individual becomes absorbed in his inner thoughts and fantasies. The self-absorption may be so intense that the individual may not know the month or day or the place where he is staying.

5. Delusions and hallucinations; in most cases the former characteristics are accompanied by delusions. The most common are beliefs that other persons are trying to control his thoughts, he may become suspicious of friends (paranoid), this is the reason why Robert Kennedy was assassinated.

The results of schizophrenia are many and varied, but these are the main characteristics. Not everybody has the same opinion about the causes of schizophrenia, but some factors have certainly influence on schizophrenics. Disturbed home life and early trauma are frequently found in the background of schizophrenics. The early death of one or more parents, emotionally disturbed parents and strife between parents are found with greater frequency in the background of schizophrenics. 3. Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain now considered a leading cause of dementia. Alzheimer's disease was first described by the German neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer in 1906, it affects an estimated 2.5 to 3 million people in the United States. In the United Kingdom, the number of individuals with this condition is estimated to rise to over 1 million by the year 2010. Percentage rates (cases per 100 individuals of 65 years and over) worldwide vary considerably between 0.6 in China to 10.3 in Massachusetts, United States. The incidence of the disease increases with advancing age, but there is no evidence that it is caused by the aging process.

The average life expectancy of people with the disease is between five and ten years, although many patients now survive 15 years or more due to improvements in care and medical treatment. The cause of this disease has not been discovered, although palliative therapy is available. The ability of doctors to diagnose Alzheimer's disease has improved in recent years, but this remains a process of elimination and final diagnosis can be confirmed only by post-mortem. Alzheimer's patients show nerve cell loss in the parts of the brain associated with cognitive functioning. The hallmark lesions of Alzheimer's disease include the formation of abnormal proteins. Alzheimer's disease is also characterized by profound deficits in the brain's neurotransmitters which has been linked with memory function.4. AutismAutism (from the Greek word autos, which means self) is a severe infant disorder of behavior that develops before the age of three. The term is used to describe many types of mental disorders, but, as originally named in 1943 by the American child psychologist Leo Kanner, early infantile autism describes a rare cluster of symptoms. Its incidence is approximately 1 in 2,500. An autistic child is unable to use language meaningfully or to process information from the environment. About half of all autistic children are mute, and those who speak often only repeat what they have heard. The term autism refers to their vacant, withdrawn appearance, but its connotation of voluntary detachment is inappropriate. Other characteristics of autism include an uneven pattern of development, a fascination with mechanical objects, a ritualistic response to environmental stimuli, and a resistance to any change in the environment. Some autistic children have precocious ability, such as mathematical skills. The cause, prognosis, and treatment of autism are still under study. Research suggests a genetic defect as the cause of the disorder, which may be some form of autoimmune disease or degenerative disease of nerve cells in the brain. The best treatment is special education, stressing learning in small groups, and strict behavioral control of the child. Treatment with drugs such as fenfluramine and haloperidol is also being tested. In general, prognosis is poor for those autistic children who remain mute past the age of five. Children who speak fare better, and some of them recover.5. PhobiasPhobias are excessive fears in specific situations when there is no real danger or fears that are totally out of proportions. Most of the time the person with a phobia realizes that his fear is irrational and illogical but he still feels anxiety. Avoiding the feared situation can only relieve this anxiety. Most of us are afraid for something; snakes, heights, doctors, injury or death are the most reported fears. But a fear is different from a phobia. A fear is usually not diagnosed as a phobia unless it causes big problems in the person's daily life. An example of this is a person with a phobia for enclosed places, he/she will notice his/her phobia when he/she want to use elevators.

There are a number of explanations about how phobias develop. Some phobias may result from frightening experiences. For example, you might develop fear for flying after experiencing a near air disaster. Once such a phobia develops, the individual may go to great lengths to avoid the feared situation, and so eliminating a possible fear. Other phobias may be learned through observation. fearful parents tend to produce children who share their fears. This phobia might be inherited, but it is more likely that parents provide a model and that the children imitate that model. Other phobias might develop because they are rewarded. When a child is afraid of going to school because he will be separated from his parents for a while, he will say he has a stomachache or something like that. Then his parents reward him with the comfort of staying home with his parents. Behavioral techniques have proved successful in treating phobias, especially simple and social phobias. One technique, systematic desensitization, involves confronting the phobic person with situations or objects that are feared. Exposure therapy, another behavioral method, has recently been shown to be more effective. In this technique, phobias are repeatedly exposed to the feared situation or object so that they can see that no harm befalls them; the fear gradually fades. Antianxiety drugs have also been used as palliatives. Drugs to treat depression have also proved successful in treating some phobias.

Exercises and Discussions:

1. What is the subject-matter of behavioral sciences?

2. What are the methods (sources) of knowledge in behavioral sciences?

3. Describe the factors that influence human behavior (biological, psychological and social).

4. What is abnormal behavior? Abnormal behavior types.

5. Construct your own definition of term behaviors in the light of acquired knowledge.

Recommended Essays

1. The importance of behavioral science for medical activity. Psycho somatic model of treatment.

2. A. Maslows conception of Motivation.

3. Emotion as incentive of human behavior.

4. Age and behavior.

Literature:

1. Fadem Barbara. Behavioral science. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.

2. Milliken Mary Elizabeth, Honeycutt Alyson. Understanding human behavior: a guide for health care providers. Cengage Learning, 2004.

3. Stoudemire Alan. Human behavior: an introduction for medical students. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1998.

4. Skinner B. F. Science and human behavior. The B.F. Skinner Foundation, 2005. Chapter 2Behavior and Personality

"Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living being. It is an act of courage flung in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal conditions of existence, coupled with the greatest possible freedom of self-determination."C.G. Jung, 1875-1961

2.1. Human Personality

Almost every day we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. While our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on individuals, personality psychologists instead use conceptions of personality that can apply to everyone. Even there is no consensus concerning the definition of personality to understand what is meant by the term personality it is the first step into the field of personality psychology.

The term "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character. Now day most people, when they think of personality, are actually thinking of personality differences - types and traits and the like.Scientists define personality as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. In other words personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include which can be summarized as follow:

Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in out thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology. Personality research has led to the development of a number of theories that help explain how and why certain personality develops. We have dozens and dozens of theories, each emphasizing different aspects of personhood, using different methods, sometimes agreeing with other theories, sometimes disagreeing.

Some of major theoretical perspectives on personality include:

Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. These theories suggested that there are a limited number of "personality types" which are related to biological influences. Type theories include temperamental conception of Galen and constitutional conception of William Sheldon Trait theories viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based. Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits, which he sometimes referred to as dispositions. Significant contribution to this approach Hans Eysenck had.

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freuds psychosexual stage theory and Erik Eriksons stages of psychosocial development. Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account. Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson.

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

In following paragraphs we will unfold the main features of some significant type personality theories.

2.2. Behavior and temperament. Temperament typology

The concept of personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. An early form of personality type theory was the Four Temperaments system. What is temperament? From at least classical times, temperament has referred to an individual's stable pattern of behaviour or reaction, one that persists across time, activity, and space.

Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory developed by the Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC). He believed certain human moods, emotions and behaviors were caused by body fluids (called "humors"): blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Next, Galen (AD 131-200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De temperamentis. He mapped them to a matrix of hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the Four Elements (fire, air, earth, water). The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist were exquisitely balanced. In four less ideal types, one of the four qualities was dominant over all the others. In the remaining four types, one pair of qualities dominated the complimentary pair; for example; warm and moist dominated cool and dry. These latter four were the temperamental categories Galen named "sanguine", "melancholic", "choleric" and "phlegmatic" after the bodily humors. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humors that produced, in turn, the imbalance in paired qualities. Thus sanguine suppose the excess of blood and dominance of hot/wet qualities, choleric yellow bile - hot/dry , melancholic black bile - cold/dry and phlegmatic phlegm - cold/wet. Although each person was deemed to have his or her own individual temperament, they were generally described as variations on four basic types: choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic. What are the basic features of each type of temperaments?

Sanguine

The Sanguine temperament personality is fairly extroverted. People of a sanguine temperament tend to enjoy social gatherings and making new friends. They tend to be creative and often day dream. However, some alone time is crucial for those of this temperament. Sanguine can also mean very sensitive, compassionate and thoughtful. Sanguine personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are chronically late, and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic. Often, when pursuing a new hobby, interest is lost quickly--when it ceases to be engaging or fun.

Choleric

A person who is choleric is a doer. They have a lot of ambition, energy, and passion, and try to instill it in others. They can dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great charismatic military and political figures were cholerics.

Melancholic

A person who is a thoughtful pondered has a melancholic disposition. Often very kind and considerate, melancholic can be highly creative as in poetry and art - and can become occupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world. A melancholic is also often a perfectionist. They are often self-reliant and independent.

Phlegmatic

Phlegmatic tend to be self-content and kind. They can be very accepting and affectionate. They may be very receptive and shy and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. They are very consistent, relaxed, rational, curious, and observant, making them good administrators and diplomats. Unlike the Sanguine personality, they may be more dependable.

Common traits of temperaments

From the beginning, with Galen's ancient temperaments, it was observed that pairs of temperaments shared certain traits in common, related especially to the rapidity of the responses to the stimulus and to the sustainability of the responses.

Sanguine - quick, impulsive, and relatively short-lived reactions. (hot/wet)

Phlegmatic - a longer response-delay, but short-lived response. (cold/wet)

Choleric - short response time-delay, but response sustained for a relatively long time. (hot/dry)

Melancholic - long response time-delay, response sustained at length, if not, seemingly, permanently. (cold/dry)

From this schema it is evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response, while the melancholy and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response. The melancholy and choleric, however, shared a sustained response, and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response. That meant, that the Choleric and melancholy both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger, while the melancholy would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding.

The medical theory of temperament began to lose favor in the early modern period. As a characterization of a person's psychological state, however, temperament continued to be employed by both psychologists and the lay public well into the twentieth century. The temperamental theories as well as tests were developed in contemporary periods by David Keirsey, Myers-Briggs, Ernst Kretschmer etc.

2.3. Behavior and Human Somatic

One very famous though discussable personality type conception belong to William Sheldon (1898-1977). He was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments. He taught and did research at a number of U.S. universities and is best known for his series of books on the human constitution. For his study of the human physique, Dr. Sheldon started with 4,000 photographs of college-age men, which showed front, back and side views. By carefully examining these photos he discovered that there were three fundamental elements which, when combined together, made up all these physiques or somatotypes. With great effort and ingenuity he worked out ways to measure these three components and to express them numerically so that every human body could be described in terms of three numbers, and that two independent observers could arrive at very similar results in determining a person's body type.

These basic elements he named endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy, for they seemed to derive from the three layers of the human embryo, the endoderm, the mesoderm and the ectoderm. So:

Endomorph is centered on the abdomen, and the whole digestive system.

Mesomorph is focused on the muscles and the circulatory system.

Ectomorph is related to the brain and the nervous system.

We have all three elements in our bodily makeup, just as we all have digestive, circulatory and nervous systems. No one is simply an endomorph without having at the same time some mesomorph and ectomorph, but we have these components in varying degrees. Sheldon evaluated the degree a component was present on a scale ranging from one to seven, with one as the minimum and seven as the maximum.The Extreme Endomorph - RoundnessIn this physique the body is round and soft, as if all the mass had been concentrated in the abdominal area. The arms and legs of the extreme endomorph are short and tapering, and the hands and feet comparatively small, with the upper arms and thighs being hammed and more developed than the lower arms and legs. The body has smooth contours without projecting bones, and a high waist. There is some development of the breast in the male and a fullness of the buttocks. The skin is soft and smooth like that of an apple, and there is a tendency towards premature baldness beginning at the top of the head and spreading in a polished circle. The hair is fine and the whole head is spherical. The head is large and the face broad and relaxed with the features blending into an over-all impression of roundness. Santa Claus is our society's image of the extreme endomorph.The Extreme Mesomorph MusclesThe chest area, which Sheldon likened to an engine room, dominates over the abdominal area and tapers to a relatively narrow, low waist. The bones and muscles of the head are prominent as well, with clearly defined cheek bones and a square, heavy jaw. The face is long and broad and the head tends towards a cubical shape. The muscles on either side of the neck create a pyramid-like effect. Both the lower and upper arms and legs are well-developed and the wrists and fingers are heavy and massive. The skin is thick and tends towards coarseness. It takes and holds a tan well and can develop a leathery appearance with heavy wrinkles. Sheldon compared it to the skin of an orange. The hair is basically heavy-textured, and baldness, usually starts at the front of the head. The extreme mesomorph is Mr. Universe or Tarzan.Women on the whole tend to have less mesomorph than men and more endomorph. Women who are primarily mesomorphs rarely show the same degree of sharp angularity, prominent bone structure and highly relieved muscles found in their male counterparts. Their contours are smoother, yet the chest area clearly dominates over the abdominal area and both upper and lower arms and legs are well-muscled. The skin tends to be finer than in the male mesomorph, but shows some of the same characteristics in terms of tanning and wrinkling.The Extreme Ectomorph Linear

The highly ectomorph physique is fragile and delicate with light bones and slight muscles. The limbs are relatively long and the shoulders droop. In contrast to the compactness of the endomorph and mesomorph, the ectomorph is extended in space and linear. The ribs are visible and delicate and the thighs and upper arms weak. The fingers, toes and neck are long. The features of the face are sharp and fragile, and the shape of the face as a whole is triangular with the point of the triangle at the chin. The teeth are often crowded in the lower jaw which is somewhat receding. The skin is dry and is like the outer skin of an onion. It tends to burn and peel easily and not retain a tan. The relatively great bodily area in relation to mass makes the ectomorph suffer from extreme heat or cold. The hair is fine and fast-growing and sometimes difficult to keep in place. Baldness is rare. The extreme ectomorph in our society is the absent-minded professor.

Once we had grasped these three basic elements we tried to recognize them in ourselves and our friends. We, indeed, found some people who were extreme endomorphs, or mesomorphs or ectomorphs, with little of the other components, but there were not many of them. Most of the people we knew were a bewildering variety of combinations, and we practiced mentally weighing how much of each component they had. Sheldon liked to draw a body type diagram on which he plotted the different body types. Here's where he placed the extreme endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph:

The classification of body types was not Sheldon's ultimate goal. He wanted to help resolve the age-old question: Whether our body type was connected with the way we acted (eat and sleep, laugh and snore, speak and walk)? In short, he wanted to explore the link between body and temperament, understood as body type in action. Sheldon's procedure in looking for the basic components of temperament was much like the one he used in discovering the body type components. He interviewed in depth several hundred people and tried to find traits which would describe the basic elements of their behavior. He found there were three basic components which he called viscerotonia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, and named endotonia, mesotonia and ectotonia.

Endotonia is seen in the love of relaxation, comfort, food and people.

Mesotonia is centered on assertiveness and a love of action.

Ectotonia focuses on privacy, restraint and a highly developed self-awareness.

Sheldon devised a way of numerically rating the strength of each area based on a check-list of 60 characteristics (see the end of this chapter for a simplfied version) that describe the basic components. The 7-1-1 was the extreme endotonic, the 1-7-1 the extreme mesotonic and the 1-1-7 the extreme ectotonic. He found a strong correspondence between the endomorphic body type and the endotonic temperament, the mesomorphic body type and the mesotonic temperament, and the ectomorphic body type and the ectotonic temperament. Just as in our body type we have all three elements, so, too, with our temperament.

A look at the three extremes in temperament will give us some idea of what these components are like.The Extreme Endotonic - FriendlinessThe endotonic shows a splendid ability to eat, digest and socialize. A good deal of his energy is oriented around food, and he enjoys sitting around after a good meal and letting the digestive process proceed without disturbance. They fall readily to sleep and their sleep is deep and easy; they lie limp and sprawled out and frequently snore.

Endotonic are relaxed and slow-moving. Their breathing comes from the abdomen and is deep and regular. Their speech is unhurried and their limbs often limp. They like sitting in a well-upholstered chair and relaxing. All their reactions are slow, and this is a reflection on a temperament level of a basal metabolism, pulse, breathing rate and temperature which are all often slower and lower than average. The circulation in their hands and feet tends to be poor.

The endotonic love to socialize their eating, and the sharing of meals becomes an event of the highest importance. They treat guests well. They love company and feel more complete with other people around. They like people simply because they are people. They have a strong desire to be liked and approved of, and this often leads them to be very conventional in their choices in order not to run the risk of social disapproval. The endotonic are open and even with their emotions which seem to flow out of them without any inhibitions. Whether they are happy or sad, they want the people around them to know about it, and if others express emotion they react directly and convincingly in sympathy. When an endotonic has been drinking he becomes even more jovial and radiates an expansive love of people. Endotonic are family-oriented and love babies and young children and have highly developed maternal instincts. They express affection and approval readily and need both back in kind.

The Extreme Mesotonic - ActionThey are always ready for action, and good posture is natural to them. They get up with plenty of energy and seem tireless. They can work for long periods of time and both need and like to exercise. If they are forced into inactivity they become restless and dejected.

The mesotonic tends to eat his food rapidly and somewhat randomly, often neglecting set meal times. He sleeps the least of the three types and sometimes contents himself with six hours. He is an active sleeper who thrashes about. He shows insensitivity to pain and a tendency to high blood pressure and large blood vessels.

The mesotonic has no hesitation in approaching people and making known his wants and desires. The tendency to think with his muscles and find exhilaration in their use leads him to enjoy taking chances and risks, even when the actual gain is well-known to be minimal. They can become fond of gambling and fast driving and are generally physically fearless. They can be either difficult and argumentative, or slow to anger, but always with the capacity to act out physically and usually with some sort of history of having done so on special occasions.

This physical drive manifests itself on the psychological level in a sense of competition. The mesotonic wants to win and pushes himself forward. He tends to walk roughshod over the obstacles in his path and the people who stand in the way of his achieving what he wants. On the positive side this is called being practical and free from sentimentality, but on the negative side it is called ruthlessness or obnoxious aggressiveness.

This outward energetic flow makes mesotonic generally noisy. Their voices carry and sometimes boom out as if speech were another form of exercise. When alcohol reduces their inhibitions, they become more assertive and aggressive. They look older than their chronological age. The extraversion of action that is so strong here goes together with a lack of awareness of what is happening on the subjective level. He likes wide-open spaces and freedom.

The female mesotonic shows the same extraversion of action, but how this action expresses itself has a different quality. There is not the same overt physical combativeness and competitive aggressiveness. The action is more muted and flows in more socially acceptable channels. The mesotonic woman should be compared not with men but with other women, and it is in relation to other women that she shows the distinctive mesotonic traits in a feminine way.

The Extreme Ectotonic - ReflectionThe outstanding characteristic of the ectotonic is his finely-tuned receptive system. His spread-out body acts like a giant antenna picking up all sorts of inputs. He is like a sonar operator who must constantly be wary of a sudden loud noise breaking in on the delicate sounds he is trying to trace. He likes to cross his legs and curl up as if he is trying to minimize his exposure to the exterior world. He tries to avoid making noise and being subjected to it. He shrinks from crowds and large groups of people and likes small, protected places.

The ectotonic suffers from a quick onset of hunger and a quick satiation of it. He is drawn to a high protein, high calorie diet, with frequent snacking to match his small digestive system. He has a nervous stomach and bowels. He is a quiet sleeper, but a light one, and he is often plagued by insomnia. He tends to sleep on one side with his legs drawn up, and his sleep, though slow in coming, can be hard to shake off. His energy level is low, while his reactions are fast he suffers from a quasi-chronic fatigue and must protect himself from the temptation to exercise heavily. His blood pressure is usually low and his respiration shallow and rapid with a fast and weak pulse. His temperature is elevated slightly above normal and it rises rapidly at the onset of illness. The ectotonic is resistant to many major diseases, but suffers excessively from insect bites and skin rashes. His hypersensitivity leads not only to quick physical reactions but to excessively fast social reactions as well. It is difficult for this type to keep pace with slow-moving social chit-chat. He races ahead and trips over his own social feet.

Self-awareness is a principle trait of ectotonia. The feelings of the ectotonic are not on display, even though they can be very strong, and so he is sometimes accused of not having any. When they are in a situation of dealing with someone who has authority over them or with someone of the opposite sex whom they are interested in, they often make a poor first impression. They are uncomfortable in coping with social situations where overt expressions of sympathy are called for or where general idle conversation is the norm, for example in parties and dinners where they have no intimate acquaintances.

The ectotonics are hypersensitive to pain because they anticipate it and have a lower pain threshold as well. They do not project their voices like the mesotonics, but focus it to reach only the person they are addressing. They appear younger than their age and often wear an alert, intent expression. They have a late adolescence, consider the latter part of life the best, and are future-oriented. The more extreme ectotonics have a distaste for alcohol and their accentuated consciousness fights alcohol, drugs, anesthesia and is resistant to hypnosis. When they become troubled they seek privacy and solitude in order to try to work out the difficulty.

2.4. Jung's Theory of Psychological Types

While typologies of all sorts have existed throughout time the most influential idea of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung, published as Psychological Types in 1921. According to Jung, the conscious psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions: sensing - perception by means of the sense organs; intuition - perceiving in unconscious way or perception of unconscious contents. thinking - function of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions; feeling - function of subjective estimation;

These functions are putted by author in pair accordingly to the criteria of rationality. Thus, thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensing and intuition are nonrational.

Rationality consists of figurative thoughts, feelings or actions with reason a point of view based on objective value, which is set by practical experience.

Non-rationality is not based in reason. Jung notes that elementary facts are also nonrational, not because they are illogical but because, as thoughts, they are not judgments.

In a person one function of pair is dominant while other is auxiliary.Thinking and feelingWomen use feeling more than thinking, and men use thinking more than feeling.

This seems to be a general rule, though each of us has both functions and what function we use most has nothing to do with the question of intelligence. Suppose a couple wants to buy a house. The husband may think of the house in terms of its price, closeness to work, maintenance and so forth, while his wife might consider the purchase in terms of how she might feel when friends and relatives come over and how the house will look during next year's Thanksgiving dinner. Sensation and IntuitionJust as there are two equally valid ways to arrive at a judgment, Jung saw that there were two ways of perception: sensation and intuition.

Sensation is easy to grasp. It means perception by means of our various senses. It means contact with people and things by way of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Sensation is in touch with the here and now in all its rich detail.

Intuition means the perception of possibilities. If sensation is oriented to the present, intuition revels in the future.

When sensation is in a room, it glories in all the shades of color, and the styles of decoration it finds there, while intuition immediately looks for the nearest window in order to float out of it and search out hidden possibilities in the future.

According to the direction of psychic energy Carl Jung elaborate other typology. He divides human personality in introvert and extrovert. If a persons energy usually flows outwards, he or she is an extravert, while if this energy normally flows inwards, this person is an introvert. Extraverts feel an increase of perceived energy when interacting with a large group of people, but a decrease of energy when left alone. Conversely, introverts feel an increase of energy when alone, but a decrease of energy when surrounded by a large group of people.In more details Extraversion is "the act, state, or habit of being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification from what is outside the self". Extraverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious. They take pleasure in activities that involve large social gatherings, such as parties, community activities, public demonstrations, and business or political groups. Acting, teaching, directing, managing, brokering are fields that favor extraversion. An extraverted person is likely to enjoy time spent with people and find less reward in time spent alone. They enjoy risk-taking and often show leadership abilities.

An extravert is energized when around other people. Extraverts tend to "fade" when alone and can easily become bored without other people around. Extraverts tend to think as they speak. When given the chance, an extravert will talk with someone else rather than sit alone and think.

Introversion is "the state of or tendency toward being wholly or predominantly concerned with and interested in one's own mental life". Introverts tend to be low-key, deliberate, and relatively less engaged in social situations. They often take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, drawing, watching movies, and using computers. The archetypal artist, writer, sculptor, composer and inventor are all highly introverted. An introverted person is likely to enjoy time spent alone and find less reward in time spent with large groups of people (although they tend to enjoy interactions with close friends). They prefer to concentrate on a single activity at a time and like to observe situations before they participate. Introversion is not the same as shyness. Introverts choose solitary over social activities by preference, whereas shy people avoid social encounters out of fear. An introvert is energized when alone. Introverts tend to "fade" when with people and can easily become overstimulated with too many others around. Introverts tend to think before speaking.To give a complete description of a person's psychological type, Jung refers to both the function and attitude type. As a result we have eight personality types: The Extraverted Sensation Type is a realist who seeks to experience as many concrete sensations as possible - preferably, but not necessarily, ones that are pleasurable. These experiences are seen as ends in themselves and are rarely utilized for any other purpose.

Such persons are sensualists or aesthetes who are attracted by the physical characteristics of objects and people. They dress, eat and entertain well, and can be very good company.

Not at all reflective nor introspective, they have no ideals except sensory enjoyment. They generally mistrust inner psychological processes and prefer to account for such things in terms of external events (e.g., they may blame their moods on the weather).

If extreme, they are often crudely sensual and may exploit situations or others in order to increase their own personal pleasure. When neurotic, repressed intuition may be projected onto other people, so that they may become irrationally suspicious The Introverted Sensation Type is subjectively filtered. Perception is not based directly on the object, but is merely suggested by it. Perception depends crucially upon internal psychological processes that will differ from one person to the next. At its most positive, introverted sensation is found in the creative artist. At its most extreme, it produces psychotic hallucinations and a total alienation from reality.

The introverted sensation type reacts subjectively to events in a way that is unrelated to objective criteria. Often this is seen as an inappropriate and uncalled-for overreaction.

The person may perceive the world as illusory or amusing. In extreme (psychotic) cases, this may result in an inability to distinguish illusion from reality. The subjective world of archaic images may then come to dominate consciousness completely, so that the person lives in a private, mythological realm of fantasy.

Repressed intuition may also be expressed in vaguely imagined threats or an apprehension of sinister possibilities.The Extraverted Intuition Type - is an excellent diagnostician and exploiter of situations. Such people see exciting possibilities in every new venture and are excellent at perceiving latent abilities in other people. They get carried away with the enthusiasm of their vision and often inspire others with the courage of their conviction.

As such, they do well in occupations where these qualities are at a premium - for example in initiating new projects, in business, politics or the stock market. They are, however, easily bored and stifled by unchanging conditions. As a result they often waste their life and talents jumping from one activity to another in the search for fresh possibilities, failing to stick at any one project long enough to bring it to fruition.

Furthermore, in their commitment to their own vision, they often show little regard for the needs, views or convictions of others.

When neurotic, repressed sensation may cause this type to become compulsively tied to people, objects or activities that stir in them primitive sensations such as pleasure, pain or fear. The consequence of this can be phobias, hypochondriacal beliefs and a range of other compulsions.The Introverted Intuition Type - is directed inward to the contents of the unconscious. It attempts to fathom internal events by relating them to universal psychological processes or to other archetypal images. Consequently it generally has a mythical, symbolic or prophetic quality.

Such a person has a visionary ideal that reveals strange, mysterious things. These are enigmatic, 'unearthly' people who stand aloof from ordinary society. They have little interest in explaining or rationalizing their personal vision, but are content merely to proclaim it.

Partly as a result of this, they are often misunderstood. Although the vision of the artist among this type generally remains on the purely perceptual level, mystical dreamers or cranks may become caught up in theirs. The person's life then becomes symbolic, taking on the nature of a Great Work, mission or spiritual-moral quest.

If neurotic, repressed sensation may express itself in primitive, instinctual ways and, like their extraverted counterparts, introverted intuitive often suffers from hypochondria and compulsions.The Extraverted Thinking Type - is driven by the objective evidence of the senses or by objective (collective) ideas that derive from tradition or learning. Thinking is never carried out for its own sake, merely as some private, subjective enterprise.

The extraverted thinking type bases all actions on the intellectual analysis of objective data. Such people live by a general intellectual formula or universal moral code, founded upon abstract notions of truth or justice. They also expect other people to recognize and obey this formula. This type represses the feeling function (e.g., sentimental attachments, friendships, religious devotion) and may also neglect personal interests such as their own health or financial well-being.

If extreme or neurotic, they may become petty, bigoted, tyrannical or hostile towards those who would threaten their formula. Alt