beer: a story of sugar and starch

7/31/2019 Beer: A Story of Sugar and Starch

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Beer: A Story of Sugar and Starch

The first alcoholic beverage made probably wasn't beer. The first fermented drink of whichchemical traces have been found was made from a mixture of ingredients that included rice,honey, and wild grapes. Beer has, however, become the most consumed alcoholic beverage onEarth. To get a sense of the sheer scale of brewing today, consider that annual production

volumes of major breweries are reported in millions of hectoliters (100 liters each), ormillions of beer barrels (31 gallons each).

Most other fermented beveragessuch as wine, cider, or meadsimply cannot be producedon such a scale. Barley's crop yield is unmatched among ingredients well-suited for producingalcoholic drinks. Understanding why other high-yield ingredientssuch as wheat, corn, orriceare not generally used in beer, except in combination with barley, requiresunderstanding the basic chemistry of the malting process.

Malted barley is composed of barley grains which have been steeped in water to initiate thegermination process, in which the barley seed prepares to sprout. The grains are then rapidlydried with hot air to halt the germination process before the grains actually sprout. The goal ofthis process is to activate certain enzymes, namelyalpha- and beta-amylase, which can breakdown the starcheswhich yeast cannot ferment into alcoholinto sugars, which yeast canferment. Barley has a much higher enzyme content (or diastatic power) than other cerealgrains like corn and rice, and is therefore much more capable of converting its starch intosugar in the mashing process. If you think this sounds complex, try making sake (technically aform of beer). Since rice has a relatively low enzyme content, sake makers use an Aspergillusmold to convert the rice starch into sugar over the course of several weeks.

Mashing is the first stage of brewingbrewers usually leaving the malting up to the maltsters.In the mash, malted barley is introduced to water between 140 and 160 degrees farenheit, andheld at this temperature for a period of time, often 60 minutes. The heat and moisture allow

the enzymes present in the barley to convert its starches to sugars. Mashing is performed in alarge insulated container known as a mash tun.

After draining the hot liquor from the mash tun, the grains are often rinsed, or sparged, withmore hot water. The sugary malt solution, which is now called wort("wert"), is transferred toa large kettle and brought to a boil. At this point, beer's third ingredient (after barley andwater) is added.

Hops. In the western United States, they've become something of a fetish, but hops weren't acommon ingredient in beer until the Middle Ages. Before then, a variety of different plantswere used to flavor and preserve beer, such as sweet gale, wild rosemary and yarrow.

Recently, some American brewers have again begun to produce beers using these herbs. Theseales are known as gruits,but they're still quite rarefor now the hop remains king.

Hops serve two functions. First of all, they make beer taste better (i.e., bitter). The bitternessthey provide balances the sweetness of the malted barley, and the spicy, floral, or fruity flavorsthey contribute are often pleasant, sometimes divine. Secondly, hops contain alpha acids thatare toxic to gram-positive bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Pediococcus, which often spoilbeer, so hopped beer is less prone to infection and the off-flavors resulting from infection.


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Hops are usually added to beer during the boil. Beeror, more precisely, wortis boiled for along period of time, usually 60-90 minutes, which, among other things, isomerizes the alphaacids in the hops. This is important because alpha acids do not taste bitter as they are found innatureonly isomerized alpha acids provide bitterness. Hops boiled for a longer period oftime will therefore contribute more bitterness, but the long boil will also destroy much of thehops' other flavors. Brewers often distinguish between bittering hops, added early in the boil,andflavor or aroma hops,which are boiled for a shorter period of time. Adding hops anytimeafter the wort has cooled, a technique known as dry hopping, contributes negligible bitternessbut lots of hop flavor.

Once the beer has cooled, the wort is transferred into a fermentation vessel. The brewerusually pitches a single strain of ale yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, either from a lab orharvested from a previous batch of beer. Notable exceptions include lagers, which requirelager yeast,Saccharomyces pastorianus, and wild beers, which make use of a variety of wildyeasts and bacteria.

Even withinS. cerevisiae, there are as many different yeast strains as there are breweries, dueto the speed at which yeast evolves. Yeast strains crucially differ in how much theyattenuate,

that is, what percentage of the malt sugars they can convert into alcohol, as well as in whatflavor compounds they produce as byproducts of fermentation. Belgian ale strains, forexample, tend to be highly attenuative and produce pungent flavor compounds.

The yeast convert the malt sugars into alcohol over the course of a week or two in a stageknown as primary fermentation. At the end of this stage the yeast begin to flocculate, orclump together, and drop to the bottom of the fermenter. Most brewers employ at least a shortconditioning period following primary fermentation to allow the beer to clear of yeast and theyeast to clean up some less pleasant byproducts of fermentation, such as diacetyl andacetaldehyde.

After conditioning, the beer is ready to be carbonated. Most commercial breweries carbonatetheir beers mechanically, while most homebrewers and Belgians use a process known asbottle conditioning. In this process, the brewer adds a precisely measured amount of sugar tothe beer immediately before bottling. The yeast ferment the sugar in the sealed bottle,producing only a very small amount of alcohol, but enough carbon dioxide to make a crisp,fizzy beverage. Bottle conditioned beers often have a small but significant amount of yeast atthe bottom, so decanting the beer carefully into a glass, leaving the yeast with the last 1/4 inchof beer, is generally recommended to preserve clarity of appearance and flavor.


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Glossary of Terms

Ingredients:

Hops - There are dozens of hop varietals, with widely ranging flavors. Wikipedia has a prettygood list. American hops tend towards citrus and pine-like flavors, while European hops tendto be more mild, earthy, and spicy. New Zealand and Japanese hops are the next frontier.

Malt extract - Available in liquid (LME) or dry (DME) forms, this extract is a concentrationof the sugars present in the wort after the mash. Using extract obviates the need for a mash.

Base malt - Malt that has been relatively lightly kilned, so as to not destroy the starch-converting enzymes. Base malt is the only malt that must be included in beer, since only basemalt can produce fermentable sugars. Common varieties of base malt include: Pilsner, 2 row,Marris Otter, Vienna and Munich (ordered from palest to darkest).

Specialty grains:

Crystal; crystal malt - Malted barley that has been stewed and then dried, in a process thatcauses starches to be converted into sugars via enzymatic action. These malts do not need tobe mashed (i.e., steeped carefully to allow this very enzymatic conversion), and can be steepedvery casually. Crystal malts add caramel-type flavors and unfermentable sugars to a beer,making it sweeter and more viscous. Crystal malt is categorized according to how dark it hasbeen roasted, where a higher number corresponds to a darker malt and a more intensecaramel flavor. Darker crystal malts also contribute dark fruit flavors.

Roasted barley; black barley- Unmalted barley that has been very deeply roasted. Givesbeer a nutty, coffee-like flavor. The characteristic flavor of modern stouts.

Black patent - Malted barley that has been very deeply roasted. Similar in flavor to roastedbarley, but less coffee-like and with a bit more of an smoky edge. Often included in smallerquantities than roasted barley in stouts and porters.

Chocolate malt - Malted barley that has been roasted slightly less than black patent. Flavorsof unsweetened chocolate and bread-crust dominate. The characteristic flavor of modernbrown ales.

Measurements:

Original Gravity (OG) - A measurement of the specific gravity (i.e., density) of the wortbefore fermentation. Water has a specific gravity of 1, and a liquid with anything held insolution will increase that liquid's specific gravity. Therefore, a wort with a high specificgravity, such as 1.080, is a wort with a lot of stuff in solution, the majority of which isgenerally fermentable sugar (chiefly glucose and maltose).

Final Gravity (FG) - A measurement of the specific gravity (i.e., density) of a beer afterfermentation. As the sugars, which are heavier than water, are converted to alcohol, thedensity of the beer decreases. A beer with a low final gravity is a beer with very few


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unfermented sugars lefta dry beer, in other words.

ABV- We calculate alcohol content by subtracting a beer's final gravity from its originalgravity and multiplying by a nonlinear coefficient, which is about 131 in the usual range forbeer. For example, the Golden Bear has an original gravity of 1.073 and a final gravity of1.008.

1.073 - 1.008 = 0.0650.065 * 131 = 8.5

Thus, the Golden Bear is a calculated 8.5 percent alcohol.

Starter -When using liquid yeast, homebrewers often make a starteressential a mini batchof beer that allows the yeast to replicatebecause liquid yeast packages generally contain lessthan the optimal number of yeast cells for a five gallon batch. Higher alcohol beers requirelarger starters.

International Bitterness Units (IBUs) - A measure of the concentration of isomerized

alpha acids, which are the main bittering compounds in beer. A beer with higher IBUs willprobably taste more bitter. We calculate IBUs using the Tinseth formula, which we've found tobe closer to what we perceive in our beers than the Rager formula, which is the othercommonly used formula. In any case, calculated IBUs of any sort should only be consideredan estimate, useful for comparing beers, but with serious limitations in the upper range.

Alpha Acid Percentage (AA%) - A measure of the concentration of alpha acids in hops.Hops high in alpha acids have a high bittering potential.

Flavor compounds:

Acetaldehyde - A yeast byproduct with a sharp, green apple flavor. Generally considered anoff-flavor at detectable levels.

Diacetyl - A yeast byproduct with a buttery flavor. Generally considered an off-flavor atdetectable levels.

Esters - Usually yeast byproducts; typically associated with fruit flavors. English ale yeastsproduce moderate amounts of esters. Hefeweizen yeasts and some Belgian ale yeasts producehigh levels of esters.

Fusel alcohols - In addition to ethanol, yeast produce smaller amounts of higher alcohols.

Fusel alcohols contribute boozy flavors associated with wine and spirits, which can be sharpand unpleasant.

Phenols - Usually yeast byproducts; typically associated with spices such as clove or blackpepper. Hefeweizen yeasts and some Belgian ale yeasts produce high levels of phenols.

Styles:

For information on beer styles, see the BJCP style guidelines.


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Brewing equipment:

Mash tun: An insulated container that maintains a near-constant temperature over thecourse of a mash.

Brew kettle: A large container that holds the wort during the boil. Ours is a big (7 gallon)stainless steel pot that we put on our stove.

Wort chiller: Not strictly necessary, but very helpful. We've recently purchased a copperimmersion wort chiller, which replaces our previous system of putting the brew kettle in thebathtub with a bunch of ice cubes and/or snow, frozen 2L soda bottles, &c.

Fermenter: The vessel in which the beer is fermented. We've used 7-gallon food-gradeplastic buckets, a 6-gallon PET carboy (a container shaped like the water jug on an officecooler), and various 1-gallon glass wine and cider jugs.

Serving/carbonation system: Since we bottle condition all of our beers, our bottlingsystem serves as both a carbonation and serving method. We have a bucket with a spigot thatwe use to decant the beer into (from the fermenter), as well as mixing the priming sugar intothe beer. We then attach a bottling tube to the bucket's spigot and draw the beer into bottles,capping them with our hand-capper. Two to three weeks later, the beer is carbonated andready to drink, though pouring the beer off the yeast and into a glass is recommended.


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The Hit List

As Angry Monocle's joint brewing operations come to a close, we take a moment to reflect onwhat we've learned over the last 36 documented batches of beer (as well as three batches ofcider, and a handful of undocumented batches). Most were very good, but a couple wereterrible, a few were mediocre, and four were among the greatest things I've ever tasted.

Hit list (Lee):Surly Sunday(Imperial Coffee Stout)

The Bloom (Double IPA)

The Cosmos(Belgian-style Quadruple with roasted barley)

Golden Bear (Belgian-style Golden Strong Ale)

Learning experiences (Lee):Belgian Pale (failed experiment, tasted like rubber bands)

Mon Oncle (possibly infected, over-carbonated, tasted like bark)

The Mad Hopper (cloyingly sweet)Dunkelweizen (soy sauce, barely drinkable for me, though some liked it)

What went right:

1. Yeast. The most noteworthy yeasts we've used are Belgian strains from Wyeast and WhiteLabs.Sourced from the great breweries of Belgium, these yeast strains produce highconcentrations of esters and phenolic compounds, lending beer fruit- and spice-like flavors.One of our most universally enjoyed beers (the Golden Bear) was made from the simplestrecipe possible, but the yeast we used (WLP 570, from Duvel Moortgat) gave it an incredibly

complex aroma and flavor. Belgian yeasts are best with a couple pounds of sugar to make thebeer drier and more drinkable.

2. Roasted Barley (lots). Our stouts regularly exceed 15% roasted barley. There are otherworthwhile roasted grains, but unmalted barley roasted black is one to treasure, and a keypart of all our stouts. Two of them stand out from the rest in quality: The Cosmos, a 12% ABVBelgian-style stout, and Surly Sunday, our first coffee stout.

3. American hops (lots). Now that summer has finally come to Seattle, I want to drinkIPAs all the time. Though the British invented the style, Americans have taken it to anotherlevel, using new American hop varieties and increasing the amount of hops per gallon of beer.

To get a sense of how the way we use hops compares to the way big breweries use hops,consider that Budweiser and MillerCoors use about two ounces of hops per beer barrel (31gallons). Our last IPA had 11 ounces of hops in five gallonsover 32 times the rate of the bigbreweries. Hops we like for IPAs include: Ahtanum, Amarillo, Cascade, Citra, Centennial,Chinook, Horizon, and Nugget.

Europeans sometimes deride American hops for producing "catty" (i.e., cat piss) aromas inbeer. I have tasted this in American IPAs, and believe that it is almost exclusively associatedwith old or mistreated IPAs, and therefore a result of oxidation (i.e., staling). Depending on
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how the beer is treated and how sensitive your palate is to the flavors of oxidation, you maystart to taste off flavors at 2 months after bottlingor at two weeks after bottling. Thedifference between a week-old IPA and a year-old IPA is profound; they are barelyrecognizable as the same beer. Accordingly, good IPA yeasts ferment quickly and need littleconditioning time to clean up off-flavors created during fermentation. The Chico strain fromSierra Nevada (Wyeast 1056) and its descendants are industry standards, but dry British aleyeasts are also worth exploring. We prefer well-attenuated IPAs.

What went awry:

1. Under-attenuation.Attenuation refers to the percentage of sugars that are convertedinto alcohol by the yeast. A highly attenuated beer is therefore a dry beer, while an under-attenuated beer is sweet. I find that, with the possible exception of stout, beer that is under75% apparent attenuation suffers in drinkability. This is especially true of Belgian ales. Under-attenuated Belgians tend to be cloyingly sweet. We use very little or no crystal malt in ourBelgians nowadays, and always add some sugar to further improve attenuation. Adequateaeration and pitching the proper amount of yeast is also crucial.

2. Yeast. Belgian yeasts are not suited for all beers. After brewing two Belgian IPAs (The MadHopperand Chomp Chomp) and several Belgian ales with roasted grains (Le Jardin,TheCosmos,The Belgian Black) I am inclined to think that these yeast strains do not complementbeers with chocolate malt or high levels of hop bitterness. All of this holds even more true forHefeweizen yeasts, which we have stopped using altogether. The strong banana notes theyproduce are hard to pair with other flavors, and Hefe yeasts have not attenuated very well forus.

3. Chocolate.We've used chocolate in two beers: The Aphrodisiac and The Mocha. In theAphrodisiac we used cacao nibs from Theo Chocolates, which contribute complex, raw

chocolate flavors, but lack the classic straight-up chocolate flavor. In the Mocha we used 100%Dutch-processed cocoa powder with five minutes left in the boil. It gave the beer somechocolate flavor, along with some additional bitterness, but had trouble distinguishing itselfthrough the coffee and the under-attenuation of the beer. I think my main mistake was tryingto use chocolate as a secondary flavor. I probably won't use chocolate again soon, but if I did Iwould make a straight-up chocolate stout, with a full pound of chocolate (maybe a littlevanilla, too). I would add 8 oz of cocoa powder (5 gallon batch size) at flameout and 8 oz ofcacao nibs (soaked in vodka for 24 hours) to secondary. I would also use 5% roasted barley,5% pale chocolate malt, 5% Crystal 80, and 5% de-bittered black malt. I'd also lower the IBUsto 25 to compensate for the bitterness added by the chocolate.

4. Infection. Note: the yeast and bacteria that infect beer are non-pathenogenici.e.,harmless. As much fun as exploding bottles are, infection really cuts into the shelf life of yourbeer. I suspect our main problems stemmed from wild yeast contamination from inadequatelycleaned bottles. We always Oxiclean our bottles when we first get them, both to remove thelabels and clean out the insides. Soaking and rinsing 100 bottles is a pretty huge pain, though,so after the initial Oxicleaning we just rinse and sanitize our bottles between batches. Thisworks well enough if you're good about rinsing the bottles immediately after drinking thebeer. We lapsed in this respect for awhile, and as a result found evidence of contamination in
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The Cosmos and The Aphrodisiac. We've since borrowed a high-pressure bottle rinser that weuse if a bottle isn't rinsed immediately after use.

Reflections on coffee stouts:

Even though Surly Sunday, when fresh, was the best coffee stout and one of the best beers I'veever had, I think there is still a lot to learn about brewing this style of beer. Coffee stouts arechallenging due mainly to the following fact: coffee tastes best immediately after brewing,while imperial stouts generally peak between six months and two years after brewing. To helpcompensate for this, we let the beer mature in secondary for extra time and add the coffee atbottling. One strategy I might pursue in the future is to brew plain imperial stouts and keepfresh extra-strength iced coffee on hand to add when serving. We've been using cold-brewedcoffee for our stouts, because it seems to last better. I've recently been impressed by hot-brewed iced coffee (chilled immediately by the addition of ice), which I'd like to experimentwith in beer. I've also heard reports that steeping whole-bean or coarsely ground (percolatorgrind) in the beer for 1224 hours produces a more stable coffee flavor.

One other practical difficulty with brewing coffee stouts is filtration. Paper or cloth filters dothe best job of removing sediment from coffee, but using a drip method of filtration also tendsto introduce a lot of oxygen into the coffee, which is bad news for flavor stability. One couldboil the brewed coffee to remove dissolved oxygen, but this would also destroy the coffee'sflavor. For cold-brewed coffee, in the future I plan to use a nylon bag and very coarsely groundcoffee (percolator grind).

I would also like to experiment more with coffee selection. We've been using Peet's ArabianMocha-Java, because it has a very recognizable classic flavor and its roasty, chocolatey flavorscomplement roasted barley very well. One idea I've been toying with for awhile is using a moredelicate, lighter-roasted coffee (Ethiopian springs to mind) in a subtler beer, like a dark

Belgian ale or English brown ale, and staying away from grains darker than pale chocolate. Ialso want to make a dry-hopped coffee stout with Indonesian coffee.
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Surly Sunday(Imperial Coffee Stout)

Batch Size: 5 gallonsOG: 1.089 (including sugar during fermentation)FG: 1.020

ABV: 9.1Calculated IBUs (Tinseth): 49

Yeast: Wyeast American Ale 1056 or WLP001Starter: 4 liters

8 lbs DME or 10 lbs LME2.2 lbs roasted barley1.5 lbs chocolate malt0.5 lbs dark Belgian candi syrup (added on 3rd day)

1.5 oz Horizon at 60 minutes

Carbonate to 2 volumes of CO2 (2.9 ounces of cane sugar). Add 1 quart cold-brewed coffee tothe bottling bucket. (0.25 lbs of fresh ground coffee; 1.25 quarts room temperature water;steep for 1224 hours.)

The Bloom(Double IPA)

Batch Size: 5 gallonsOG: 1.071 (including sugar during fermentation)

FG: 1.013ABV: 7.6Calculated IBUs (Tinseth): 145

Yeast: Wyeast American Ale 1056 or WLP001Starter: 2.5 liters

6 lbs DME or 7.5 lbs LME

2.25 lbs cane sugar (added on 3rd day)

Hops/Additions Amount Time AA% IBU's

Horizon 1 60 11.0% 59.57Chinook 2 60 12.0% 129.97

Ahtanum 0.5 30 6.0% 12.49

Citra 0.5 20 12.0% 19.68

Ahtanum 0.5 10 6.0% 5.89

Dry hop with 2 ounces of Chinook and 1.5 ounces of Citra for 1012 days.Carbonate to 2.5 volumes of CO2 (4.1 ounces of cane sugar).


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The Cosmos(Belgian-style Quadrupel with roasted barley)

Batch size: 5 gallonsOG: 1.113

FG: 1.022ABV: 12Calculated IBUs (Tinseth): 27Yeast: Wyeast 3787 or WLP530 (Westmalle strain)Starter: 2.5 gallons (yeast cake from a lower gravity beer)

10.75 lbs DME or 13.5 lbs LME2 lbs roasted barley1 lbs Special B1.5 lbs dark Belgian candi syrup (added on 3rd day)

Hops/Additions Amount Time AA%Horizon 0.8 60 11.9%Fuggles 0.5 30 4.5%Fuggles 0.5 20 4.5%

Carbonate to 2.7 volumes of CO2 (4.6 oz of cane sugar)

Golden Bear(Belgian-style Golden Strong Ale)

Batch size: 5 gallonsOG: 1.072 (including sugar during fermentation)FG: 1.008ABV: 8.5Calculated IBUs (Tinseth): 30Yeast: WLP570 or Wyeast 1388 (Duvel strain)

Starter: 1.5 liters

6.5 lbs DME or 8 lbs LME2 lbs cane sugar added on 3rd day

3.5 oz Saaz at 60 minutes

Carbonate to 2.9 volumes of CO2 (5.1 oz of cane sugar)

beer: a story of sugar and starch

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