Becoming Bilingual in Becoming Bilingual in ColombiaColombia

Myths and RealitiesMyths and Realities

Anne-Marie de Mejía Ph.DAnne-Marie de Mejía Ph.D

Centro de Investigación y Formación en Centro de Investigación y Formación en EducaciónEducación

Universidad de los AndesUniversidad de los Andes(Sponsored by Centro Colombo(Sponsored by Centro Colombo

Americano)Americano)

““Bilingüismo es un nombre muy Bilingüismo es un nombre muy amplio que puede significar cosas amplio que puede significar cosas diferentes para distintas personas, diferentes para distintas personas, según el contexto particular, según el según el contexto particular, según el uso de las lenguas en contacto y su uso de las lenguas en contacto y su interacción”interacción”

(Rosa María Cely, 2007)(Rosa María Cely, 2007)

Do you consider that being bilingual Do you consider that being bilingual means being equally proficient in two means being equally proficient in two languages (in our case, English and languages (in our case, English and Spanish)?Spanish)?

Do you think that being bilingual Do you think that being bilingual necessarily involves knowledge and use necessarily involves knowledge and use of the four language skills (traditionally of the four language skills (traditionally referred to as “listening, speaking, referred to as “listening, speaking, reading and writing”)?reading and writing”)?

Do you consider yourself bilingual?Do you consider yourself bilingual?

Bilingualism as a continuumBilingualism as a continuum

Rather than concern ourselves with Rather than concern ourselves with “polar opposites, . . .in order to “polar opposites, . . .in order to understand any particular instance of understand any particular instance of biliteracy [or bilingualism] we need biliteracy [or bilingualism] we need to take account of all dimensions to take account of all dimensions represented by the continua” represented by the continua” (Hornberger, 1989: 273)(Hornberger, 1989: 273)

Standards for English Standards for English

A common language to talk about different proficiency levelsA common language to talk about different proficiency levels

Possibility of sequencing and integrating teachingPossibility of sequencing and integrating teaching

Grades 4-5: Understand simple authentic texts about concrete Grades 4-5: Understand simple authentic texts about concrete happenings related to cultural traditions that they know happenings related to cultural traditions that they know (birthdays, Christmas, etc)(birthdays, Christmas, etc)

Grades 6-7: Identify in simple texts cultural elements such as Grades 6-7: Identify in simple texts cultural elements such as customs and celebrationscustoms and celebrations

Grades 10-11: Identify the elements that allow them to Grades 10-11: Identify the elements that allow them to appreciate the values of the culture of English-speaking appreciate the values of the culture of English-speaking countriescountries

““There are consistent signs that the CEFR is There are consistent signs that the CEFR is susceptible to being misused in a number of susceptible to being misused in a number of

ways:... misunderstandings regarding the CEFRways:... misunderstandings regarding the CEFR´s status which, where no contextualization ´s status which, where no contextualization takes place, may result in a homogeneity takes place, may result in a homogeneity

contrary to this instrument´s goals; contrary to this instrument´s goals; shortcomings in the training process and in the shortcomings in the training process and in the explanations given to...users, which may result explanations given to...users, which may result in superficial use and even poor understanding in superficial use and even poor understanding of the tool, sometimes leading to its rejection”of the tool, sometimes leading to its rejection”

(Intergovernmental Forum of the Council of (Intergovernmental Forum of the Council of Europe, 2007:13)Europe, 2007:13)

Criticism of the Standards in Criticism of the Standards in ColombiaColombia

Contextual aspects - remote rural areas, Contextual aspects - remote rural areas, (Cárdenas, 2006)(Cárdenas, 2006)

Decisions based solely on the results of Decisions based solely on the results of CERF examinations rather than other CERF examinations rather than other indicators of the process of language indicators of the process of language learning (Cárdenas, 2006)learning (Cárdenas, 2006)

Imposition of policy demands on teachers Imposition of policy demands on teachers (Valencia Giraldo, 2007)(Valencia Giraldo, 2007)

Pre-service preparation - teachers not Pre-service preparation - teachers not prepared to face classroom realitiesprepared to face classroom realities

Teachers´ low self esteem in relation to Teachers´ low self esteem in relation to the gulf with ´native speaker´ modelsthe gulf with ´native speaker´ models

(Valencia Giraldo, (Valencia Giraldo, 2007)2007)

Standards as conceived for “an imagined Standards as conceived for “an imagined and ideal group of students who differ and ideal group of students who differ greatly from the real students who greatly from the real students who attend schools”attend schools” (Guerrero, (Guerrero, 2008:42) 2008:42)

The journey towards The journey towards bilingualism in majority bilingualism in majority languages in Colombia languages in Colombia

17-18 centuries-Spanish colonisation of 17-18 centuries-Spanish colonisation of Colombia – private schoolsColombia – private schools

Catholic mission schools taught Latin, Catholic mission schools taught Latin, Greek and Spanish Greek and Spanish

Sons and daughters of the wealthy Sons and daughters of the wealthy studied in France and Englandstudied in France and England

French was considered the language of French was considered the language of culture and society (Zuluaga, 1996)culture and society (Zuluaga, 1996)

1810-Independence from Spain 1810-Independence from Spain

Escuelas de Primeras LetrasEscuelas de Primeras Letras set up, set up, basedbased

on liberal principles derived from the on liberal principles derived from the French Revolution - primary schoolsFrench Revolution - primary schools

Escuelas Superiores de Artes Escuelas Superiores de Artes Liberales -Liberales - secondary schools secondary schools

After the Second World WarAfter the Second World War English - most important foreign language English - most important foreign language

in Colombia (economic expansion, social, in Colombia (economic expansion, social, political and economic influence of US)political and economic influence of US)

English taught at high school level, English taught at high school level, alternating with French alternating with French

1979 Decree1979 Decree

- English compulsory for Grades 6 and 7- English compulsory for Grades 6 and 7

- French mandatory for Grades 10 and 11- French mandatory for Grades 10 and 11

- Choice of either English or French in - Choice of either English or French in GradesGrades

8 and 98 and 9

““The Colombian Ministry of National The Colombian Ministry of National Education has no firm foreign Education has no firm foreign language policy for the secondary language policy for the secondary school curriculum concerning the school curriculum concerning the place of English and French, with place of English and French, with decisions being made as a result of decisions being made as a result of political pressures rather than political pressures rather than educational considerations” educational considerations”

(British Council, 1989:7) (British Council, 1989:7)

Recent policy and curricular Recent policy and curricular reforms in Colombiareforms in Colombia

Ley General de Educación (1994: Article 21, m)

“The acquisition of elements of conversation and reading in at least one foreign language”

Lineamientos Curriculares: Idiomas Extranjeros (MEN, 1999)

Estándares Básicos de Competencia en Lenguas Extranjeras: Inglés (2006)

Programa Nacional de Bilingüismo (PNB) (2004-2019)

Importance of the Colombian National Bilingual Programme

High profile of bilingualism in Colombia

Bilingualism as a state policy

Inclusive vision of bilingualism Inclusive vision of bilingualism (MEN, 2006:6) (MEN, 2006:6)

““Tener ciudadanos y ciudadanas capaces de Tener ciudadanos y ciudadanas capaces de comunicarse en inglés, de tal forma que puedan insertar comunicarse en inglés, de tal forma que puedan insertar al país en los procesos de comunicación universal, en la al país en los procesos de comunicación universal, en la economía global y la apertura cultural, con estándares economía global y la apertura cultural, con estándares internacionalmente comparables”internacionalmente comparables”

Emphasis on development of human resources“The BCP has had a positive effect on the increase of in-service teacher education, an area that had not been prioritised in the last years” (Cárdenas, 2006:4)

Myth 1:Myth 1: Being bilingual means Being bilingual means being equally proficient in two being equally proficient in two languages, in other words, a languages, in other words, a

“balanced” bilingual“balanced” bilingual

In Colegio Cundinamarca, in Ciudad In Colegio Cundinamarca, in Ciudad Bolivar, 79.5% of the staff Bolivar, 79.5% of the staff interviewed expected that students interviewed expected that students would be able to “perform at a would be able to “perform at a similar level in English and in similar level in English and in Spanish” (López et al., 2008:44)Spanish” (López et al., 2008:44)

A bilingual personA bilingual person An individual with “a unique and specific An individual with “a unique and specific

linguistic configuration”(Grosjean, linguistic configuration”(Grosjean, 1985:471)1985:471)

A bilingual is more than the sum of two A bilingual is more than the sum of two monolinguals (monolinguals (holistic vision)holistic vision)

““a speaker-hearer… who has developed a speaker-hearer… who has developed competence in his [her] two languages …competence in his [her] two languages …according to his [her] needs” (ibid)according to his [her] needs” (ibid)

Bilingual and monolingual speech modesBilingual and monolingual speech modes

Myth 2: The use of the first language in Myth 2: The use of the first language in bilingual programmes is bilingual programmes is

counterproductive to the attaining of counterproductive to the attaining of high levels of proficiency in the foreign high levels of proficiency in the foreign

languagelanguage A high level of development of the FL involves A high level of development of the FL involves

developing and enriching the student´s L1 (additive developing and enriching the student´s L1 (additive bilingualism)bilingualism)

““A new language is learnt A new language is learnt in addition toin addition to the mother the mother tongue, which continues to be developed. The learner´s tongue, which continues to be developed. The learner´s total linguistic repertoire is extended” total linguistic repertoire is extended”

(Skutnabb-Kangas & McCarty, (Skutnabb-Kangas & McCarty, 2008:4)2008:4)

Monolingualism in the second or foreign language Monolingualism in the second or foreign language (subtractive bilingualism)(subtractive bilingualism)

Research Project on Bilingual Research Project on Bilingual SchoolsSchools

2006 (Universidad de los 2006 (Universidad de los Andes/MEN)Andes/MEN)

36 private schools in six regions of Colombia:36 private schools in six regions of Colombia:

Bogotá, Cali, Antioquia, Atlántico, Eje Bogotá, Cali, Antioquia, Atlántico, Eje Cafetero and SantanderCafetero and Santander

International bilingual schoolsInternational bilingual schools National bilingual schoolsNational bilingual schools Intensified English programmesIntensified English programmes

7 schools said they were 7 schools said they were International bilingual schoolsInternational bilingual schools

16 schools said they were National 16 schools said they were National bilingual schoolsbilingual schools

13 schools said they had Intensified 13 schools said they had Intensified English programmesEnglish programmes

School language useSchool language use““No hay No hay SpanglishSpanglish, no hay , no hay codeswitchingcodeswitching. Hay unas clases . Hay unas clases en inglés, otras en español, con diferentes maestros, en inglés, otras en español, con diferentes maestros, precisamente para que los niños también, especialmente precisamente para que los niños también, especialmente desde chiquitos, identifiquen la lengua con la persona” desde chiquitos, identifiquen la lengua con la persona”

((bilingual coordinator of a school in Cali)bilingual coordinator of a school in Cali)

““Incluso hay momentos en los que uno puede usar lengua Incluso hay momentos en los que uno puede usar lengua materna en las clases de inglés; muy raramente lo materna en las clases de inglés; muy raramente lo hacemos, cuando es estrictamente necesario. Por ejemplo, hacemos, cuando es estrictamente necesario. Por ejemplo, que un niño diga “níspero”, eso en la lengua materna no es que un niño diga “níspero”, eso en la lengua materna no es prohibido que se hable, pero procuramos al máximo no prohibido que se hable, pero procuramos al máximo no hacerlo”hacerlo”

(teacher in a bilingual school on the Atlantic (teacher in a bilingual school on the Atlantic Coast)Coast)

““Codeswitching …is important and it´s necessary Codeswitching …is important and it´s necessary and… although we… try to …enhance [sic] our and… although we… try to …enhance [sic] our students to use the English language during our students to use the English language during our classes and during the regular activities, there is classes and during the regular activities, there is also a moment…when we privilege the use of also a moment…when we privilege the use of Spanish as a reference for them to understand…Spanish as a reference for them to understand…especially when we are doing structures and especially when we are doing structures and grammar”grammar”

(primary bilingual school teacher in Bogotá)(primary bilingual school teacher in Bogotá)

““Si hablamos de la parte del área de inglés, la clase Si hablamos de la parte del área de inglés, la clase se desarrolla en un cien por ciento en la segunda se desarrolla en un cien por ciento en la segunda lengua… Hemos tratado de que las alumnas traten lengua… Hemos tratado de que las alumnas traten de comunicarse fuera del aula en inglés. de comunicarse fuera del aula en inglés. Es muy Es muy difícil”difícil”

(teacher in intensive English programme in (teacher in intensive English programme in Santander)Santander)

Separation or bilingual language Separation or bilingual language use ?use ?

'Bilingualism through monolingualism' (Swain 1983)'Bilingualism through monolingualism' (Swain 1983)

““Is there a role for bilingual usage ... in bilingual Is there a role for bilingual usage ... in bilingual education? In other words, should the languages education? In other words, should the languages always be kept separate and if not, how can they always be kept separate and if not, how can they be used co-extensively to promote language be used co-extensively to promote language learning?” (Genesee, 2004:574) learning?” (Genesee, 2004:574)

  Strategic use of L1 may facilitate L2 reading Strategic use of L1 may facilitate L2 reading development, based on evidence of significant development, based on evidence of significant cross-linguistic transfer of skills related to reading, cross-linguistic transfer of skills related to reading, especially decoding (Genesee 2008)especially decoding (Genesee 2008)

Bilingual story tellingBilingual story telling Study on storytelling events with Study on storytelling events with

young preschool children in young preschool children in immersion classrooms in Cali immersion classrooms in Cali

The use of two languages in teaching The use of two languages in teaching and learning revealed a and learning revealed a sophistication and complexity of sophistication and complexity of language development often ignored language development often ignored by educationalists (de Mejía, 1998; by educationalists (de Mejía, 1998; 2002; 2004)2002; 2004)

Codeswitching and identity Codeswitching and identity

““The students at the American The students at the American School of Asunción (ASA) have their School of Asunción (ASA) have their own language. When we speak own language. When we speak English, we speak ASA English and English, we speak ASA English and when we speak Spanish, we speak when we speak Spanish, we speak ASA Spanish” (Spezzini, 2005: 87)ASA Spanish” (Spezzini, 2005: 87)

Myth 3: A true bilingual school has Myth 3: A true bilingual school has all subjects in the curriculum (or all subjects in the curriculum (or almost all) taught in the foreign almost all) taught in the foreign

language (English)language (English)

Do bilingual schools have to have Do bilingual schools have to have more than 80% of their curriculum in more than 80% of their curriculum in the foreign language?the foreign language?

How do parents and teachers How do parents and teachers understand the term “a bilingual understand the term “a bilingual school”? school”?

Six of the seven International Bilingual Six of the seven International Bilingual Schools associated bilingual education with Schools associated bilingual education with 80% of the subjects in the curriculum being 80% of the subjects in the curriculum being taught in English taught in English (de Mejía et al, 2006)(de Mejía et al, 2006)

““El colegio es totalmente bilingüe porque El colegio es totalmente bilingüe porque primero de todo es inmersión total y se ven primero de todo es inmersión total y se ven casi todas las áreas en inglés desde casi todas las áreas en inglés desde preescolar, como matemáticas, ciencias, en preescolar, como matemáticas, ciencias, en bachillerato, historia universal, geografía; bachillerato, historia universal, geografía; hay pocas áreas que son en español y a los hay pocas áreas que son en español y a los niños se les habla todo el tiempo en niños se les habla todo el tiempo en inglés.” (de Mejía et al, 2006:49)inglés.” (de Mejía et al, 2006:49)

““[el colegio no es bilingüe] porque [el colegio no es bilingüe] porque tenemos un 25 y 28% de las clases tenemos un 25 y 28% de las clases dictadas en inglés. No llegamos a la dictadas en inglés. No llegamos a la meta de 60 o más que necesitamos meta de 60 o más que necesitamos para tocarnos el rango de bilingües” para tocarnos el rango de bilingües” (de Mejía et al, 2006:61).(de Mejía et al, 2006:61).

““bilingual education is defined as education that aims bilingual education is defined as education that aims to promote bilingual (or multilingual) competence by to promote bilingual (or multilingual) competence by using both (or all) languages as media of instruction for using both (or all) languages as media of instruction for significant portions of the academic curriculum” significant portions of the academic curriculum”

(Genesee, 2004:548)(Genesee, 2004:548)

““Bilingual competence is defined as “the ability to is defined as “the ability to use the target languages effectively and appropriately use the target languages effectively and appropriately for authentic personal, educational, social, and/or work-for authentic personal, educational, social, and/or work-related purposes”. The criterion for defining related purposes”. The criterion for defining significant portions of the academic curriculumsignificant portions of the academic curriculum is is “at least 50% of the prescribed non-language-related “at least 50% of the prescribed non-language-related curriculum of studies for one or more years” curriculum of studies for one or more years”

(Genesee, 2004:549)(Genesee, 2004:549)

Myth 4: Bilingual school graduates Myth 4: Bilingual school graduates are able to communicate fluently in are able to communicate fluently in

their everyday life in English their everyday life in English

““El rector nos dijo que acá en Bogotá iban a El rector nos dijo que acá en Bogotá iban a hacer dos colegios bilingües;…que hacer dos colegios bilingües;…que afortunadamente nosotros habíamos salido afortunadamente nosotros habíamos salido beneficiados con el de acá del Sur y que beneficiados con el de acá del Sur y que nuestros hijos iban a salir hablando nuestros hijos iban a salir hablando perfectamente el inglés y que eso eran perfectamente el inglés y que eso eran garantías para mejores oportunidades en un garantías para mejores oportunidades en un futuro para nuestros hijos” futuro para nuestros hijos” (López et al., (López et al., 2008:44)2008:44)

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)Skills (BICS)

Cognitive and Academic Language Cognitive and Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) Proficiency (CALP)

(Cummins, 1981)(Cummins, 1981)

Context embedded and context reduced communication

Context embedded communication exists when there is a good degree of contextual support in communications, e.g. body language, gestures, intonation

Context reduced communication there are very few clues to meaning outside language

(Cummins, 1984)

Development of context Development of context embedded second language embedded second language

fluencyfluency

El rol del maestro frente al desarrollo de El rol del maestro frente al desarrollo de hablidades de pensamiento superior en la hablidades de pensamiento superior en la

enseñanza del inglés enseñanza del inglés

María Fernanda Castillo Sánchez María Fernanda Castillo Sánchez (2009) (2009)

Research questionResearch question

How can students be guided from How can students be guided from cognitively undemanding, context cognitively undemanding, context embedded situations towards cognitively embedded situations towards cognitively demanding, context reduced situations demanding, context reduced situations during the process of teaching English?during the process of teaching English?

Context: Colegio Tilatá, BogotáContext: Colegio Tilatá, Bogotá

Private, mixed, bilingualPrivate, mixed, bilingual 560 students (Preschool - Grade 11)560 students (Preschool - Grade 11) 60 teachers60 teachers Colombians, Spanish L1Colombians, Spanish L1 Grade 1 PrimaryGrade 1 Primary English 8 hours per weekEnglish 8 hours per week Science, Art, Physical Education in Science, Art, Physical Education in

EnglishEnglish

Taken from Castillo (2009) based on Cummins (1984)Taken from Castillo (2009) based on Cummins (1984)

Reducida en contexto

No demandante cognitivamente

Cognitivamente Demandante

Q1 Q3

Q4

Apoyada en contexto

BICS Tareas simples, mecánicas, Especialmente útil para estudiantes con dificultades

Los estudiantes bilingües necesitan la mayor cantidad de trabajo acá de manera que se asegure la comprensión mediante procesos concretos y ricos en contexto

Q2

Los estudiantes Bilingües deben ser llevados a lo largo de este eje para asegurar la comprensión

CALP Los estudiantes deben siempre tener tareas en este cuadrante.

(Escritura de textos)

Ejercicios repetitivos como planas, dictados, desprovistos de contexto, poco significativos y poco demandantes a nivel cognitivo.

Conclusions of studyConclusions of study

Movement from cognitively-undemanding, context-Movement from cognitively-undemanding, context-embedded situations towards cognitively-embedded situations towards cognitively-demanding context-reduced situations is not lineardemanding context-reduced situations is not linear

Gradual student transition from quadrant to Gradual student transition from quadrant to quadrant is facilitated by teacherquadrant is facilitated by teacher

- knowing existing level of student skills - knowing existing level of student skills and abilitiesand abilities

- identifying the gap existing between - identifying the gap existing between these and those expected these and those expected

- tracing the path so that at each stage - tracing the path so that at each stage students can students can face the challenges posed by the face the challenges posed by the teaching-learning teaching-learning situations they are involved situations they are involved inin

The degree of student success in their final project (Quadrant 4) derived largely from the confidence they developed during their previous work to take on the challenges posed by the demands of the final project and the clarity they had about what they had to do

Myth 5: Bilingual schools which employ Myth 5: Bilingual schools which employ native speakers of English as teachers native speakers of English as teachers

are better than those that hire are better than those that hire Colombian bilingual teachers Colombian bilingual teachers

Hiring native speaker teachers (of Hiring native speaker teachers (of English) were favoured by many English) were favoured by many schools in the study (accent, L2 schools in the study (accent, L2 language proficiency, cultural language proficiency, cultural knowledge). Yet transient status and knowledge). Yet transient status and lack of knowledge of Colombian lack of knowledge of Colombian idiosyncraciesidiosyncracies

(de Mejía et al., 2006) (de Mejía et al., 2006) Recent interest in hiring “new” Recent interest in hiring “new”

Colombian bilingual teachersColombian bilingual teachers

““Irrelevance of native speakers...Native speaker norms Irrelevance of native speakers...Native speaker norms are becoming less relevant as English becomes a are becoming less relevant as English becomes a component of basic education in many countries” component of basic education in many countries” (Graddol, 2006:14)(Graddol, 2006:14)

Hiring native speakers of English as teachers is more Hiring native speakers of English as teachers is more expensive and may lead to difficulties in training expensive and may lead to difficulties in training teachers and equipping classrooms teachers and equipping classrooms (Graddol, 2006(Graddol, 2006))

““Native speaker accents may seem too remote from Native speaker accents may seem too remote from the people learners expect to communicate with”the people learners expect to communicate with” (ibid:114)(ibid:114)

““Native speakers may not possess some of the skills Native speakers may not possess some of the skills required by bilingual speakers, such as those of required by bilingual speakers, such as those of translation and interpreting”translation and interpreting” (ibid) (ibid)

Revaluing importance of hiring native speakers of Revaluing importance of hiring native speakers of English as teachers due to changing needs and English as teachers due to changing needs and aspirations of learnersaspirations of learners (Graddol, 2006) (Graddol, 2006)

Ways forward for the development Ways forward for the development of bilingualism in Colombiaof bilingualism in Colombia

Development of pre-service and Development of pre-service and inservice professional development inservice professional development programmes which deepen teachers´ programmes which deepen teachers´ understanding of principles and understanding of principles and practices of bilingual education and practices of bilingual education and bilingual processesbilingual processes

Avoid creating false expectations

Consider the principled use of code-Consider the principled use of code-switching as a pedagogical resource in switching as a pedagogical resource in the bilingual classroom in the light of a the bilingual classroom in the light of a currently generally-accepted currently generally-accepted separationist approach to language use separationist approach to language use in Colombian bilingual schoolsin Colombian bilingual schools

Problematize the automatic acceptance Problematize the automatic acceptance of native speakers of English as of native speakers of English as teachers in bilingual educational teachers in bilingual educational contextscontexts

Conclusions Recognition of the value of

bilingualism and multilingualism in relation to increased competitivity

“Ser bilingüe es tener más conocimientos y oportunidades para ser más competentes y competitivos y mejorar la calidad de vida de todos los colombianos” (Al Tablero, 2005: 3)

Role of bilingualism and multilingualism in creating more understanding, more tolerant societies in Colombia and in the Americas

““No es suficiente reconocer `el otro` en No es suficiente reconocer `el otro` en aquella dimensión que nos interesa o aquella dimensión que nos interesa o que nos parece correcta, urgente o que nos parece correcta, urgente o similar. similar.

En este caso, estamos mirándonos y En este caso, estamos mirándonos y proyectándonos en el otro, pero no proyectándonos en el otro, pero no estamos mirando al otro como diferente”estamos mirando al otro como diferente”

(Green Stocel, 1998)(Green Stocel, 1998)