battle of thermopolae

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Battle of Thermopylae 1 Battle of Thermopylae The Battle of Thermopylae (pronounced /θərˈmɒpɨliː/, thər-MOP-i-lee; Greek: Μάχη τῶν Θερμοπυλῶν, Machē tōn Thermopylōn) was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I over the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place simultaneously with the naval battle at Artemisium, in August or September 480 BC, at the pass of Thermopylae ('The Hot Gates'). The Persian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece, which had been ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. Xerxes had amassed a huge army and navy, and set out to conquer all of Greece. The Athenian general Themistocles had proposed that the allied Greeks block the advance of the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae, and simultaneously block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium. A Greek force of approximately 7,000 men marched north to block the pass in the summer of 480 BC. The Persian army, alleged by the ancient sources to have numbered in the millions, arrived at the pass in late August or early September. Vastly outnumbered, the Greeks held off the Persians for seven days in total (including three of battle), before the rear-guard was annihilated in one of history's most famous last stands. During two full days of battle, the small force led by King Leonidas I of Sparta blocked the only road by which the massive Persian army could pass. After the second day of battle, a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing a small path that led behind the Greek lines. Aware that his force was being outflanked, Leonidas dismissed the bulk of the Greek army, and remained to guard the rear with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans and perhaps a few hundred others, the vast majority of whom were killed. After this engagement, the Greek navy at Artemisium received news of the defeat at Thermopylae. Since their strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, and given their losses, the Greek navy decided to withdraw to Salamis. The Persians overran Boeotia and then captured the evacuated Athens. However, seeking a decisive victory over the Persian fleet, the Greek fleet attacked and defeated the invaders at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC. Fearing to be trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. The following year, however, saw a Greek army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion. Both ancient and modern writers have used the Battle of Thermopylae as an example of the power of a patriotic army of freemen defending native soil. The performance of the defenders at the battle of Thermopylae is also used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers and has become a symbol of courage against overwhelming odds. Sources The primary source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History', [1] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (GreekHistoria; English(The) Histories) around 440420 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC). [2] Herodotus' approach was entirely novel. He does seem to have invented history as we know it. [2] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally." [2] Some subsequent ancient historians criticized Herodotus, starting with Thucydides. [3] [4] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos); Finley thought this implied "that there was no need to go over that ground again". [4] Plutarch criticized Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed. [5] A negative view of

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Page 1: Battle of Thermopolae

Battle of Thermopylae 1

Battle of ThermopylaeThe Battle of Thermopylae (pronounced /θərˈmɒpɨliː/, thər-MOP-i-lee; Greek: Μάχη τῶν Θερμοπυλῶν, Machē tōnThermopylōn) was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes Iover the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place simultaneously with thenaval battle at Artemisium, in August or September 480 BC, at the pass of Thermopylae ('The Hot Gates'). ThePersian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece, which had been endedby the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. Xerxes had amassed a huge army and navy, and set out to conquerall of Greece. The Athenian general Themistocles had proposed that the allied Greeks block the advance of thePersian army at the pass of Thermopylae, and simultaneously block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium.A Greek force of approximately 7,000 men marched north to block the pass in the summer of 480 BC. The Persianarmy, alleged by the ancient sources to have numbered in the millions, arrived at the pass in late August or earlySeptember. Vastly outnumbered, the Greeks held off the Persians for seven days in total (including three of battle),before the rear-guard was annihilated in one of history's most famous last stands. During two full days of battle, thesmall force led by King Leonidas I of Sparta blocked the only road by which the massive Persian army could pass.After the second day of battle, a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing a small path thatled behind the Greek lines. Aware that his force was being outflanked, Leonidas dismissed the bulk of the Greekarmy, and remained to guard the rear with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans and perhaps a few hundredothers, the vast majority of whom were killed.After this engagement, the Greek navy at Artemisium received news of the defeat at Thermopylae. Since theirstrategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, and given their losses, the Greek navy decided towithdraw to Salamis. The Persians overran Boeotia and then captured the evacuated Athens. However, seeking adecisive victory over the Persian fleet, the Greek fleet attacked and defeated the invaders at the Battle of Salamis inlate 480 BC. Fearing to be trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia, leaving Mardonius tocomplete the conquest of Greece. The following year, however, saw a Greek army decisively defeat the Persians atthe Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion.Both ancient and modern writers have used the Battle of Thermopylae as an example of the power of a patrioticarmy of freemen defending native soil. The performance of the defenders at the battle of Thermopylae is also used asan example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers and has become asymbol of courage against overwhelming odds.

SourcesThe primary source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been calledthe 'Father of History',[1] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). Hewrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—Historia; English—(The) Histories) around 440–420 BC, trying to trace the origins ofthe Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC).[2]

Herodotus' approach was entirely novel. He does seem to have invented history as we know it.[2] As Holland has it:"For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterlyfabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but ratherexplanations he could verify personally."[2]

Some subsequent ancient historians criticized Herodotus, starting with Thucydides.[3] [4] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos); Finley thought this implied "that there was no need to go over that ground again".[4] Plutarch criticized Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[5] A negative view of

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Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century hisreputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his versionof events.[6] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but thatsome of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.[6]

Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.[7]

The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides anaccount of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairlyconsistent with Herodotus'.[8] The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancienthistorians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are referred to by other authors, such as the playwrightAeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus' specificclaims.[9]

BackgroundThe Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empireof Darius I in 499-494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subjectpeoples.[10] [11] Moreover, Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against hisrule.[10] The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved(especially those not already part of the empire).[12] [13] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire intothe fractious world of Ancient Greece.[13] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius in 492 BC, to secure the landapproaches to Greece, re-conquered Thrace, and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia.[14]

In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of theirsubmission to him.[15] Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities dulyobliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed by throwing them in a pit; inSparta, they were simply thrown down a well.[15] [16] This meant that Sparta was also effectively at war withPersia.[15]

Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos,before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which itbesieged and destroyed.[17] Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by aheavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory,which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[18]

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A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle

Darius therefore began raising a huge newarmy with which he meant to completelysubjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, hisEgyptian subjects revolted, indefinitelypostponing any Greek expedition.[11] Dariusthen died whilst preparing to march onEgypt, and the throne of Persia passed to hisson Xerxes I.[19] Xerxes crushed theEgyptian revolt, and very quickly re-startedthe preparations for the invasion ofGreece.[20] Since this was to be a full scaleinvasion, it required long-term planning,stock-piling and conscription.[20] Xerxesdecided that the Hellespont would bebridged to allow his army to cross toEurope, and that a canal should be dugacross the isthmus of Mount Athos

(rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).[21] These were both feats of exceptionalambition, which would have been beyond any other contemporary state.[21] By early 480 BC, the preparations werecomplete, and the army which Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont ontwo pontoon bridges.[22]

The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decisionwas taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes thatwould be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians.[23] However, the Athenians did not have the manpower tofight on land and sea; and therefore combating the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states. In 481BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but making the very deliberate omission ofAthens and Sparta.[24] Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states metat Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC,[25] and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the powerto send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after jointconsultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states inattendance were still technically at war with each other.[26]

The 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the Greeks could muster inthe narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes' advance.[27] A force of 10,000hoplites was dispatched to the Vale of Tempe, through which they believed the Persian army would have to pass.However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through theSarantoporo Pass, and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, the Greeks retreated.[28] Shortly afterwards, theyreceived the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.[27]

A second strategy was therefore suggested by Themistocles to the Greeks. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia,Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass ofThermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians.Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block thestraits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress.[29] However, the Peloponnesian cities madefall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, whilst the women and children of Athens hadbeen evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.[30]

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Prelude

Map showing Greek & Persian advances to Thermopylae and Artemisium

The Persian army seems to have made ratherleisurely progress through Thrace andMacedon, but finally, in August, news of theimminent Persian approach reachedGreece.[31] At this time of year the Spartans,de facto military leaders of the alliance,were celebrating the festival of Carneia.During the Carneia, military activity wasforbidden by Spartan law; the Spartans hadarrived too late at the Battle of Marathonbecause of this requirement.[32] It was alsothe time of the Olympic Games, andtherefore the Olympic truce, and thus itwould have been doubly sacrilegious for thewhole Spartan army to march to war.[32] [33]

On this occasion, the ephors decided theurgency was sufficiently great to justify anadvance expedition to block the pass, underone of its kings, Leonidas I. Leonidas tookwith him the 300 men of the royalbodyguard, the Hippeis, and a larger numberof support troops drawn from other parts ofLacedaemon (including helots).[33] Thisexpedition was to try to gather as manyother Greek soldiers along the way as possible, and to await the arrival of the main Spartan army.[33]

The legend of Thermopylae, as told by Herodotus, has it that the Spartans consulted the Oracle at Delphi earlier inthe year. The Oracle is said to have made the following prophecy:

O ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacedaemon!Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the children of Perseus,Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian countryMourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles.[34]

Herodotus tells us that Leonidas, in line with the prophecy, was convinced he was going to certain death since hisforces were not adequate for a victory, and so he selected only Spartans with living sons.[35]

En route to Thermopylae, the Spartan force was reinforced by contingents from various cities (see below) andnumbered more than 5,000 by the time it arrived at the pass.[36] Leonidas chose to camp at, and defend, the 'middlegate', the narrowest part of the pass of Thermopylae, where the Phocians had built a defensive wall some timebefore.[37] News also reached Leonidas, from the nearby city of Trachis, that there was a mountain track which couldbe used to outflank the pass of Thermopylae; in response, Leonidas stationed 1,000 Phocians on the heights toprevent such a manoeuvre.[38]

Finally, in mid-August, the Persian army was sighted across the Malian Gulf, approaching Thermopylae.[39] With thePersian army's arrival at Thermopylae, the Greeks held a council of war.[40] Some Peloponnesians suggestedwithdrawal to the Isthmus of Corinth and blocking the passage to Peloponnesus.[40] The Phocians and Locrians,whose states were located nearby, became indignant and advised defending Thermopylae and sending for more help.Leonidas calmed the panic and agreed to defend Thermopylae.[40]

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A Persian emissary was sent by Xerxes to negotiate with Leonidas; the Greeks were offered their freedom and thetitle "Friends of the Persian People," moreover they would be re-settled on better land than they currentlypossessed.[41] When these terms were refused by Leonidas, the ambassador asked him more forcefully to lay downhis weapons; Leonidas' famous response was for the Persians to "Come and get them" (Μολὼν λαβέ).[42] With thePersian embassy returning empty-handed, battle became inevitable. However, Xerxes delayed attacking for fourdays, waiting for the Greeks to disperse, before sending troops to attack them.[43]

Opposing forces

Persian armyFor a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force, see Second Persian invasion of Greece

The numbers of troops which Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endlessdispute, because the numbers given in ancient sources are very large indeed. Herodotus claimed that there were, intotal, 2.6 million military personnel, accompanied by an equivalent number of support personnel.[] The poetSimonides, who was a near-contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias gave 800,000 as the total number of thearmy that was assembled by Xerxes.[44]

Modern scholars tend to reject the figures given by Herodotus and other ancient sources as unrealistic, and as a resultof miscalculations or exaggerations on the part of the victors.[45] Modern scholarly estimates are generally in therange 70,000–300,000.[46] b[›] These estimates usually come from studying the logistical capabilities of the Persiansin that era, the sustainability of their respective base of operations, and the overall manpower constraints affectingthem. Whatever the real numbers were, however, it is clear that Xerxes was anxious to ensure a successfulexpedition by mustering an overwhelming numerical superiority by land and by sea.[47] The number of Persiantroops present at Thermopylae is therefore as uncertain as the number for the total invasion force. For instance, it isunclear whether the whole Persian army marched as far as Thermopylae, or whether Xerxes left garrisons inMacedon and Thessaly.

Greek armyAccording to Herodotus,[36] [48] and Diodorus Siculus,[49] the Greek army included the following forces:

Group Number – Herodotus Numbers – Diodorus Siculus

Spartans 300 300

Lacedaemonians/Perioeci

900?[50] 1,000(including the Spartans?)

Spartan helots 900?[50] –

Mantineans 500 3,000(other Peloponnesians sent with Leonidas)

Tegeans 500

Arcadian Orchomenos 120

Other Arcadians 1,000

Corinthians 400

Phlians 200

Mycenaeans 80

Total Peloponnesians 3,100[36] or 4,000

[51] 4,000 or 4,300

Thespians 700 –

Malians – 1,000

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Thebans 400 400

Phocians 1,000 1,000

Opuntian Locrians "All they had" 1,000

Grand Total 5,200 (or 6,100) plus the Opuntian Locrians 7,400 (or 7,700)

Notes:• The number of PeloponnesiansDiodorus suggests that there were 1,000 Lacedemonians and 3,000 other Peloponnesians, for a total of 4,000.Herodotus agrees with this figure in one passage, quoting an inscription by Simonides saying there were 4,000Peloponnesians.[51] However, elsewhere, in the passage summarized by the above table, Herodotus tallies 3,100Peloponnesians at Thermopylae before the battle[36] Herodotus also reports that at Xerxes' public showing of thedead, "helots were also there for them to see",[52] but he does not say how many or in what capacity they served.Thus, the difference between his two figures can be squared by supposing (without proof) that there were 900 helots(three per Spartan) present at the battle.[50] If helots were present at the battle, there is no reason to doubt that theyserved in their traditional role as armed retainers to individual Spartans. Alternatively, Herodotus' "missing" 900troops might have been Perioeci, and could therefore correspond to Diodorus' 1,000 Lacedemonians.[50]

• The number of LacedemoniansFurther confusing the issue is Diodorus' ambiguity about whether his 1,000 Lacedemonians include the 300 Spartans.At one point he says: "Leonidas, when he received the appointment, announced that only one thousand men shouldfollow him on the campaign'".[49] However, he then says that: "There were, then, of the Lacedaemonians onethousand, and with them three hundred Spartiates".[49] It is therefore impossible to be clearer on this point.Pausanias' account agrees with that of Herodotus (whom he probably read) except that he gives the number ofLocrians, which Herodotus declined to estimate. Residing in the direct path of the Persian advance, they gave all thefighting men they had; according to Pausanias 6,000 men, which added to Herodotus' 5,200 would have given aforce of 11,200.[53]

Many modern historians, who usually consider Herodotus more reliable,[54] add the 1,000 Lacedaemonians and the900 Helots to Herodotus' 5,200 to obtain 7,100 or about 7,000 men as a standard number, neglecting Diodorus'Melians and Pausanias' Locrians.[55] [56] However, this is only one approach, and many other combinations areplausible. Furthermore, the numbers changed later on in the battle when most of the army retreated and onlyapproximately 3,000 men remained (300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans, possibly up to 900 helots and 1,000Phocians stationed above the pass; less the casualties sustained in the previous days).[54]

Strategic and tactical considerationsFrom a strategic point of view, by defending Thermopylae, the Greeks were making the best possible use of theirforces.[57] As long as they could prevent further Persian advance into Greece, they had no requirement to seek adecisive battle, and could thus remain on the defensive. Moreover, by defending two constricted passages(Thermopylae and Artemisium), the Greeks' inferior numbers became less problematic.[57] Conversely, for thePersians the problem of supplying such a large army meant that the Persians could not remain in the same place fortoo long.[58] The Persians must therefore retreat or advance; and advancing required the pass of Thermopylae to beforced.[58]

Tactically, the pass at Thermopylae was ideally suited to the Greek style of warfare.[57] A hoplite phalanx would be able to block the narrow pass with ease, with no risk of being outflanked by cavalry. In the pass, the phalanx would have been very difficult to assault for the more lightly armed Persian infantry.[57] The major weak point for the Greeks was the mountain track which led across the highland parallel to Thermopylae, and which would allow their position to be outflanked. Although probably unsuitable for cavalry, this path could easily be traversed by the

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Persian infantry (many of whom were versed in mountain warfare).[59] Leonidas was made aware of this path bylocal people from Trachis, and he positioned a detachment of Phocian troops there in order to block this route.[38]

Topography of the battlefield

Map of Thermopylae area with modern shoreline and reconstructedshoreline of 480 BC

At the time, the pass of Thermopylae consisted of atrack along the shore of the Malian Gulf so narrow thatonly one chariot could pass through at a time.[60] Onthe southern side of the track stood the cliffs thatoverlooked the pass, and on the north side was theMalian Gulf. Along the path itself was a series of threeconstrictions, or "gates" (pylai), and at the center gate ashort wall that had been erected by the Phocians in theprevious century to aid in their defense againstThessalian invasions.[60] The name "Hot Gates" comesfrom the hot springs that were located there.[37]

Today, the pass is not near the sea but is several milesinland because of sedimentation in the Malian Gulf.The old track appears at the foot of hills around theplain, flanked by a modern road. Recent core samplesindicate that the pass was only 100 meters wide and the waters came up to the gates; "Little do the visitors realizethat the battle took place across the road from the monument."[61] The pass still is a natural defensive position tomodern armies, and British Commonwealth forces in World War II made a defense in 1941 against the Nazi invasionmetres from the original battle field.

• Maps of the region:[62] [63]

• Image of the battlefield, from the east[64]

Battle

First day

Greek phalanx formation based on sources from The Perseus Project[65].

On the fifth day after the Persian arrival atThermopylae (which would become the first day of thebattle), Xerxes finally resolved to attack the Greeks.First of all, he sent Medes and Cissians against theGreeks, to take them prisoner and bring them beforehim.[43] [66] They soon found themselves launching afrontal assault on the Greek position.[43] The Greeksfought in front of the Phocian wall, at the narrowestpart of the pass.[67] [68] Details of the tactics are scant;Diodorus says "the men stood shoulder to shoulder"and the Greeks were "superior in valor and in the greatsize of their shields."[69] This is probably describing the standard Greek phalanx, in which the men formed a wall ofoverlapping shields and layered spear points, which would have been highly effective as long as it spanned the widthof the pass.[70] The wicker shields and shorter spears of the Persians prevented them from effectively engaging the

Greek hoplites.[69] [71] Herodotus says that the units for each city were kept together; units were rotated in and out of the battle to prevent fatigue, which implies the Greeks had more men than necessary to block the pass.[72] The

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Greeks killed so many Medes that Xerxes is said to have started up off the seat from which he was watching thebattle three times.[73] According to Ctesias, the first wave was "cut to ribbons" with only two or three Spartansdead.[44]

According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the king, having taken the measure of the enemy, threw his best troops into asecond assault the same day: the Immortals, an elite corps of 10,000 men.[69] [71] However, the Immortals fared nobetter than the Medes had, failing to make headway against the Greeks.[71] The Spartans apparently used a tactic offeigning retreat, and then turning on, and killing the enemy troops when they ran after the Spartans.[71]

Second day

Depiction of Persian warriors, probably the Immortals.

On the second day, Xerxes again sent in the infantry toattack the pass, "supposing that their enemies, being sofew, were now disabled by wounds and could no longerresist."[73] However, the Persians fared no better on thesecond day than on the first.[73] Xerxes at last stoppedthe assault and withdrew to his camp, totallyperplexed.[44]

Late on the second day of battle, however, as thePersian king was pondering what to do next, hereceived a windfall; a Trachinian traitor namedEphialtes informed him of the mountain path aroundThermopylae and offered to guide the Persian army.[74]

Ephialtes was motivated by the desire of a reward.[74]

For this act, the name of Ephialtes received a lastingstigma, his name coming to mean "nightmare" in the Greek language and becoming the archetypal traitor in Greekculture.[75]

Herodotus reports that Xerxes sent his commander Hydarnes that evening, with the men under his command, theImmortals, to encircle the Greeks via the path. However, he does not say who those men are.[76] The Immortals hadbeen bloodied on the first day, so it is possible that Hydarnes may have been given overall command of an enhancedforce including what was left of the Immortals, and indeed, according to Diodorus, Hydarnes had a force of 20,000for the mission.[77] The path led from east of the Persian camp along the ridge of Mt. Anopaea behind the cliffs thatflanked the pass. It branched with one path leading to Phocis and the other down to the Malian Gulf at Alpenus, firsttown of Locris.[78]

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Third Day

Leonidas at Thermopylae, by Jacques Louis David, 1814. This is a juxtaposition ofvarious historical and legendary elements from the Battle of Thermopylae.

At daybreak on the third day, the Phociansguarding the path above Thermopylaebecame aware of the outflanking Persiancolumn by the rustling of oak leaves.Herodotus says that they jumped up andwere greatly amazed.[79] Hydarnes wasperhaps just as amazed to see them hastilyarming themselves as they were to see himand the Persian forces.[80] He feared thatthey were Spartans but was informed byEphialtes that they were not.[79] ThePhocians retreated to a nearby hill to maketheir stand (assuming that the Persians hadcome to attack them).[79] However, notwishing to be delayed, the Persians gavethem a volley of arrows, before passing byto continue with their encirclement of themain Greek force.[79]

Learning from a runner that the Phocians had not held the path, Leonidas called a council of war at dawn.[81] Someof the Greeks argued for withdrawal, but Leonidas resolved to stay at the pass with the Spartans.[81] Many of theGreek contingents then either chose to withdraw (without orders), or were ordered to leave by Leonidas (Herodotusadmits that there is some doubt about which actually happened).[81] [82] The contingent of 700 Thespians, led bytheir general Demophilus, refused to leave with the other Greeks but committed themselves to the fight.[83] Alsopresent were the 400 Thebans, and probably the helots that had accompanied the Spartans.[80]

Leonidas' actions have been the subject of much discussion. It is commonly stated that the Spartans were obeying thelaws of Sparta by not retreating, but it seems it was actually the failure to retreat from Thermopylae that gave rise tothe notion that Spartans never retreated.[84] It is also possible that recalling the words of the Oracle, Leonidas wascommitted to sacrifice his life in order to save Sparta. However, since the prophecy was specific to him, this seems apoor reason to commit 1,500 other men to a fight to the death.[84] The most likely theory is that Leonidas chose toform a rearguard so that the other Greek contingents could get away.[84] [85] If all the troops had retreated, the openground beyond the pass would have allowed the Persian cavalry to run the Greeks down. If they had all remained atthe pass, they would have been encircled and would eventually have all been killed.[80] By covering the retreat, andcontinuing to block the pass, Leonidas could save more than 3,000 men, who would be able to fight at some laterpoint.[85] The Thebans have also been the subject of some discussion. Herodotus suggests that they were brought tothe battle as hostages to ensure the good behavior of Thebes.[35] However, as Plutarch long ago pointed out, if theywere hostages, why not send them away with the rest of the Greeks?[84] The likelihood is that these were the Theban'loyalists', who unlike the majority of the fellow citizens, objected to Persian domination.[84] They thus probablycame to Thermopylae of their own free will, and stayed at the end because they could not return to Thebes if thePersians conquered Boeotia.[80] The Thespians, resolved as they were not to submit to Xerxes, faced the destructionof their city if the Persians took Boeotia.[84] However, this alone does not explain the fact that they remained; theremainder of Thespiae was successfully evacuated before the Persians arrived there.[84] It seems that the Thespiansvolunteered to remain as a simple act of self-sacrifice, all the more amazing since their contingent represented everysingle hoplite the city could muster.[86] This seems to have been a particularly Thespian trait – on at least two otheroccasions in later history, a Thespian force would commit itself to a fight to the death.[84]

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At dawn Xerxes made libations, pausing to allow the Immortals sufficient time to descend the mountain, and thenbegan his advance.[68] The Greeks this time sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of thepass in an attempt to slaughter as many Persians as they could.[68] They fought with spears until every spear wasshattered and then switched to xiphē (short swords).[87] In this struggle, Herodotus states that two brothers of Xerxesfell: Abrocomes and Hyperanthes.[87] Leonidas also died in the assault, and the two sides fought over his body, theGreeks taking possession.[87] As the Immortals approached, the Greeks withdrew and took a stand on a hill behindthe wall.[88] The Thebans "moved away from their companions, and with hands upraised, advanced toward thebarbarians..." (Rawlinson translation), but a few were slain before their surrender was accepted.[88] The king laterhad the Theban prisoners branded with the royal mark.[89] Of the remaining defenders, Herodotus says:

"Here they defended themselves to the last, those who still had swords using them, and the othersresisting with their hands and teeth."[88]

Tearing down part of the wall, Xerxes ordered the hill surrounded, and the Persians rained down arrows until everylast Greek was dead.[88] In 1939, archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, excavating at Thermopylae, found largenumbers of Persian bronze arrowheads on Kolonos Hill, changing the identification of the hill on which the Greeksdied from a smaller one nearer the wall.[90]

The pass at Thermopylae was thus opened to the Persian army according to Herodotus, at the cost to the Persians ofup to 20,000 fatalities.[91] The Greek rearguard meanwhile, was annihilated, with a probable loss of 2,000 men,including those killed on the first two days of battle.[92] Herodotus says at one point that 4,000 Greeks died, butassuming that the Phocians guarding the track were not killed during the battle (as Herodotus implies), this would bealmost every Greek soldier present (by Herodotus' own estimates), and this number is probably too high.[93]

AftermathWhen the body of Leonidas was recovered by the Persians, Xerxes, in a rage against Leonidas, ordered that the headbe cut off and the body crucified. Herodotus observes that this was very uncommon for the Persians, as they had thehabit of treating "valiant warriors" with great honor (the example of Pytheas, captured off Skiathos before the Battleof Artemisium, strengthens this suggestion).[88] [94] However, Xerxes was known for his rage, for instance, when hehad the Hellespont whipped because it would not obey him.[22] After the Persians' departure, the Greeks collectedtheir dead and buried them on the hill. After the Persian invasion ended, a stone lion was erected at Thermopylae tocommemorate Leonidas.[95] A full forty years after the battle, Leonidas' bones were returned to Sparta where he wasburied again with full honors; funeral games were held every year in his memory.[87] [96]

With Thermopylae now opened to the Persian army, the continuation of the blockade at Artemisium by the Greekfleet became irrelevant. The simultaneous naval Battle of Artemisium had been a tactical stalemate, and the Greeknavy was able to retreat in good order to the Saronic Gulf where they helped to ferry the remaining Athenian citizensacross to the island of Salamis.[85]

Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities which had not submitted tothe Persians, Plataea and Thespiae, before marching on the now evacuated city of Athens.[97] Meanwhile, the Greeks(for the most part Peloponnesian) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolishing the single road that ledthrough it, and building a wall across it.[98] As at Thermopylae, to make this an effective strategy required the Greeknavy to stage a simultaneous blockade, barring the passage of the Persian navy across the Saronic Gulf, so thattroops could not be landed directly on the Peloponnese.[99] However, instead of a mere blockade, Themistoclespersuaded the Greeks to seek a decisive victory against the Persian fleet. Luring the Persian navy into the Straits ofSalamis, the Greek fleet was able to destroy much of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Salamis, which essentiallyended the threat to the Peloponnese.[100]

Fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes now retreated with much of the army back to Asia.[101] He left a hand picked force under Mardonius to complete the conquest the following year.[102] However, under pressure from the Athenians, the Peloponnesians eventually agreed

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to try to force Mardonius to battle, and marched on Attica.[103] Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks intoopen terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea.[103] There, at the Battle of Plataea, the Greekarmy won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army, and ending the invasion of Greece.[103]

Meanwhile, at the near-simultaneous naval Battle of Mycale they also destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet,thereby reducing the threat of further invasions.[104]

SignificanceThermopylae is arguably the most famous battle in European ancient history, repeatedly referenced in ancient, recentand contemporary culture. In western culture at least, it is the Greeks who are lauded for their performance inbattle.[105] However, within the context of the Persian invasion, Thermopylae was undoubtedly a defeat for theGreeks.[106] It seems clear that the Greek strategy was to hold off the Persians at Thermopylae and Artemisium;[57]

whatever they may have intended, it was presumably not their desire to surrender all of Boeotia and Attica to thePersians.[57] The Greek position at Thermopylae, despite being massively out-numbered, was near-impregnable.[85]

If the position had been held for even slightly longer, the Persians may have had to retreat for lack of food andwater.[58] Thus, despite the heavy losses, forcing the pass was a clear Persian victory, both tactically andstrategically.[85] The successful retreat of the bulk of the Greek troops, though morale-boosting, was in no sense avictory, though it did take some of the sheen off the Persian victory.[85]

It is sometimes stated that Thermopylae was a Pyrrhic victory for the Persians [107] [108] , that is, one in which thevictor is as damaged by the battle as the defeated party. However, there is no suggestion in Herodotus that this wasthe effect of the Battle of Thermopylae on the Persian forces. Furthermore, this idea ignores the fact that the Persianswould, in the aftermath of Thermopylae, conquer the majority of Greece,[109] and the fact that Persians were stillfighting in Greece a year later.[110] Alternatively, the argument is sometimes advanced that the last stand atThermopylae was a successful delaying action that gave the Greek navy time to prepare for the Battle of Salamis.c[›]

However, compared to the probable time (c. 1 month) between Thermopylae and Salamis, the time bought by the laststand at Thermopylae was negligible.[111] Furthermore, this idea also neglects the fact that Greek army was fightingat Artemesium during the Battle of Thermopylae, incurring losses in the process.[112] Cawkwell suggests that the gapbetween Thermopylae and Salamis was caused by Xerxes systematically reducing Greek opposition in Phocis andBoeotia, and not as a result of the battle of Thermopylae; thus, as a delaying action, Thermopylae was insignificantcompared to Xerxes’s own procrastination.[109] Far from labeling Thermopylae as a pyrrhic victory, modernacademic treatises on the Greco-Persian Wars tend to emphasise the success of Xerxes in breaching the formidableGreek position, and in the subsequent conquest of the majority of Greece. For instance Cawkwell states that "he wassuccessful on both land and sea, and the Great Invasion began with a brilliant success...Xerxes had every reason tocongratulate himself",[113] whilst Lazenby describes the Greek defeat as "disastrous".[106]

The fame of Thermopylae is thus principally derived, not from its effect on the outcome of the war, but for theinspirational example it set.[111] [114] Thermopylae is famous because of the doomed heroism of the rearguard, who,facing certain death, remained at the pass.[105] Ever since, the events of Thermopylae have been the source ofeffusive praise from many sources; e.g. "...the fairest sister-victories which the Sun has ever seen, yet they wouldnever dare to compare their combined glory with the glorious defeat of King Leonidas and his men" [115] A secondreason is the example it set of free men, fighting for their country and their freedom:

"So almost immediately, contemporary Greeks saw Thermopylae as a critical moral and culture lesson.In universal terms, a small, free people had willingly outfought huge numbers of imperial subjects whoadvanced under the lash. More specifically, the Western idea that soldiers themselves decide where,how, and against whom they will fight was contrasted against the Eastern notion of despotism andmonarchy — freedom proving the stronger idea as the more courageous fighting of the Greeks atThermopylae, and their later victories at Salamis and Plataea attested."[116]

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Whilst this paradigm of "free men" outfighting "slaves" can be seen as a rather sweeping over-generalization (thereare plenty of counter-examples), it is nevertheless true that many commentators have used Thermopylae to illustratethis point.[57] Militarily, although the battle was actually not decisive in the context of the Persian invasion,Thermopylae is also of some significance, on the basis of the first two days of fighting. The performance of thedefenders is used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as forcemultipliers.[117]

Legacy

MonumentsThere are several monuments around the battlefield of Thermopylae.

Epitaph of Simonides

Epitaph with Simonides' epigram

Simonides composed a well-knownepigram, which was engraved as an epitaphon a commemorative stone placed on top ofthe burial mound of the Spartans atThermopylae. It is also the hill on which thelast of them died.[51] The original stone hasnot been preserved. Instead the epitaph wasengraved on a new stone erected in 1955.The text from Herodotus is:[51]

Ὦ ξεῖν', ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ὅτιτῇδε

κείμεθα, τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασιπειθόμενοι.Ō ksein', angellein Lakedaimonioishoti tēide

keimetha tois keinōn rhēmasi peithomenoi.

"O stranger, tell Lacedaemonians that hereWe lie to their sayings in obedience."

An ancient alternative substitutes πειθόμενοι νομίμοις for ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι; i.e., substitutes "laws" for "sayings."The sayings in question are not personal but refer to official and binding phrases (the Ancient Greek term can alsorefer to a formal speech).[118]

The form of this ancient Greek poetry is an elegiac couplet, commonly used for epitaphs. Some English renderingsare given in the table below.

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Translation +

Go tell the Spartans, thou who passest by,That here, obedient to their laws, we lie.[119]

William Lisle Bowles

Stranger, tell the Spartans that we behavedas they would wish us to, and are buried here.[120]

William Golding

Stranger! To Sparta say, her faithful bandHere lie in death, remembering her command.[121]

Francis Hodgson

Stranger, report this word, we pray, to the Spartans, that lyingHere in this spot we remain, faithfully keeping their laws.[122]

George Campbell Macaulay

Stranger, bear this message to the Spartans,that we lie here obedient to their laws.[123]

William Roger Paton

Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by,that here obedient to their laws we lie.[124]

Steven Pressfield

Go, stranger, and to Lacedaemon tellThat here, obeying her behests, we fell.[125]

George Rawlinson

Go, way-farer, bear news to Sparta's townthat here, their bidding done, we laid us down.[126]

Cyril E. Robinson

Go tell the Spartans, you who read:We took their orders, and lie here dead.[127]

Aubrey de Sélincourt

Friend, tell LacedaemonHere we lieObedient to our orders.[128]

William Shepherd

Oh Stranger, tell the SpartansThat we lie here obedient to their word.[129]

From the 1962 film The 300 Spartans

Stranger, go tell the SpartansThat we lie hereTrue, even to the deathTo our Spartan way of life.[130]

J. Rufus Fears

Go tell the Spartans, passerby:That here, by Spartan law, we lie.[131]

Frank Miller

John Ruskin expressed the importance of this ideal to Western civilization as follows:Also obedience in its highest form is not obedience to a constant and compulsory law, but a persuadedor voluntary yielded obedience to an issued command .... His name who leads the armies of Heaven is"Faithful and True"... and all deeds which are done in alliance with these armies ... are essentially deedsof faith, which therefore ... is at once the source and the substance of all known deed, rightly so called ...as set forth in the last word of the noblest group of words ever, so far as I know, uttered by simple manconcerning his practice, being the final testimony of the leaders of a great practical nation ... [the epitaphin Greek][132]

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Leonidas monument

Additionally, there is a modern monument at the site, called the "Leonidas Monument", in honor of the Spartan king.It features a bronze statue of Leonidas. A sign, under the statue, reads simply: "Μολών λαβέ" ("Come and getthem!"--as in answer to Xerxes' demand that the Greeks give up their weapons). The metope below depicts battlescenes. The two marble statues on the left and the right of the monument represent, respectively, the river Eurotasand Mount Taygetos, famous landmarks of Sparta.

Leonidas Monument Leonidas monument Leonidas LeonidasMonument

Thespian monument

In 1997, a second monument was officially unveiled by the Greek government, dedicated to the 700 Thespians whofought with the Spartans. The monument is made of marble and features a bronze statue depicting the god Eros, towhom the ancient Thespians accorded particular religious veneration. Under the statue, a sign reads "In memory ofthe seven hundred Thespians".

A plate, below the statue, explains its symbolism:• The headless male figure symbolizes the anonymous sacrifice of the 700 Thespians to their country.• The outstretched chest symbolizes the struggle, the gallantry, the strength, the bravery and the courage.• The open wing symbolizes the victory, the glory, the soul, the spirit and the freedom.• The broken wing symbolizes the voluntary sacrifice and death.• The naked body symbolizes Eros, the most important god of the ancient Thespians, a god of creation, beauty and

life.The monument to the Thespians is placed beside the one to the Spartans.

Thespians' Monument, Eros A plate, below the statue

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Associated legendsHerodotus' colorful account of the battle has provided us with many apocryphal incidents and conversations awayfrom the main historical events. These accounts are obviously not verifiable, but they form an integral part of thelegend of the battle. They often demonstrate the Laconic speech (and wit) of the Spartans to good effect.For instance, Plutarch recounts in his Sayings of Spartan Women that upon his departure, Leonidas' wife Gorgoasked what she should do if he did not return; to which Leonidas replied, "Marry a good man and have goodchildren."[133]

It is reported that, upon arriving at Thermopylae, the Persian sent a mounted scout to reconnoiter. The Greeksallowed him to come up to the camp, observe them, and depart. When the scout reported to Xerxes the size of theGreek force and that the Spartans were indulging in calisthenics and combing their long hair, Xerxes found thereports laughable. Seeking the counsel of Demaratus, an exiled Spartan king in his retinue, Xerxes was told that theSpartans were preparing for battle and that it was their custom to adorn their hair when they were about to risk theirlives. Demaratus called them "the bravest men in Greece" and warned the Great King that they intended to disputethe pass. He emphasized that he had tried to warn Xerxes earlier in the campaign, but the king had refused to believehim. He added that if Xerxes ever managed to subdue the Spartans, "there is no other nation in all the world whichwill venture to lift a hand in their defense".[134]

Herodotus also describes the reception of a Persian embassy by Leonidas. The ambassador told Leonidas that Xerxeswould offer him the kingship of all Greece if he joined with Xerxes. Leonidas answered: "If you had any knowledgeof the noble things of life, you would refrain from coveting others' possessions; but for me to die for Greece is betterthan to be the sole ruler over the people of my race."[135] Then the ambassador asked him more forcefully tosurrender their arms. To this Leonidas gave his famous answer: Μολὼν λαβέ (pronounced Greek

pronunciation: /moˈlɔːn laˈbe/) "Come and get them".[136]

Such Laconic bravado doubtlessly helped to maintain morale. Herodotus writes that when Dienekes, a Spartansoldier, was informed that Persian arrows would be so numerous as "to block out the sun", he retorted, unconcerned;"So much the better...then we shall fight our battle in the shade."[137]

After the battle, Xerxes was curious as to what the Greeks had been trying to do (presumably because they had hadso few men) and had some Arcadian deserters interrogated in his presence. The answer was that all the other menwere participating in the Olympic Games. When Xerxes asked what was the prize for the winner, the answer was "anolive-wreath". Upon hearing this, Tigranes, a Persian general, said: "Good heavens, Mardonius, what kind of menare these that you have pitted against us? It is not for riches that they contend but for honor!" (Godley translation) orotherwise "Ye Gods, Mardonius, what men have you brought us to fight against? Men that fight not for gold, but forglory."[138]

In popular cultureThe Battle of Thermopylae has been an icon of western civilization from its very aftermath. This icon expressesitself in countless instances of adages, poetry and song, literature, films, television and video games. A more seriousaspect has been its didactic use. The battle appears in many books and articles on military topics. The movie 300(2007) was based on the events during and close to the time of the battle.Prior to the battle, the Hellenes remembered the Dorians, an ethnic distinction to which the Spartans belonged, as theconquerors and displacers of the Ionians in the Peloponnesus. After the battle, Spartan culture became an inspirationand object of emulation, a phenomenon known as Laconophilia.

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See also• Aristodemus (Spartan)• Battle of the Persian Gate• Gates of Fire• Spartan Army

Notes^ a: Although some authors state the result was a Pyrrhic victory for Persia[107] [108] , the majority of authors do notapply this label to the result: see above.^ b: A huge number of estimates have been made since the 19th century, ranging from 15,000 to acceptance ofHerodotus' 1,800,000. No real consensus exists; even the most recent estimates by academics vary between 70,000and 300,000. As Holland puts it, "in short...we will never know."[46]

^ c: "The Battle of Thermopylae was a Pyrrhic victory for [the Persians]. But it offered Athens invaluable time toprepare for the decisive naval battle of Salamis one month later."[139]

References[1] Cicero, On the Laws I, 5[2] Holland, pp. xvi–xvii.[3] Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. I, 22 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Thuc. + 1. 22)[4] Finley, p. 15.[5] Holland, p. xxiv.[6] Holland, p. 377.[7] Fehling, pp. 1–277.[8] Diodorus XI, 28–34 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Diod. + 11. 28),[9] Note to Herodotus IX, 81 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 9. 81)[10] Holland, p47–55[11] Holland, p203[12] Herodotus V, 105 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 5. 105)[13] Holland, 171–178[14] Herodotus VI, 44 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 6. 44. 1)[15] Holland, pp178–179[16] Herodotus VII, 133 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 133. 1)[17] Herodotus VI, 101 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 6. 100. 1)[18] Herodotus VI, 113 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 6. 113)[19] Holland, pp206–206[20] Holland, pp208–211[21] Holland, pp213–214[22] VII, 35 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 35. 1)[23] Holland, p217–223[24] Herodotus VII, 32 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 32. 1)[25] Herodotus VII, 145 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 145. 1)[26] Holland, p226[27] Holland, pp248–249[28] Herodotus VII, 173 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 173. 1)[29] Holland, pp255–257[30] Herodotus VIII, 40 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 40. 1)[31] Holland, pp255–256[32] Herodotus VII, 206 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 206. 1)[33] Holland, pp258–259.[34] Rawlinson translation of Herodotus VII, 242 (http:/ / www. greektexts. com/ library/ Herodotus/ Polymnia/ eng/ 242. html)[35] Herodotus VII, 205 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 205. 1)[36] Herodotus, VII, 202 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 202. 1)[37] Herodotus VIII, 201 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 201. 1)

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[38] Holland, pp262–264[39] Holland, pp269–270[40] Herodotus VII, 207 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 207. 1)[41] Holland, pp270–271[42] Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica,saying 11[43] Herodotus VII, 210 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 210. 1)[44] Ctesias, Persica (http:/ / www. livius. org/ ct-cz/ ctesias/ photius_persica2. html) (from Photius' Epitome)[45] Holland, p237[46] Holland, p. 394.[47] de Souza, p. 41.[48] Herodotus VII, 203 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 203. 1)[49] Diodorus Siculus XI, 4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Diod. + 11. 4)[50] Macan, note to Herodotus VIII, 25[51] Herodotus VII, 228 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 228. 1)[52] Herodotus VIII, 25 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 25. 1)[53] Pausanias X, 20 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Paus. + 10. 20. 1)[54] Green, p140[55] Bradford, p106[56] Bury, pp271–282[57] Lazenby, pp248–253[58] Holland, pp285-287[59] Holland, p 288[60] Herodotus VII, 176 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 176. 1)[61] Dore, pp285–286[62] Web.archive.org (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930030341/ http:/ / www. mlahanas. de/ Greeks/ Cities/ Thermopylae. jpg)[63] Uoregon.edu (http:/ / uoregon. edu/ ~klio/ maps/ gr/ Thermopylae. jpg)[64] Livius.org (http:/ / www. livius. org/ a/ battlefields/ thermopylae/ thermopylae. JPG)[65] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Plb. %2B18. 29[66] Diodorus Siculus XI, 6 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Diod. + 11. 6. 1)[67] Herodotus VII, 208 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 208. 1)[68] Herodotus VII, 223 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 223. 1)[69] Diodorus Siculus XI, 7 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Diod. + 11. 7. 1)[70] Holland, p274[71] Herodotus VII, 211 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 211. 1)[72] Herodotus VII, 204 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 208. 1)[73] Herodotus VII, 212 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 212. 1)[74] Herodotus VII, 213 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 213. 1)[75] Tegopoulos, entry for Εφιάλτης[76] Herodotus VII, 215 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 215. 1)[77] Green (2006), p59[78] Herodotus VII, 217 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 217. 1)[79] Herodotus VII, 218 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 218. 1)[80] Holland, p291–293[81] Herodotus VII, 219 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 219. 1)[82] Herodotus VII, 220 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 220. 1)[83] Herodotus VII, 222 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 222. 1)[84] Lazenby, pp144–145[85] Holland, p294[86] Lazenby, pp259–260[87] Herodotus VII, 224 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 224. 1)[88] Herodotus VII, 225 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 225. 1)[89] Herodotus VII 233 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 233. 1)[90] Crawford, p302[91] Herodotus VIII, 24 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 23. 1)[92] Holland, p397[93] Lazenby, p148[94] Herodotus VII, 181 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 181. 1)[95] Herodotus VII, 238 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 238. 1)[96] Pausanias III, 14 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Paus. + 3. 14)

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[97] Herodotus VIII, 50 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 49. 1)[98] Herodotus VIII, 71 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 72. 1)[99] Holland, pp299–303[100] Holland, pp327–334[101] Herodotus VIII, 97 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 97. 1)[102] Holland, p327–329[103] Holland, pp338–341[104] Holland, p357–359[105] Holland, p. xviii.[106] Lazenby, p. 151.[107] Tung & Tung, p. 239.[108] Marozzi, p. 74.[109] Cawkwell, pp. 105–106[110] Herodotus IX, 1 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 9. 1. 1)[111] "Greco-Persian Wars: Battle of Thermopylae" (http:/ / www. historynet. com/ greco-persian-wars-battle-of-thermopylae. htm/ 6).

HistoryNet. . Retrieved 2009-03-27.[112] Herodotus VIII, 1–19 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 1. 1)[113] Cawkwell, p. 104.[114] Lazenby, p150[115] Michel de Montaigne, quoted in Holland, p. xviii.[116] "Victor Hanson article" (http:/ / www. victorhanson. com/ articles/ hanson101106. html). Victor Hanson article. 2006-10-11. . Retrieved

2009-03-27.[117] Eikenberry, 1996[118] Macan, note to Herodotus VII, 228[119] Strachey, p481[120] Golding, exceprt from The Hot Gates.[121] Merivale, p64[122] Macauley translation of Herodotus, p220[123] Paton, p139[124] Pressfield, p384[125] Rawlinson translation of Herodotus, p51[126] Robinson, p65[127] Sélincourt translation of Herodotus (1954)[128] Translation by WIlliam Shepherd, from the Cambridge series of translations by Greek and Roman authors.[129] Credited writers for the film are: George St. George, Gian Paolo Callegari, Remigio Del Grosso, Giovanni d'Eramo, and Ugo Liberatore.[130] Translation by American historian, Professor J. Rufus Fears in his Ancient Greeks lectures for the Teaching Company.[131] Miller, 300 (comic)[132] Ruskin, p212[133] Plutarch, Moralia, 240, saying 6[134] Herodotus VII, 209 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 209. 1)[135] Plutarch, Moralia, 225, saying 10[136] Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica, Saying 11.[137] Herodotus VII, 226 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 7. 226. 1)[138] Herodotus VIII, 26 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Hdt. + 8. 26. 1)[139] Tung & Tung, p. 239

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• Eikenberry, Lt. Gen. Karl W. (Summer 1996). "Take No Casualties" (http:/ / www. carlisle. army. mil/ usawc/Parameters/ 96summer/ eiken. htm). Parameters: US Army War College Quarterly XXVI (2): pages 109–118.Retrieved 2007-10-17.

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External links• EDSITEment (http:/ / www. edsitement. neh. gov) Lesson Plan: 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae:

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June 2006.• Modern monument (http:/ / www. siu. edu/ ~dfll/ classics/ Johnson/ HTML/ Thermopylae/ Tmon. jpg) at siu.edu• Spartan burial mound (http:/ / www. coloradocollege. edu/ dept/ CL/ images/ thermop. jpg) at

coloradocollege.eduGeographical coordinates: 38°48′0″N 22°32′0″E

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Article Sources and Contributors 21

Article Sources and ContributorsBattle of Thermopylae  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392542479  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., .K, 3rdAlcove, 5 albert square, A3RO, A8UDI, ANTIcarrot, ASmartKid, Aaxiler,Acbistro, Acebrowner, Acroterion, Adam Bishop, Aeusoes1, Agathoclea, Ahcrouch, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aladdin Sane, Alansohn, Alborz Fallah, Aldaron, Aldux, Alex van Poppelen,AlexiusHoratius, Alkiviadis, AllanJohnstone, Allstarecho, Alotlikelove5, AlphaEta, Alvie3, Amerana, Ammitnox, Amplitude101, Amsterdam360, An Siarach, Anaxial, Anderpanda, AndreasJS,Andrewpmk, Angr, AnonEMouse, Anonymously max, Antandrus, Ar-wiki, Arad, Arangil, Aranherunar, Arash r, ArchonMagnus, Arcticdawg, Argos'Dad, Aria7, Ariobarza, Arkwatem,Armoreno10, ArnoldPettybone, Artacoana, Arthana, Arthurwenglee, Arvand, Asfdgds, Ashley Pomeroy, Asoofi, Atama, Atarr, Atelaes, Atroof, AubreyEllenShomo, Aude, Autocracy, Az1568,Az29, AzaToth, BHC, BIG Tuna, Banazir, Banbaal, Barbatus, Barcode2010, Bark, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Map Greco-Persian Wars-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-PolFile:Thermopylae & Artemisium campaign map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thermopylae_&_Artemisium_campaign_map.png  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: User:MinisterForBadTimes, User:StingImage:Thermopylae map 480bc.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thermopylae_map_480bc.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:ChrisOImage:Greek Phalanx.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Phalanx.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Makthorpe, Reggaeman, Tungsten,1 anonymous editsImage:Persian warriors from Berlin Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Persian_warriors_from_Berlin_Museum.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution2.0  Contributors: photo by mshammaImage:Jacques-Louis David 004 Thermopylae.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jacques-Louis_David_004_Thermopylae.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Bohème, G.dallorto, Itu, Vissarion, Zolo

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 22

Image:Thermopiles memorial epitaph.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thermopiles_memorial_epitaph.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rafal Slubowski, N. PantelisImage:Leonidas monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonidas_monument.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:User:FkerasarImage:Startans monument1 evlahos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Startans_monument1_evlahos.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:vaggelis vlahosImage:Leonidas evlahos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonidas_evlahos.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: vaggelis vlahosImage:Spartans monument 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spartans_monument_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: vaggelis vlahosImage:Thespies1 evlahos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thespies1_evlahos.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: vaggelis vlahosImage:Thespies2 evlahos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thespies2_evlahos.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: vaggelis vlahos

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