battery powered solar charging transport final.pdf
TRANSCRIPT
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Gift Musapatika R095573T Supervisor: Dr Gary Brooking Page 1
UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 3RD YEAR PROJECT
2012
TITLE: ALTERNATIVE ENERGY TRANSPORTATION
VIABILITY IN ZIMBABWE
BY
GIFT MUSAPATIKA
R095573T
PROJECT SUPERVISOR: DR GARY BROOKING
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF
THE BSc HONOURS DEGREE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
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Table of contents
Title Page
Abstract....................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements....................................................... 4
1.0 Introduction............................................................ 5
1.1Justification............................................................... .........6
1.2 Objectives................................................................. .........7
1.3 Methodology.......................................................................7
2.0 Literature Review.......................................................8
2.1 What is an Electric vehicle (EV)? .....................................8
2.2 Transportation Statistics in Zimbabwe...............................9
2.3 Model Consideration.........................................................10
3.0 EV Parts considerations.............................................113.1 Motors
3.2 Drive train
3.3 Batteries
4.0 Previous studies.........................................................15
5.0 Current motor industry state......................................32
6.0 Market analysis and demand.....................................32
7.0 Discussion.................................................................34
8.0 Conclusion.................................................................38
9.0 References.................................................................39
10.0 Appendix.................................................................40
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ABSTRACT
Battery technology is progressing at an advanced rate. In addition solar power technology
advances have resulted in higher powered and lower cost solutions. In the past solar assisted
transport technology has not proved to be cost effective, however with the new advances, this
may no longer be the case. In particular this may now be a suitable technology to explore for
Zimbabwe given the sunlight as well as the nature of the commuter travel.
In order to get information several sources were used which includes the internet,
questionnaires, industrial visitation and literary books.
The main objective of this project is to study the Zimbabwean transport trends and come up
with a perfect vehicle model for Zimbabwe that can suit the market.
Research has shown that many people in Zimbabwe, in a bid to look for sustainable transport
end up importing the cheap ex-Japanese vehicle because these are less expensive. Only a few
net-worth individuals can afford to buy the brand new vehicles that are being assembled in
Zimbabwe.
In a move to go green, the first step is to gain commuter confidence by introducing the hybrid
vehicles. When people become more convinced that their driving patterns can be satisfied by
an all electric vehicle, then adoption is simplified.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to extend my acknowledgement first to the Almighty for the strength and His
ever true guidance throughout the course of this research. I would also like to thank my
family (The Musapatika family) for the continued support. Special thanks to my supervisor
Dr Gary Brooking for helping me to carry out this research. I do not know what I could have
done without the help and encouragement of all my friends. May God continue to bless each
and every one of them!
For the success of the research, I would like to thank some people who helped me with the
necessary information. These include, staff from Willow vale Mazda motor industry andChloride Battery Zimbabwe.
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1.0INTRODUCTIONThe population of Zimbabwe in both the rural and urban societies is rising increasingly. This
is in line with global urban population growth rate averaging 2 percent annually (compared to
an annual rural growth rate of 0.3 percent). These trends are expected to continue, dominated
by demographic shifts in the developing world. The United Nations predicts that more than
80 percent of population growth in the next ten years will occur in the urban areas of
developing countries.
These trends are placing an enormous strain on transport and mobility in urban areas. The
transport sector, according to the World Resources Institute (2005), accounts for 24.1% ofCO2 emissions worldwide. The carbon dioxide being emitted is responsible for global
warming worldwide. Hence the only major prerequisite for both economic growth and
human welfare in all urban areas is sustainable transport: the development of clean, safe,
reliable, and affordable systems for delivering goods and moving people.
The earlier generations of electric vehicles failed to achieve significant market share due to
poor performance, high cost and short ranges.
It is from this background that it becomes necessary to look at other viable means of
alternative transport such as battery or solar powered vehicles in Zimbabwe which however is
lagging behind in technology compared to other countries.
A sustainable transport system needs to be developed for Zimbabwe.
A sustainable transportation system is that which:
Allows the basic access needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a manner
consistent with human and ecosystem health, and with equity within and between
generations,
Is affordable,
Operates efficiently,
Offers choice of transport mode,
Supports a vibrant economy,
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Limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them,
Minimizes consumption of non -renewable resources,
Limits consumption of renewable resources to the sustainable yield level,
Reuses and recycles its components,
Reduces noise production.
Logically, there are two ways of using technology to reduce fossil fuel use and thus CO2
emissions.
One is to use fuel that contains no or less carbon from fossil fuels.
The other is to use fuels more efficiently.
Technological developments that can contribute to reductions in fossil fuel use by transport
include battery/solar electric vehicles, fuels cells, hybrid electric-ICE vehicles.
For the purpose of this project option a) only will be explored which is to look at the financial
viability or feasibility of the development of battery powered vehicles in Zimbabwe.
1.1 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION
Battery technology is progressing at an advanced rate. In addition solar power technology
advances have resulted in higher powered and lower cost solutions. In the past solar assisted
transport technology has not proved to be cost effective, however with the new advances, this
may no longer be the case. In particular this may now be a suitable technology to explore for
Zimbabwe given the sunlight as well as the nature of the commuter travel.
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1.2 Objectives
In order to fully come up with a conclusion on this topic of consideration the following are
the listed objectives of this project.
1. To study various Zimbabwe commuter trends to get the average speed at which theytravel, the cost budget and range of distances travelled per day
2. Develop a commuter model suitable for the Zimbabwean economy3. Research about battery technological advances and battery specifications in and
outside Zimbabwe
4. Research on average sunlight hours and intensity levels in Zimbabwe5. Research on the advancement in solar technology6. Investigate the various models and solutions for electric vehicles of various sizes7. Draw a conclusion whether this will be a viable project to explore for Zimbabwe
1.3 Methodology
Conducted surveys through questionnaires in public to get an idea of what the market
requires. A copy of the used questionnaires has been attached at the appendix section.
Done most research on the internet to get the advancement in electric vehicle technology
around the world and the advancement in battery technology as well.
Industrial visits were also carried out to get the overview of the motor industry state in
Zimbabwe and the current production levels and costs. The industries visited include Willow
vale Mazda Motor industry and Chloride Zimbabwe.
Car sale dealers were also visited, to get the average cost and type of vehicles being afforded
by the customers.
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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV)
An EV is a vehicle powered by batteries and has an electric motor that drives the wheels
instead of an internal combustion engine. The main parts are the electric drive train, battery
pack and an electric motor. The batteries are charged from conventional home electricity or
from other energy sources like solar and wind.
What are the advantages of having an electric vehicle?
There are many environmental benefits and personal perks for having an electric car:
Most electric vehicles can travel up to 100 miles before they need to be charged
No tail pipe exhaust means less greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
Less oil consumption means no reliance on foreign oil
You can recharge your car whenever its convenient for you
More cost-effective than regular cars because of long-lasting battery use
Cheaper to maintain because they have fewer moving parts
Creates less noise pollution because the engine is silent
Are there any drawbacks?
Even though electric cars offer great advantages over traditional cars, there are some
drawbacks. Electric cars are more expensive than traditional cars because of their unique
batteries, and you often need to plan ahead of time before you go anywhere so that you have
enough time to charge your battery. If you dont plan ahead, then your battery can die out and
you can get stuck in the middle of nowhere!
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2.2 TRANSPORT STATISTICS IN ZIMBABWE
The law in Zimbabwe requires maximum speeds of 80km/hr in wide tarred roads and
60km/hr in narrow roads with some exceptions in highways of around 120km/hr for
motorists.
Basically in Zimbabwe we have two modes of transportation that is private and public
transport.
From the urban population analysis conducted, about 70% use public transport to commute to
and from work and other places. 25% own cars either personal or company vehicle and the
remainder use other means like bicycles etc.
The following tables summarises the results of a survey from both public and private
commuters.
Distance travelled per day (Km) Private % Public %
Below 50 25 0
50-100 35 1
100-150 23 3
150-200 16 10
>200 1 86
Summary
The table shows that a greater percentage of public commuters travel distances greater than
200km each day. From the questionnaires it was found out that the actual range is around
400km a day at an average speed of 80km/h and top speeds of 120km/h. One such
questionnaire is shown in appendix A.
Most private motorists travel distances between 50 and 100 km per day. So a vehicle of a
range of 160km will be good.
Within the city not much luggage is ferried, save for some taxis which transport people from
outside the country. The luggage will be wild, usually around 100-150kg.
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The major weight comes from the people being transported. Usually 6 people commute at a
time (approximately 360kg).
2.3 BEST MODEL FOR ZIMBABWE
From the interviews and research there are certain factors that are considered when one wants
to purchase a vehicle. The factors are:
The intended use- farmers generally want open trucks for carrying their producearound the farm.
Price of the vehicle- most workers in Zimbabwe do not earn high incomes and hencethey import the ex-Japanese vehicle because they are cheaper.
Economy- there are many small vehicles nowadays because of their low fuelconsumption.(engine capacity of less than 1.8 litre are more common)
Durability- many people in Zimbabwe goes to less developed rural areas so they needa vehicle that can safely travel in these dust roads.
Maintainability- the cheaper it is to maintain the vehicle the better.Status in society also plays a role in the decision. However, many people are importing cheap
vehicles from Japan, so there are a variety of makes and sizes. With the improvement in
vehicle economy and engine power, many people prefer large vehicles because they can fit
almost all occasions. Apart from improvement in technology of vehicles, the more common
models of transportation that are gaining popularity in Zimbabwe nowadays are:
The 18-seater kombis, The small Nissan March vehicle and The small NP200 open truck mainly owned by companies.
Generally second hand vehicles sales more on the market nowadays regardless of make.
Many people generally want a vehicle that can accommodate a normal family of four (4), a 4-
door vehicle and one that is less expensive in terms of cost, maintainability, strength,
reliability and comfort ability.
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3.0 ELECTRIC VEHICLE PARTSIn order to come with a rough estimate of the cost of coming up with an electric vehicle it is
important that we explore on the basic components of the vehicle. The advancement in these
individual parts has also played a crucial role in improving the performance of the vehicle.
These principle components are:
Electric motor Drive train Battery Charging system & controller
These parts contribute more to the design of an electric vehicle due to their effect on power
and energy consumption. Let us look at a brief discussion of each one of them.
3.1 Electric motor
For better performance a higher efficient motor is required. The current electric vehicles use
a variety of electric motors which are either DC or AC depending on the designer and use of
the electric vehicle.
In coming up with a proper motor to use the following factors are considered:
Weight
Efficiency
Torque characteristics
Speed variations methods
Cost
On the next page is a brief discussion of the various electric motors.
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DC motor
The DC motor has the merits that it is cheaper and the controller is less complex than an AC
motor.
A DC motor, on the other hand, allows the car to run from "96 to 192 volts." The nice thing
about a DC motor, experts say, is that they are not as expensive as AC motors.
The DC motors we have are:
a. DC series wound motorThe desirable properties are
High start up torque Requires a simpler controller which then is less expensive It is widely used hence it gains user confidence
However it has some disadvantages which are that, it is not good for variable loads (it
becomes a challenge to go uphill) and it is bad to run on no-load.
b. Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC)This is noisy. The noise comes from the brushes and it can cause radio interference because it
does not have a natural filtering effect. Its main use is in motor cycles, those very light
applications.
AC motor
3-phase AC induction motor
This is more desirable and it is now gaining market around the world. An AC motor, is a
three-phase motor that runs on 240 volts AC along with a 300volt battery pack.
The desired properties are:
Continuous power for hill climbing, higher revolutions per minute (RPM), regenerative braking, wide range,
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light weight Overall power.
AC motors are more efficient, and when combined with regenerative braking they are a clear
winner for distance applications,
When used with lead-acid batteries they are more efficient.
Due to the fancy converter system that changes the Direct Current coming out of EV
batteries into an alternating current, AC motors just tend to be a lot more expensive than DC.
Another demerit of an AC motor is the sophisticated exchange system that allows for
regenerative braking.
The following table summarises the motor characteristics.
AC MotorDC Motor
Single-speed transmissionMultispeed transmission
Light weight
Heavier for same power
More expensiveLess expensive
95% efficiency at full load85-95% efficiency at full load
More expensive controllerSimple controller
Motor/controller/inverter more expensiveMotor/controller less expensive
For a medium weight vehicle to travel at 120km/hr a motor of around 80KW and which runs
at 6118rpm is required! This is derived from the Nissan Leaf specifications. The average cost
of this AC electric motor is US$ 4 000
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3.2 Drive train
The energy from the batteries needs to reach the wheels with as little loses as possible. A
drive train that is efficient will then be required. There are several options which are:
Option 1, single motor
In this option a single AC motor is connected to the drive train which would include a 6
speed transmission.
Benefits are good acceleration and it allows a good top speed, handling about the same as
Internal Combustion Engines, easy of conversion.
The Single Motor attached to the standard transmission has the advantages of:
1: much simpler to convert the vehicle
2: very powerful and very efficient single AC motors are available
3: This retains the same 4 wheel drive handling as the original car
4: This can save on weight because more motors also means more controllers, motors +controllers = weight.
5: This will save on energy.
6: You'll have much better control over any kind of torque and revolutions per minute on
your wheels with the Transmission still attached.
Demerits are that there would be more moving parts meaning more things to break.
Option 2, Duel motors
In this option 2 AC motors are used, each one powering its own set of wheels. Benefits are:
better All Wheel Drive handling and better control of what wheels the power is going to, less
moving parts less to break down.
Disadvantages are: possibly less acceleration and lower top speed being locked into one gear,
range may also take a hit and conversion becomes more difficult.
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Option 3 4- Quad motors
In this option 4 AC motors are used, each one connected to its own axle. Benefits are: the
ultimate in All Wheel Drive handling and control, it could even allow tank like turning
abilities by running the right side motors clock wise and the right side counter clock wise it
could literally spin on a dime.
Negatives are that, being locked into a single gear could hurt acceleration, top speed and
range. Furthermore conversion becomes more difficult. 1
3.3 Battery technology
This is the main component that contributes about 25% of the total cost of the electric
vehicle. An electric vehicle battery should have the following characteristics:
High specific energy and energy density High specific power and power density fast charging and deep discharge capabilities Long cycle life and service lines Low self discharging rate and high charging efficiency Safety and cost effectiveness Maintenance free Environmentally sound and recyclable
The battery energy density affects the battery performance in that it determines the amount of
useful energy which can be stored by the battery per unit weight hence; it determines the total
range of the car. The power density gives the rate at which energy is converted into work, per
unit of weight and energy efficiency; hence it determines the acceleration of the car. Battery
cost and expected battery-life are also key considerations, as are safety and environmental
impacts.
There are several battery types and configurations in use today which are:
Lead acid (Deep cycle)
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Lithium-ion batteries Lithium-air batteries Lithium metal polymer
Zinc-air batteries Carbon zinc Nickel-Zinc Nickel-metal-hydride batteries (NiMH) Nickel cadmium (NiCad) Alkaline long life Molten salt (zebra battery)
For the purpose of this project, the more widely used battery packs that offer better service
are discussed. These are:
Lead acid battery
Nickel battery and the various metal combinations
Lithium and all its various configurations
The more recent lithium air battery
3.3.1 Lead-acid battery (deep cycle)
This is the most widely available and the least expensive battery. Electric cars that use lead-
acid batteries usually have a range of 80 miles (128km) or less per charge. The batteries haveenvironmental impacts through their construction, use, disposal or recycling. Lead-acid
battery recycling is popular although an effective pollution control system is needed to reduce
emissions. This battery type also has a short life span of about 3 years, less than the vehicle
itself. One major disadvantage is that it is very heavy compared to other battery types!
Currently in Zimbabwe, this is the only type of battery being manufactured at Chloride
battery.
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3.3.2 Nickel cadmium
This battery can tolerate deep discharge, lasts longer and has a larger number of discharge
cycles. It has a Specific energy of 50Wh/kg, Specific power of 200W/kg, good cycle life
(>1300). This type of battery is one of the most widely used for the battery-electric vehicles
in Europe.
3.3.3 Nickel-metal-hydride battery (NiMH)
These have a higher energy density than lead-acid batteries and can deliver a range of up to120 miles (192km). This battery has a slightly better performance compared to NiCad. It also
has a high charge/discharge rate and long cycle life. The energy density for nickel-metal-
hydride batteries is approximately 250kJ/kg. Generally they have a lower environmental
impact than nickel-cadmium batteries due to the absence of the toxic cadmium. Most
industrial nickel is also recycled due to its high value. The disadvantages are that of having
poor efficiency, high self discharge and poor performance in cold weather.
3.3.4 Nickel-Zinc
These batteries offer attractive features. They are less expensive than lithium-ion batteries of
comparable size. Their energy density is about 70 watt-hours per kilogram, compared to 150
or more for Lithium-ion. They are easier to charge, either on a constant voltage charging
system or a constant current charge, with little overcharge required. The metals used in the
nickel-zinc battery do not present a hazardous waste disposal problem when the battery needs
to be replaced. It does not contain lithium that could cause a fire in case of an accident.
3.3.5 Lithium-ion batteries
This is the most widely used battery for EVs which is made from the naturally occurring
lightweight lithium. The battery uses Lithium-Cobalt as cathode and a Graphite anode.
Lithium-ion batteries are widely preferred for electric car use due to their high energydensities and lightweight which results in a superior range per charge of around 250-300
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miles (400-480km). Lithium is also reusable. They also have a low discharge/charge rate of
approximately 5% per month which means quick acceleration cannot take place. To prolong
the life of a lithium-ion battery, it should be charged early and often, it should never be
depleted below its minimum voltage and should be kept cool but not frozen.
It has a downfall of having a short life cycle and significant degradation with age. The
cathode is toxic and the battery can pose a fire risk if punctured or charged improperly. This
battery is the one in the Chevrolet Volt EV.
3.3.6 Lithium metal polymer
It contains no liquid or paste electrolyte. The electrolyte is in a polymer film. This results in a
light weight battery that requires little maintenance making it more suitable for electric
vehicles.
The merits of lithium battery are:
Lithium lasts longer.
A lithium pack will last you something like 10-12 years. This brings the price down to the
point where it costs the same as, or even less than, a comparable lead acid battery pack.
Lithium is lighter.
A 144 volt system with 200 AH will have around 720 lbs (326.6Kg) worth of lithium
batteries, Compared with 1500 lbs (680.4Kg) or so of lead.
Lithium mining is environmentally gentle and human friendly.
Lithium likes speed.
LiFePO4 is safer lithium.
LiFePO4 is tolerant of deeper discharge. (This might be one of the best qualities of lithium)
Experts say, another benefit to switching from lead to lithium - aside from weight loss - is the
DOD (depth of discharge) that lithium batteries will tolerate. Lead batteries shouldn't be
taken below 50% DOD. So lithium not only has a higher energy density, but it has a deeper
use of stored energy. Basically lithium will always provide more useable energy than lead.
3.3.7 Molten salt (zebra battery)
This uses a molten salt (Chloroaluminate (NaAlCl4) sodium) as the electrolyte. It has a very
high energy density of 120Wh/kg, a good specific energy of 100Wh/Kg and has a reasonable
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series resistance better than NiMH and some lithium batteries. The battery must be heated for
use to 270 degrees. It has poor power density
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react with oxygen in the air that's pulled in as needed, making them lightweight and compact.
One of the project's goals is a lightweight 500-mile (800km) battery for a family car.
Jeff Dahn, a professor of materials science at Dalhousie University, in Nova Scotia said
however, one of the main challenges in making lithium metal-air batteries is that "air isn't just
oxygen. Since where there is air there is moisture, the humidity kills the lithium metal.
When lithium metal meets water, an explosive reaction ensues. These batteries will require
protective membranes that exclude water but let in oxygen, and are stable over time.3
The following table summarises the properties of the above discussed electric vehicle
batteries.
BATTERY TYPE Number of
cycles
Energy
density
(wh/kg)
Power
(w/kg)
Charge/discharge
efficiency %
Durability
(years)
Lead acid 500-1000 30-40 180-400 70-92 3
Carbon-zinc 36
NiMH 1350 70 1500 66 N/A
NiCad 1350 60 500 70-90 N/A
Lithium-ion 1000 160 1800 99.9 2-3
Lithium-polymer 130-200 2800 99.8 N/A
Molten salt 1000 125 150-220 92.5 8+
Ni-Zinc 300 60-70 900 65
Two other factors should also be considered, which are: the self-discharge rate, which causes
the charge to diminish over time, and the cycle life of the batteries (the number of times the
batteries can undergo a deep discharge and still accept charge). The batteries listed above
perform well in those categories.4
The battery specification calculations and weight is shown in appendix B.
http://fizz.phys.dal.ca/~dahn/jeffDahn.htmlhttp://fizz.phys.dal.ca/~dahn/jeffDahn.html -
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3.3.10 Battery cost
One of the major challenges of batteries is their cost. However, with increased production,
soon the cost will be reduced.
According to the Bloomberg New energy finance research, lithium battery packs fell 14%
from $800/KWh to $689/KWh as production exceeded demand. This reduction is 30% from
the one in 2009. Some models require from 16-85kwh of energy which would cost from
$11 200 to $ 34 000. This is only 25% of vehicle cost hence the vehicle would cost between $
44 800 and $136 000. Currently the battery manufacturing companies in USA are producing
a surplus of 10GWh enough to power 400 000 electric vehicles. This is expected to increase
to 17GWh by the end of 2013. The cost of batteries is then expected to be $150/KWh in USA
by 2013.5
From the Fords focus electric model, the total cost of a battery pack ranges from $12 000-
$15 000 per car for a $22 000 car. The car has a battery with a capacity of 23kwh and
weighing between 600 and 700 pounds (272 and 318kg). The car costs $39 200, has a battery
cost of $552- $650/KWh and a mileage range of 76 miles (122km). This car can be fully
charged in 3 hrs on its 240V charger. The USA government is pushing for the reduction in
battery cost to around $300/KWh. 6
3.3.11 Battery industry in Zimbabwe
Chloride Battery is one of the biggest battery manufacturing companies in Zimbabwe. At the
moment they are only manufacturing lead- acid batteries. The types being manufactured
include automotive and standby batteries. They manufacture basically four different sizes of
batteries with a change in height of container that holds the acid electrolyte. These sizes are
324mm, 394mm, 447mm and 512mm. Depending on the Ah the length varies from (64-337)
mm. The width varies from 159-162mm.
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The company also carried out a research on whether it is viable to start manufacturing lithium
batteries in Zimbabwe and the conclusion they drew was that, the project would require a lot
of capital and considering the market at the moment, it meant the project would have a low
rate of return.
To get the actual costs of manufacturing lead-acid batteries in Zimbabwe, a quotation for a
24KWh battery was obtained from Battery Chloride. The actual specifications are 120V,
200Ah.
Another factor which can help to improve Electric vehicle design is vehicle mass which can
be reduced by using advanced materials, improving component design and joiningtechniques, and reducing vehicle size or engine size. Concept cars have been demonstrated
with masses 30 to 40% below those of conventional cars of similar make.
3.3.12 Charging of electric vehicles
Electric vehicles are charged by plugging onto a power source which may be the
conventional power grid (Z.E.S.A. for Zimbabwe) or another alternative power source which
may be solar or any other.
Some examples of charging ports are shown below.
.
Commercial battery charging station (240 V, 40 A), Home battery charging station
(240 V, 40A) [EV-Charge America, 2011]
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Solar powered battery charging station [EV-Charge America, 2011]
The charging station being used determines the time taken to fully charge the vehicle.
3.3.13 Electricity Generation And Grid Impacts
Currently there are severe power shortages in the country resulting in massive load shedding.
The current power production as at 01 June 2012 is as follows for all the power stations in the
country.
Power station MW produced
Hwange 340
Kariba 740
Munyati 30
Bulawayo 30
Harare 20
Imports 75
Total 1235
The current supply demand is 2,200MW; hence there is a deficit of 965MW of energy.
Adding electric vehicles to this already deficit grid system poses an added strain to the power
company hence, alternative power sources have to be explored. Solar energy might be one of
the best options!
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3.3.14 Solar Energy Alternative
In Zimbabwe we have sunshine from morning till evening most of the days. The trends are as
follows.
Zimbabwe has high irradiation averaging 20MJ/m2
A study of the current technological advancement in PVC system is hence important at this
stage. The technological advancement is mainly in the orientation and the materials used in
coming up with the PVC design. Some solar panels rather than being flat for example, are
flexible and convert more energy per unit length.
Solar technology is advancing. Below are some of the ways in which solar technology is
advancing. The advancement is mainly in the power output and the reduction in cost with the
increase in complexity of the technology.
Third-Generation Solar Cells - Traditional solar cell converts sunlight energy into electricity
through the use of silicon and thin films made of CdTe (cadmium telluride) and CIGS
(copper indium gallium Selenide). Both are expensive to process and mass produce. Third-
generation solar cells are being made from a variety of new materials besides silicon that is
more cost effective.
Sensor Solar Panelsthese are flat sheets of packaged, interconnected assembly of solar cells
which has a mechanism to track the sun. This concentrated sensor technology amplifies the
sun's power 500 to 1,000 times, generating 25 kilowatts of electricity at its peak hour.
Stirling Energy System (SES)this uses a more refined design with reduced number of parts,
making the system more robust while fitted better for the desert environment than the
concentrated photovoltaic systems that needs water to operate. Stirling Engine uses thermal
energy to heat a gas, which expands to push a piston. As the gas starts to cool, it contracts and
cycles an engine. The engine has shown 30 percent efficiency, superior to the 20 percent of
most current PV systems.
High-Performance Photovoltaic - Still in the projects by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), but expected to enable process of high-efficiency technologies toward
commercial-prototype products aims to explore the ultimate performance of PV technologies
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to double their sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiencies. This project is still under
investigation for a wide range of complex issues, initial modelling, baseline experiments and
other advanced concepts.7
There are various ways PVC cells can be made. Below are some of the discussed ways in
which PVC has been improved to come up with more efficient systems.
Pokeberries: The red dye from pokeberries can be used to coat fibre-based solar cells. It is a
good absorber and helps the solar cell capture more sunlight to turn into solar power.
Pokeberries can be grown in any climate, so people living in developing countries can easily
cultivate the plant and make affordable solar power possible. Nanotech Centre scientists haveused the red dye made from pokeberries to coat their efficient and inexpensive fibber-based
solar cells. The dye acts as an absorber, helping the cells tiny fibres trap more sunlight to
convert into power.
Thin-film technology: This tech uses micro-reactors to reduce waste and lower costs.
Cow brain protein: An abundance of an important protein provides the framework for better
batteries and solar cells.
Highly-efficient solar concentrator design: A new design collects more rays with thousands
of small lenses on a single sheet.
Silicon ink-based solar cells: Start up Innovalight set a record for efficiency at 19 percent
conversion efficiency. The company has more than 60 silicon ink-related patents.
Solar fuels: These use concentrated solar radiation to drive high-temperature endothermic
reactions to improve efficiencies.
Giant gravel batteries: Such batteries could be used to store energy when the sun goes down.
Concentrated solar power plants: As mentioned above, highly photovoltaic solar cells can
generate electricity. It can also supply the need for renewable sources of desalinated water.
The largest solar-power tower in the world. This structure runs on the sun and air and does
not need water to generate electricity.
http://www.labspaces.net/103364/Purple_Pokeberries_Hold_Secret_to_Affordable_Solar_Power_Worldwidehttp://www.physorg.com/news190984617.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news191006013.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news191159758.htmlhttp://www.fastcompany.com/1629923/innovalight-sets-silicon-ink-solar-cell-efficiency-recordhttp://www.innovalight.com/http://www.smartplanet.com/people/blog/pure-genius/solar-concentrators-research-on-making-solar-power-cheaper/3521/http://www.smartplanet.com/people/blog/pure-genius/solar-concentrators-research-on-making-solar-power-cheaper/3521/http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/26/gravel-batteries-renewable-energy-storagehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/27/sahara-europe-solar-powerhttp://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-act/csiro-harnesses-sun-and-air-to-generate-electricity/story-e6freuzi-1225859646538http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-act/csiro-harnesses-sun-and-air-to-generate-electricity/story-e6freuzi-1225859646538http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-act/csiro-harnesses-sun-and-air-to-generate-electricity/story-e6freuzi-1225859646538http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/27/sahara-europe-solar-powerhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/26/gravel-batteries-renewable-energy-storagehttp://www.smartplanet.com/people/blog/pure-genius/solar-concentrators-research-on-making-solar-power-cheaper/3521/http://www.innovalight.com/http://www.fastcompany.com/1629923/innovalight-sets-silicon-ink-solar-cell-efficiency-recordhttp://www.physorg.com/news191159758.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news191006013.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news190984617.htmlhttp://www.labspaces.net/103364/Purple_Pokeberries_Hold_Secret_to_Affordable_Solar_Power_Worldwide -
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Some of the ways other countries are using solar technology are discussed below.
USA
In USA they have come up with solar charging stations capable of producing enough energy
to charge some electric vehicles while they are parked. The station below produces is capable
of simultaneously charging 4 electric cars.
Solar powered battery charging station [EV-Charge America, 2011]
Ford made a deal!
Since electric cars are not all that green if they charge off a dirty coal grid, Ford teamed up
with SunPower to offer to its Focus EV customers a chance to install a 2.5-kilowatt rooftop
solar array that can produce 3,000 kilowatt hours of electricity annually, which would be
sufficient to drive 1,000 miles (1609Km) a month. This is at a price of $10, 000.8
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4.0PREVIOUS STUDIES ON EVs
At the moment we have no electric vehicles in Zimbabwe but there has been some designs
done on electric vehicles at UZ. One has been the design of an electric bus outside the
engineering faculty and the other a small two door vehicle at the Engineering workshop.
Other projects were also done to improve it by way of redesigning some of the parts. One
such recent project on the improvement of the electric bus was done in 2002 by Knowledge
Kuzhangaira, an electrical engineering student.
4.1 Designs in other countries
Most developed countries are into green fuel powered vehicles, for example, USA has a goal
from 2010 onwards, of increasing the number of electric vehicles, including buses and
commercial vehicles, being phased into transport plans around the world. The development
and improvement of battery technology is leading to a wide range of options coming to the
market. While some manufacturers explore fuel cell technology, the emphasis is on
electric/hybrid for the coming decade as there will be transition from petroleum as a source of
energy. However, battery-powered vehicles are forecast to make up less than 2.5% of the
world's fleet in 2015. There are currently 880 million vehicles on the roads; with 98% being
internal combustion vehicles and are contributing 40% of the planet's greenhouse gases.
UGANDA
The students at Makerere University made a Kiira EV at a cost of US$35, 000. The picture
below is the electric vehicle being test driven in Ugandan capital, Kampala. It was test driven
for about 4km at 65km/hr. The project was a success because of the injection of research
capital of about US$5 million for the University, inclusive of all other university research
projects.
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Despite this breakthrough and considering the economic situation of the country, there has
been some serious criticism from the public as they thought it was a waste of the resources
that could have been channelled to increase the food security in the country. Uganda is a
developing country just like Zimbabwe.
The Kiira EVDesign Specifications
2-Seater Electric Car 3000mm long, wheel base 2175mm, 1600mm wide and 1500mm high Front wheel Drive Aluminum-alloy chassis Target Speed 60 km/hr and Range 50 Km Curb and Cargo weight is 500kgs and 200kgs respectively
USA
Basically in Europe there is a wide range of motor manufacturing companies that are
exploring and leading in this new vehicle technology!
In USA a program to develop high-density, low cost batteries for EV and hybrid vehicles are
funded. This is done by the funding of the large scale production of lithium-ion battery
technology. The major hindrance in the uptake of the batteries lies in the size, cost, weight,
durability and safety of the battery. The US Department of Energy has funded researches byuniversities, federal laboratories and private sectors over new types of batteries.
http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/?page_id=133http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/?page_id=133http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/?page_id=133 -
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Major car manufacturing companies like Toyota, Ford, Nissan, etc are now embarking on
producing these green fuel cars. The only challenge is that the upfront costs are high.
The following electric vehicles are in the market.
Tesla
Released in 2009 900 pounds (408.2Kg) Li-cobalt battery pack Vehicle Cost US$109 000 Range 244mile range Acceleration 60mph in 4s
Coda sedan from Coda automotive
Lithium-ion battery pack (33.8kwh, 333V Lifecycle 8yrs, can be fully charged in6hrs)
Range 90-120miles Top speed 80mph Cost US$45 000
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Nissan leafspecifications
Cost US$36 171
The 2010/2011 Nissan Leaf is a medium-size hatchback that seats 4 adults and has a range of
more than 160km (100 miles) on a full charge, based on an urban driving cycle (US LA4). A
24 kWh pack of laminated Lithium-ion batteries from Nissan JV AESC delivers output of
more than 90kW to power a synchronous AC motor delivering 80 kW (107 hp) of power and
torque of 280 Nm (207 lb-ft). Top speed is 140 km/h (90 mph). The Nissan Leaf can be
charged up to 80% of its full capacity in just under 30 minutes with a quick charger. Charging
at home through a 200V outlet is estimated to take approximately 8 hours.9
Viability of Electric vehicles in South Africa
BMW launched a mini electric vehicle in South Africa as a trial (Dec 2011). There are 600
test vehicles of this type around the world, with real customers. This vehicle can accelerate
from 0 to 80km/h in 6 seconds. A feedback from one customer showed that for the travelled8,000km, a bill of R850 of electricity was charged.
To get a better comparison, let us take a March vehicle make with a fuel consumption of
4.7L/100km and compare the fuel cost with the BMW mini electric vehicle.
For the same range of 8,000km a March needs
4.7
100 8000 = 376
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Now the cost of a litre of petrol is US$ 1.42, therefore the cost of fuel becomes,
3761.42 = $ 533.92
At a current conversion rate of US$1: R8.33
US$533.92 is approximately R4 447.55 on fuel (the minimum possible).
This means that you have (R4 447.55 -R850=R3 597.55) extra on fuel.
So the amount of fuel saved is:
3597.55
4447.55 100% = 80.9%
This is however a test car! They are manufacturing one that will be sold to the public by
around 2014 which will obviously be better.
South Africa also developed locally an electric car in 2008. It was exhibited at the Paris
motor show. The Zero emission Joule is a 6-seater; multipurpose car that was designed by
Cape Town based Optimal Energy Association with legendary South African automotive
designer Keith Helfet. It uses a Lithium-ion battery pack that can power the vehicle for a total
range of 200km per charge and has an on-board charger which can be plugged on a 220Volt-home outlet. The Joule electric vehicle can be fully charged in 7 hours. This vehicle has a
regenerative braking technology.
Furthermore Eskom confirmed that South African grid has enough capacity to supply
electrical energy to millions of electric cars without affecting the customer base or requiring
additional infrastructure. Eskom has a vast amount of excess energy between 11pm and 6 am.
This allows these electric vehicles to be used more easily in the country. 10
So we see that there is a lot going on in the world of electric vehicles around the globe!
However the countries that are successfully embarking on this project are developed
countries with more stable economies. In Uganda only a test car was manufactured and not
on a national capacity to sell unlike USA for example, where electric vehicles are already on
the market.
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4.2 CURRENT MOTOR INDUSTRY POSITION
At the moment in Zimbabwe, Quest Motor Corporation and Willow vale Mazda Motor
industries are the only car assembling plants. We do not manufacture vehicles in Zimbabwe.
This is due to the fact that, there is need of extensive capital required to buy the machinery to
start to design and manufacture, and there are no personnel with adequate training to design
the vehicles. The later factor is, because there are no institutions offering the courses in
automotive engineering for example.
Willow vale Mazda Motor has the capacity to assemble any car but, at the moment they are
doing 3 makes which are: BT50 single cab, BT50 double cab and Mazda 3.
The current vehicle costs are as follows:
BT50 Single cab $26 000
BT50 Double cab $40 000
Mazda 3 $23 400
At these prices not many individuals can afford. Hence only corporate companies afford to
buy these vehicles for their top executive and some company operations.
5.0MARKET ANALYSIS AND MARKET CONCEPTThe sale of brand new vehicles is generally a credit sale. Due to the high prices of vehicles,
few can afford to buy with cash. A loan from a bank payable over a reasonable period of time
makes the purchase of brand new vehicles possible.
Three factors govern the purchasing of a brand new vehicle, which are:
I. High income levelsDue to the now reviving economy, not many earn salaries above US$ 1500. High incomes
means people can afford to repay the loans from the banks.
II. Liquidity + creditDue to the high cost of brand new vehicles, cash purchase is not possible, so there is need of
a loan. The more stable the economy the greater the loans available for disposal.
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III. Affordable financing-Here, we are talking of the interest rates on loans. In Zimbabwe many banks are offering
loans at around 18-30% interest against an ideal of
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6.0DISCUSSIONFrom the above mentioned factors, a model vehicle for Zimbabwe is difficult to come up
with, because people are after all-purpose vehicles. But for urban travelling only a 150km
range vehicle meets a greater percentage of the motorists.
A top speed of 120km/hr will suffice as many do not exceed this around the crowded CBDs.
This vehicle should be able to carry at most 6 people. Considering the weight of an average
human being to be 70kg, the total passenger weight would amount to 420kg.
To cater for these specifications a certain battery power and motor is required.
The total vehicle mass however should not exceed 1800Kg for better vehicle performance.
Considering the battery weight and possible weight, the chassis and electric motor should not
exceed a total weight of 1200Kg together.
In order to safely meet the range and speed of the vehicle a Lithium ion battery technology is
the best because of its above mention merits. However this is more expensive and not readily
available in Zimbabwe than a deep cycle lead acid battery. This is because lead acid batteries
are the only batteries being manufactured in Zimbabwe.
A more efficient yet cheaper motor is desirable. In Zimbabwe few companies manufacture
suitable electric motors for electric vehicles; hence it becomes more difficult to get one.
Generally a 3-phase electric motor is more expensive yet has many desirable functions like its
possibility to support regenerative breaking which extends the vehicle range by way of
generating electricity on breaking.
A single drive train is suitable as it is cost effective and yet adequately meets the design
specifications.
The Toyota Prius is a hybrid vehicle which has solar modules added to it to improve range. The
solar modules are rated at 200-300 watts, and this power is utilized to charge a supplemental
battery. With the solar roof, the Toyota Prius can operate up to 20 miles per day in electric mode.
The system costs $2000-$4000 and the payback time is said to be 2-3 years.
So we can improve the range or reduces the size of the batteries used on our make but at the
expense of total vehicle cost.
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Solar panels can also be used in building solar charging stations even at home, like what Ford
is proposing. The cost now is still high as seen from the deal Ford made with SunPower.
The major setbacks for adoption of electric vehicles are:
The high upfront cost of EVs due to the high battery costs and the charging systemwhich needs to be set up for example the above mention vehicle which costs US$22
000 if running on Internal Combustion Engine versus the US$39 200 for the
equivalent electric vehicle.
The market reluctance to change its lifestyle- many people are used to travel freeanywhere anytime without mainly proper planning that is required for an electric
vehicle.
Current power shortages in the country- as indicated earlier, there is a deficit of965MW of energy which is resulting in load shedding around the country. Hence, the
electric vehicle no longer qualify as a sustainable transportation system as discussed
in the introduction. If there is no electricity then the following day one has to find an
alternative transport.
People do not want to be restricted in terms of distance that can be covered percharge, even though they travel far much less distances,
People generally earn low incomes in Zimbabwe. This means the more expensive yetlimiting electric vehicle is not affordable to a greater number of commuters.
The cost of establishing solar charging stations is still high. This is to allow chargingof the EVs away at home, usually in car parks.
There is need of training personnel to manufacture the vehicles as this is a newtechnology in Zimbabwe. Programs like automotive engineering have to be
introduced in the colleges or universities in Zimbabwe.
The cost of securing proper machinery is still very high. This is contrasted by the lowrate of return due to the small market.
One of the best models on the market so far is the Nissan leaf which has the specifications
mentioned earlier. To get an estimate of break even for electric vehicles we will use this
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vehicle together with a vehicle of similar comparable specifications. Let us compare the two
vehicles below for 20 000km. The Nissan leaf has a 24KWh battery pack.
Make Nissan leaf Nissan micra 1.2litre petrol
Vehicle price $36 171 $ 12 900
Fuel consumption US$0.15/KWh $1.42/litre
Range per charge 24KWh/160km 4.7L/100km
Cost per range $3.60 (24x0.15) $6.67 (1.42x4.7)
For 20 000km $720 (20000/100x3.60) $1 334 (20000/100x6.67)
From these calculations the break even occurs when:
36171 + 3.60 = 12900 + 6.67
Solving this equation we have
= 7580
At $3.60 we travel 100km, so for 3.60x7580 we travel 7580x100= 75 800km
So the break even is 75 800km.
For a motorist who travel say 100km a day for 365 days
Total mileage per annum is 100x365= 36 500km
So this car pays back after
75800
36500= 2.077
So the breakeven period for an electric vehicle is favourable!
This means after about 2 years you will be saving on fuel!
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7.0ConclusionConsidering the above arguments and discussions a perfect model for Zimbabwe would be
one that has the following components:
A maximum speed of 100km/hr is best as this is hardly attained in the urban areas dueto traffic jams during the day. More so because of technical limitations such as battery
voltage required to reach this maximum speed.
From the survey conducted the best model for Zimbabwe is one that is cheap sincemany people are low income earners. The reason why light vehicles are gaining
popularity in Zimbabwe is because these are less expensive to buy, maintain and run.
They are also very economic as they have very efficient fuel consumption. So
basically this lessens the challenge of trying to come up with a model that can
perfectly meet the market.
This project becomes viable provided the following conditions are rectified;
Electricity generation is improved to cater for the new technology since building ofsolar charging stations is expensive for our economy at the moment.
Funding is found to set up the machinery and to train the personnel to manufacturethese vehicles
The economy has improved so salaries are increased. This means more people canafford
Bank loans are increased both in amount and tenure. Intensive awareness of the effect of ICE engines to the environment specifically in
connection with global warming,
Because people are not ready to have second cars until after many years, one that fits all
occasions is the best to start with. A plug in hybrid vehicle meets the market needs more in
that it defines peoples travelling trends. Though this is more complex and hence more
expensive than an all-electric vehicle, it is cost effective in that for short ranges a battery can
be used, for example all urban driving! Yet when one wants to travel a longer distance he/she
can safely rely on its combustion engine. This is a better entering wage for an all-electricvehicle to be introduced further on.
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8.0REFERENCESInternet sites
1 http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php/drive-train-3-options-
8327.html(22/05/2012)
2 Source:The Cost of Energy (http://s.tt/19kqD)
3Retrieved 24/04/12 onhttp://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/
4(www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12 )
5(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-
bnef-says.html-accesed 24/04/20126(http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-
vehicle-batteries/25933 accessed Tuesday 24/04/2012)
703/5/2012,http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118
8http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/transportation/blogs/new-ford-focus-to-come-with-solar-
panels-for-your-home22/05
9http://www.post1.net/lowem/entry/2010_nissan_leaf_electric_car_specifications_107hp_24k
wh_lithium_ion_batteries_100_mile_range
10(www.southafrica.info/business/trends/newbusiness/joule-061008.htm) the joule: Africas
first all electric car.
http://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://www.southafrica/http://www.southafrica/http://www.southafrica/http://www.southafrica/http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqD -
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9.0APPENDIXAppendix A
Top speed of a vehicle is determined by the voltage available from the battery pack. For a
pick up 120V is sufficient to travel at 120km/hr according to
http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709
Range
This is governed by the energy from the battery pack.
A medium sized car needs about 640Wh/km and efficiency is around 400Wh/km.
To get total Wh required to travel a range of 200km we need
200x400= 80KWh
For a lead acid with 50% DOD, total battery energy required is 2X
This becomes 160Kwh
The battery rating is Volts x Ah
Therefore the Ah required= 160/120
=1 333Ah
This size of this battery weighs around 67kg/battery x 12batteries =804kg!
http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709 -
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APPENDIX B
Review of Alternative Energy transportation viability
in Zimbabwe Project
QEUSTIONNARE
Vehicle type / make.............................................................................
What is the average distance that you travel each day? ............................ Km
What time do you usually travel? __________________________________
How much carriage/luggage do you carry (if applicable)? ......................
For how much was your vehicle bought? ...............
The average costs in maintaining/servicing your vehicle per annum are.........................
How much fuel do you fill each day? .........................
The average speed you travel at is.....................................
Engine power
If you where to buy a vehicle what make would you prefer and why?
For how much would you buy? $
Do you think having an electric vehicle powered by batteries will be something worth?
______________________ at what cost are you ready to go for it?
If no please explain why...
______________________________________________________