bats and environmental impact assessment. methodological
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BATS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment
A manual for environmental experts and consultancies, planning authorities and developers
BATS AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and
strategic environmental impact assessment
A manual for environmental experts and consultancies, planning authorities and developers
Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, BelgradeBelgrade, 2011
IMPRESSUM
BATS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment
Authors: Milan Paunović, MScWildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade, and Natural History Museum in Belgrade
Branko KarapandžaWildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade
Sabina Ivanović, MSc Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia
Consultants: Herman Limpens and Eric JansenDutch Mammal Society (Zoogdiervereniging)
Editor: Aleksandar Vesić, Assistant Minister Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia
Photos: Branko Karapandža, Milan Paunović, Ines Švenda, Boyan Petrov (pp. 72-73, p. 86 bottom left, p. 87 top two), Primož Presetnik (p. 87 3rd from top, p. 91), Robert Brinkmann (p. 101 top two), Monika Podgorelec (p. 87 bottom), Ana Jančar (p. 96), Peter Twisk (p. 101 bottom), Luka Rubinjoni (p. 66), Đorđe Đoković (p. 68)
The drawings on pp. 98 and 100 were taken from the Dutch brochure “Bats and road construction” (Rijkswaterstaat – Dienst Weg- en Waterkunde, 2005), with the consent of its author – Peter Twisk
English translation: Željko Stanimirović
English text proofreading: Vesna Stamenković
English text reviewing: Jasna Rajić
Design and layout: Branko Karapandža
Printing: LithoArt Studio, Belgrade
Number of copies: 500 primeraka
Suggested citation: Paunović, M., Karapandža, B., Ivanović, S. (2011). Bats and Environmental Impact Assessment – Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment. Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, 1-142, Belgrade.
ISBN: 978-86-914719-1-0
All rights reserved. Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade
This manual is prepared within the project Bats and environmental impact assessment: tools for implementation of the European habitats directive and the EUROBATS agreement in Serbia, realized by Wildlife Conservation Society “Mustela” from Belgrade and the Dutch Mammal Society (Zoogdiervereniging), with the help of the Natural History Museum, Belgrade, and the support of the Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia.
The project was financed by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, under the BBI-Matra Action Plan Subsidy Scheme 2005-2008.
Ministry of Environment,Mining andSpatial Planning
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................................................................7
PRACTICAL SECTION ....................................................................................................................................................................11
Good practices in assessing the impact of projects/plans on bats ..........................................................12
Practical guideliness for competent government authorities ...................................................................24Decision on need for environmental impact assessment ................................................................24Decision on the scope and content of environmental impact assessment study ...................24Decision on the environmental impact assessment study approval ...........................................25Decision on the strategic assessment elaboration .............................................................................32Decision making on approval of the strategic assessment report ................................................32
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................................................33
International legislation relevant for conservation of bats ........................................................................34Convention on conservation of migratory wild species – The Bonn convention ....................34The agreement on the conservation of populations of European bats – EUROBATS ............35Convention on biological diversity – The Rio convention ................................................................36Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats – The Bern convention ......36European Union Directive [92/43/EEC] on the conservation of natural habitats and wild flora and fauna – Habitats Directive ................................................37
National legislation relevant for conservation of bats ..................................................................................38Law on environment protection ................................................................................................................38Law on nature protection ............................................................................................................................39
National legislation on environmental impact assessment relevant for bats ....................................42Law on environmental impact assessment ...........................................................................................42Law on strategic environmental impact assessment .........................................................................45
EXPERT SECTION ...........................................................................................................................................................................47
Bats of Serbia – basic information..........................................................................................................................48What are bats? ..................................................................................................................................................48Morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics ........................................................49Echolocation .....................................................................................................................................................51Diet .......................................................................................................................................................................52Habitats ...............................................................................................................................................................52Roosts ..................................................................................................................................................................54Circadian and annual life cycle ...................................................................................................................55All Serbian bats ................................................................................................................................................58Position in the nature ....................................................................................................................................59Threat status, protection and conservation ..........................................................................................60
Methods and techniques of bat research ...........................................................................................................62Analysis of the existing information - bibliography ...........................................................................63Roost inspection ..............................................................................................................................................64Analysis of the dead bat remains ..............................................................................................................65
5
Capture ...............................................................................................................................................................66Artificial roosts – bat houses .......................................................................................................................69Marking ...............................................................................................................................................................70Ultrasound audio-detection .......................................................................................................................74Molecular-genetic methods ........................................................................................................................79
Projects and plans for which (strategic) environmental impact assessment is needed .................80Management of underground habitats ..................................................................................................80Opening and expanding of quarries ........................................................................................................90Wind farms ........................................................................................................................................................91Road construction ...........................................................................................................................................98Construction of reservoir facilities .........................................................................................................102Forest management ....................................................................................................................................104Urban development ....................................................................................................................................107Restoration of protected cultural heritage buildings .....................................................................110
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................................................................................113
ANNEX I Species preference of habitat types (probability of the presence of species in habitat types) ...... 114
ANNEX II Significance of habitat types for life functions of bats in Serbia ...........................................................115
ANNEX III Possibility of adverse effects of certain activities on bats ........................................................................116
ANNEX IV Usefulness of methods in identification of functions of habitats for bats, and identification of bat presence (regardless of the species identification ...................................117
ANNEX V Usefulness of methods of identification of bat species .............................................................................118
ANNEX VI Usefulness of methods in various habitat types ...........................................................................................120
ANNEX VII Usefulness of methods in different months of the year ............................................................................121
ANNEX VIII Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia .......................................................................................122
ANNEX IX Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia and recommended research methods ........123
ANNEX X List of bat species in Serbia with their status in international and national legislation and global and national IUCN status ...................................129
ANNEX XI Glossary of bat expert terms and expressions ...............................................................................................130
ANNEX XII Institutions and authorities responsible for nature and bat conservation and environmental impact assessment in Serbia ........................................................................................132
ANNEX XIII Selected bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................138
CONTENTS
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Authors wish to express their gratitude to:
Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands for the financial support;
Our colleagues from the Dutch Mammal Society (Zoogdiervereniging) for the ideas, advice and patience;
Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia and the Natural History Museum in Belgrade for their support and expert help;
Ines Švenda, Boyan Petrov, Primož Presetnik, Robert Brinkmann, Monika Podgorelec, Ana Jančar and Peter Twisk for the kind approval to use their original photographs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
7
INTRODUCTION
What is the purpose of the manual?
To provide comprehensive synthesis of up-to-date • knowledge on bats in Serbia and present an adequate methodology for their study in relation to EIA
To help the conservation of bat populations in an • intensively changing environment, particularly in zones with direct conflicts of interest between bat conservation and planning/development
To help the experts involved in environmental impact • assessment and strategic environmental assessment, in order for their studies/reports to include applicable measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of negative impacts of projects/plans
To help Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial • Planning, as well as other responsible authorities, during evaluation of submitted studies/reports as they relate to bats
To introduce the investors and developers to the • needs and proper way of identifying and applying of solutions for reducing negative impact on bats in the conflict zones;
To facilitate the implementation of numerous legal • acts related to conservation of protected species.
Who are the intended users of this manual?
The experts of the Ministry of Environment, Mining and • Spatial Planning, Institutes for Nature Conservation and other responsible governmental and public institutions;
Investors, planners and developers, as well as the • experts involved in environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment;
Experts from the nongovernmental sector, general • public and other parties interested / which might be stakeholders in this topic.
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INTRODUCTION
How to use this manual?
Practical section • provides the procedural list of steps necessary for impact assessment proposed by projects, as well as the strategic environmental assessment regarding these plans and the bats living in the area of their realization. It presents a list of steps that should be undertaken in order to form an appropriate impact assessment of each plan/project on the bat population. They include reference charts, appropriate methods and periods of study and possible means of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of the harmful effects in the most problematic zones. This chapter also includes practical tools for assessing these studies/reports, and sums up the relevant legal remedies.
Legislation overview • includes all relevant international and national legislative acts that pertain to protection and conservation of bats. There is a special unit on natural legal ordinances on environmental impact assessment that pertain to bats.
Expert section• elaborates on all the important aspects of life cycle, specific biological characteristics and behavior of bats, as well as the principal methods of studying them. It presents the most common problem situations concerning the bat fauna in Serbia, as well as the recommended measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of these situations. Although they are not a direct subject of impact assessments, the additional data on forest-dwelling and anthropophilic bats are also included, as they might be useful for planners, environmental experts and legislative institutions as a way of introducing them to the best ways of evading any conflicts with bats.
Annexes (Reference charts)• provide the he most important data on bats, organized according to the type of habitat, function, research methods, research periods and appropriate measures.
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INTRODUCTION
DISCLAIMER
Although all necessary measures and special care were taken during the preparation of this manual in order to make the content as precise and useful as possible, the authors and all third parties participating in its preparation do not take upon themselves any legal responsibility for eventual losses or damage that might happen if these manual are used and studies and assessments performed by any persons and institutions lacking the appropriate qualifications, experience and permits for working with bats. All the presented case studies, regulations and rules match the national and international laws. The main goal of this manual is to present the practical and legally founded advice in the most common conflict situations faced in the field of bat conservation. In most cases, the scientific data has been simplified in order to make the text easier to comprehend. This manual should never be used as a guidebook for performing scientific studies on bats without the additional knowledge, expertise, permits and opinions of institutions working in these fields.
This manual also include presently known measures that may be used for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of impact of planning, construction and functioning of infrastructure on bats and nature in general, but the authors strongly advise that these measures are constantly developing and that it is necessary to constantly look for and implement new knowledge. The measures should be based on functionality of bat habitats at the studied site and directed toward solution of particular defined problems. The measures presented in this manual are based on international experience, but they have been modified through discussion, cooperation and thematic workshops with international consultants and experts and all interested stakeholders in Serbia, so this international knowledge would be better adapted to specific situations and conditions in Serbia.
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PRACTICAL SECTION
GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING THE IMPACT
OF PROJECTS/PLANS ON BATS
PRACTICAL GUIDELINESS
FOR RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITIES
12
PRACTICAL SECTION
GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF PROJECTS/PLANS ON BATS
Environmental impact assessment studies and Strategic environmental assessment reports should include a section pertaining to the bats, explaining the possible impact of particular development project/plan on bat populations and species inhabiting or using the project/planning area. In order to prepare a successful impact assessment of a project/plan on bats, it should inevitably fulfill certain conditions outlined in the Law on environmental impact assessment / Law on strategic environmental assessment and other legislations under these laws. In the further text, these conditions are presented as a list of questions that should be answered in a impact assessment in order for the potential impacts of certain project/plan on bats to be adequately assessed.
At the same time, these questions also represent the steps that must be taken while planning a good impact assessment on bats, and may be used by environmental exerts or agencies performing studies on impact assessment as guidelines for preparing the offers for bat surveys, as they are an integral part of assessment studies on impact by particular projects, in the section pertaining to bats.
These questions may also help the investors/developers to determine if a certain offer for bat survey (which is an integral part of the impact assessment study) and the finnished study/report are satisfactory. In other words, on one hand it is possible to determine if a certain proposal of bat survey is well planned and able to provide answers to these questions, while on the other hand it is possible to estimate if the finished study/report provides answers to these questions. The questions may also be useful to an investor when submitting an application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment and an application for a decision on the scope and content of the EIA study.
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PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX I p. 114
ANNEX III p. 116
In the same way these questions may be useful for competent government authorities in deciding on the need for an impact assessment, on the scope and content of the EIA study and on EIA study approval (and Technical Commissions during the procedure of EIA Study evaluation), as well as when deciding on need for strategic environmental assessment, reviewing the reports on strategic environmental assessment and deciding on Strategic environmental assessment reports approval.
IS THE PRESENCE OF BATS PROVEN OR POSSIBLE AT
THE SITE OR IN THE VICINITY OF THE SITE OF THIS
PROJECT/PLAN?
If precise data on bats at a certain site is missing (which is most often the case in Serbia), see ANNEX I. It includes the details on species that may be expected in various habitats, so if only the habitat data is known it is possible to form some picture of what may be expected at the site. The basic data on the site, including the habitats, should be included in the documentation submitted by the project developer (in an application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment or in an application on the scope and content of the EIA study). It is also possible to consult topographic and vegetation maps, as well as the relevant satellite pictures available to public (for example Google Earth).
IS THERE A POSSIBILITY THAT BAT HABITATS AND
ACTIVITIES AT THE SITE OR IN VICINITY OF THE SITE OF
THIS PROJECT/PLAN MIGHT BE INFLUENCED BY THIS
PROJECT/PLAN, CAUSING POSSIBLE CONFLICTS?
Compare the basic data on characteristics of the project/plan and activities planned for all stages of realization of this project/plan (research and planning, construction, operation and decommission of the infrastructure in question), which should be included in the documentation submitted by the project deveoler (in an application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment or in an application on the scope and content of the EIA study), with the ANNEX III.
1
2
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PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX II p. 115
ANNEX II p. 116
3WHAT FUNCTION MAY THE HABITATS AT THE SITE OR IN
VICINITY OF THE SITE OF THE PROJECT/PLAN HAVE FOR
(POTENTIALLY) PRESENT BATS?
When there is a lack of exact information on bats at a certain site (which is most often the case in Serbia) see ANNEX II. Special attention should be paid to the most important functions of the habitats for the (potentially) present bats: roosts (presence of nursery, mating, hibernation, and transitory roosts), flight paths (local, migration), and hunting areas. The exact information on function of a habitat for bats at a certain site is as a rule lacking in Serbia, except for those sites that include some of the important colonies/roosts. Therefore, the function of a habitat may be indirectly determined according to the existing information on habitats and their already known functions for bats. For example, areas with potentially high insect concentration may be important hunting areas (forest glades, fragments of forest and shrub vegetation in open areas, water surfaces); linear elements of landscape may be important local flight paths (alleys, hedges, waterways, roads) while the valleys of larger rivers and canals may be important migration routes.
IN WHAT WAYS MAY THE HABITATS AND ACTIVITIES OF
BATS (POTENTIALLY) PRESENT AT THE SITE OR VICINITY
OF THE SITE OF THE PROJECT/PLAN BE INFLUENCED BY
THE PROJECT/PLAN?
In this step it is necessary to determine and assess all potential impact of the project/plan on bat species and populations, their activities and functionality of the habitat, as well as the possible conflicts. Therefore, this analysis is usually called the preliminary conflict analysis, and it is performed based on information gathered in the previous phases (questions and steps 1-3).
In the preliminary analysis of conflict between certain activities and life functions of bats the ANNEX III might be useful.
4
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PRACTICAL SECTION
The potential impacts/conflicts depend on one hand on the activities proposed by the project/plan, and on the other hand on specific ecological characteristics of present species and populations of bats at the particular site. The conflict analysis should include all phases of the project – research and planning, construction, operation and decommission, as well as all the aspects and activities within these phases. This analysis should also include all the possible functions of certain habitats for specimens of all (potentially) present bat species, during all phases of their life cycle, particularly: roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes. The following table might be helpful in this analysis:
Network of functional habitat units
Project phases and activities
Research and
planningConstruction Operation Decommission
Act
ivit
y 1
...A
ctiv
ity N
Act
ivit
y 1
...
Act
ivit
y N
Act
ivit
y 1
...
Act
ivit
y N
Act
ivit
y 1
...
Act
ivit
y N
Ro
ost
s
Hibernation
Nursery
Mating
Transitory
Hu
nti
ng Hunting areas
Most important food production areas
Fli
gh
t p
ath
s Roosts – hunting areas (daily)
Hunting areas – hunting areas (daily)
Roosts – roosts (regular + seasonal)
Mig
rati
on
ro
ute
s
Summer roosts – winter roosts (local populations)
Summer roosts/habitats winter roosts/habitats (migratory populations)
Co
nn
ect
ivit
y
Population – population (seasonal)
Area of occurrence – area of occurrence
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PRACTICAL SECTION
6
IS THE EXISTING INFORMATION SUFFICIENT FOR THE FINAL
CONFLICT ANALYSIS AND COMPLETE ASSESSMENT OF
THE IMPACT THE PROJECT/PLAN MAY HAVE ON BATS?
The information collected in steps 1-3 and the
analysis in Step 4 enable the researcher to determine if
the existing knowledge is sufficient for the final analysis
of the conflicts and assessment of the impact that the
particular project/plan may have on bats. In order to
perform a satisfactory conflict analysis it is necessary
to know the identity of bat species (potentially) present
at the site and the ecological function of the habitats
and landscapes at the site for these bats. The most
important information considers the presence or absence
of important roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and
migration routes. If there is no data on bats for a certain
site or if it is not satisfactory, as it is most often the case
in Serbia, further assessment procedure on the impact
of a particular project/plan should include collecting
necessary information through field research.
WHAT INFORMATION MUST BE COLLECTED THROUGH
FIELD RESEARCH?
Information collected in steps 1-3 and the preliminary
conflict analysis (Step 4) are necessary in order to
determine not only if the existing knowledge is sufficient
for the final analysis of conflicts and assessment of the
impact of a certain project/plan on bats, but also of the
nature of the data on bats necessary for the assessment
of the impacts in a reliable and well-justified manner.
The field research of bats at the actual site, within the
process of impact assessment, should be designed in a
way that would provide this very information.
As the potential impacts depend on the activities
proposed in the project/plan, the field research should
be focused on those ecological functions of habitats
5
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PRACTICAL SECTION
and landscape at the site and its immediate vicinity that are important to bats (particularly the roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes) and may be influenced by proposed activities where conflict is expected. For example if the project/plan proposes the removal of a fragment of forest vegetation from a certain part of the site (or a specified individual tree), the study should determine the function of that exact fragment or individual tree for present bats (all present species and populations) – are there any roosts and what is their character and importance, is the microlocation a significant hunting area etc. Some activities may even lead to direct death of individuals, in scope and importance level depending on characteristics and intensity of bat activity at the site and its immediate vicinity.
Depending on the activities proposed by the plan/project and possible conflicts on one hand, and existing information on other hand, the necessary outcome of field research must include:
Which species of bats are present and which are absent • at the particular site;
Presence and positions of roosts, numbers and composition • of colonies in the roosts;
Presence and positions of hunting areas, relative • numbers and intensity of hunting activity of present species;
Presence and positions of flight paths, relative numbers • and intensity of activity of present species at certain flight paths;
Presence and positions of migration routes, relative • numbers and intensity of activity of present species at certain routes;
Seasonal dynamics of all these aspects of presence and • activities of bats.
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PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX V p. 118
ANNEX IV p. 117
ANNEX VI p. 120
ANNEX VII p. 121
7WHAT IS THE PROPER WAY TO PERFORM APPROPRIATE
FIELD RESEARCH?
There are various methods of field research on
bats. Each of them has its own specific characteristics
and may provide different information in a qualitative
and quantitative sense, and they also vary in efficiency.
Each method may have advantages and disadvantages
regarding the possibility and precision of identification
of species (ANNEX V) and functions of habitats
(ANNEX IV), as well as the possibilities of use in
different habitat types (ANNEX VI) and/or different
seasons (ANNEX VII).
In order to form as complete a picture as possible
on the presence of bat species at a given site and their
use of habitats and landscape, during the field research
it is necessary to use appropriate combinations of
methods, with proper dynamics and intensity of study.
Which combination of methods will be chosen and
implemented depends on the information necessary for
impact assessment (Step 6), as well as on the ecological
characteristics of each site – present habitat types,
potentially present species and ecological functions of
site for these species.
Keeping all these factors in mind, it is necessary
to prepare a proper plan of field studies, including
definition of:
proper combination of methods•
proper intensity of study (number of work days/•
nights per week or month, number of researchers
employed)
proper (seasonal) dynamics of research•
proper spatial distribution of research (the area and •
elements of space that should be surveyed)
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PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX IV p. 117
ANNEX V p. 118
ANNEX VI p. 120
ANNEX VII p. 121
ANNEX V p. 118
ANNEX IX p. 123
ANNEX IV p. 117
ANNEX VII p. 121
ANNEX VI p. 120
In the preparation of a proper plan of field research, ANNEXES IV-VII might be useful. General recommendations on research methodology in EIA studies of certain types of projects/plans are presented in more detail in this manual, within special chapters for each particular type of project.
The research plan should fulfill at least minimal quality standards:
The combination of methods used should reliably prove • or disprove the presence of any and all potentially present species (ANNEXES V and IX);
The necessary methods must be applied with certain • intensity in order to achieve high reliability in proving or disproving the presence of all potentially present species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them (ANNEX IV) which may be influenced by the project/plan;
It is necessary to apply appropriate methods in • appropriate seasons, in order to reliably prove or disprove the presence of all potentially present species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them (ANNEX VII) that may be affected by the impact of project/plan;
It is necessary to apply appropriate methods in • appropriate habitat types, in order to reliably prove or disprove the existence of all potentially present species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them (ANNEX VI) that may be affected by the impact of project/plan;
It is necessary for the research to include a period long • enough, all seasonal aspects and the whole area where impact of project/plan on all potentially present bat species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them may be expected.
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PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX I p. 114
ANNEX VIII p. 122
ANNEX IX p. 123
8
If a certain research plan does not fulfill the cited standards (for example, it does not use standard methods, does not include all seasonal aspects or all habitat types at the site etc.), it is necessary to provide a clear explanation why it is still believed that such a plan of research may provide sufficient assessment of impact of that particular project/plan.
Field studies are performed according to a research plan and should fulfill the same criteria and quality standards.
All details on methodology (methods, intensity, dynamics, scope) used during the research must be elaborated in the report/study on impact assessment in a clear manner and sufficient detail. It is particularly important to provide a clear explanation why a research plan that does not fulfill the cited standards would be able to provide a satisfactory impact assessment for the particular project/plan.
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF THE
SITE POTENTIALLY INFLUENCED BY THE PROJECT/PLAN
FOR BATS?
In this step it is necessary to perform an analysis and evaluation of the presence of bats in the area potentially influenced by the project/plan. These analyses and evaluation are performed according to the information collected in steps 1-3, data collected through field research, relevant literature and the specialist knowledge of the bat expert who is performing the environmental impact assessment or strategic environmental assessment.
It is necessary to perform the following in a clear manner with a good data foundation:
The general analysis and evaluation of present state of • bat fauna and each of the species present in the area potentially influenced by the project/plan, compared to the situation on the regional and national (it may be aided by ANNEXES I, VIII and IX), and in certain cases even on the international level;
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PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX I p. 114
ANNEX VIII p. 122
ANNEX IX p. 123
9
The general ecological analysis and evaluation of proven • and potential ecological functions of habitats for each of the present bat species, (particularly) at the site potentially influenced by the project/plan;
Detailed analysis and evaluation of determined ecological • functions of habitats for bats (particularly the roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes) in the area potentially influenced by the project/plan, separately for each present species (with the help of the data from ANNEXES I, VIII and IX).
WHAT ARE THE EXPECTED IMPACTS OF PROJECT/PLAN
ON BATS AND THEIR HABITATS, AND WHAT IS THEIR
SIGNIFICANCE?
According to all the collected data (steps 1-3, field research), the preliminary conflict analysis (step 4), analysis and evaluation in step 8, relevant literature and knowledge and experience of a bat expert, it is possible to make a reliable identification of possible impacts of project/plan on bats (the particular activities proposed by project/plan) and to assess their significance. This is actually the final conflict analysis, representing both the evaluation of the preliminary conflict analysis (step 4) and its addition, so the table used for the preliminary analysis may be used here as well, and ANNEX III can also be helpful.
It is necessary to make an argument-based assessment of impacts of the activities proposed by the project/plan and to judge their significance for:
roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes • present in the project/plan area;
functionality of certain parts and elements of habitats • and landscape where it was proven or where there are strong indications that bats are using them;
species and local and migratory populations (particularly • the possibility of fatalities).
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PRACTICAL SECTION
10WHAT ARE THE APPROPRIATE MEASURES FOR AVOIDANCE,
MITIGATION AND COMPENSATION OF ADVERSE EFFECTS
OF PROJECT/PLAN ON BATS AND THEIR HABITATS?
According to all previously collected data and performed analyses, the relevant literature and e knowledge and experience of a bat expert, it is necessary to develop and proposed concrete measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of the project/plan on bats and their habitats.
In order to develop appropriate measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of the project/planfor bats and their habitats it is necessary to have immense expert knowledge that includes:
excellent knowledge and understanding of ecological • specific features of all present bat species;
excellent knowledge and understanding of habitat and • landscape functions to bats;
understanding the possible effects on bats by changes and • activities/interventions in habitats and landscapes;
understanding and good knowledge of latest information • on ways of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of harmful impacts.
It is also necessary to have a very good knowledge of:
specific features of the situation in the particular area • potentially affected by the project/plan, and particularly its function and importance for bats;
specific features of possible impacts of all aspects • and activities of the particular project/plan during all phases (research and planning, construction, operation and decommission).
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PRACTICAL SECTION
It should also be noted that the specific features of the present bat community and the specific features of certain activities proposed by project/plan might cause the need for developing different measures for different species or species groups.
It is preferable to have the measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects (needed to complete the report/study) already developed during the planning/development stage of the project/plan, as they will be ready to be included in the project/plan and implement more efficiently (in coordination with the investor/planner), and consequently yield better results and have a better effect.
The guidelines for developing adequate avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures for certain types of projects/plans are presented in more detail in this manual, within special chapters for each particular type of project.
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PRACTICAL SECTION
Legal foundation
Law on environmental impact assessment
Articles 4, 8, 9, 10 and 12.
Ordinance on determining the List of projects for which
an impact assessment is mandatory and the List of
projects for which an impact assessment may be required.
Rulebook on content of application for a decision
on the need for an impact assessment and content of
application for a decision on the scope and content of
the environmental impact assessment study
PRACTICAL GUIDELINESS FOR COMPETENT GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES
In this section, legal procedures regarding the actions of the competent government authorities in certain phases of the environmental impact assessment and the environmental impact assessment, have been put to practice in such a way as to include bats, adequately and as simple as possible.
DECISION ON NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTDECISION ON THE SCOPE AND CONTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDY(including Impact assessment of the current status)
KEY QUESTION:
Is it possible to expect/estimate that this project may
have significant or possible impact on bats?
This question consists of two sub-questions:
Are bats present or is it possible that they are present 1. at the project site or in its vicinity?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 1 p. 13 ANNEX I p. 114
Is it possible that bat habitats and activities at the 2. project site or its vicinity may be affected by this project – is there a possibility of conflicts?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 2 p. 13 ANNEX III p. 116
If the answer on both these sub-questions is YES, it should be officially determined that the project may have a significant or possible impact on bats and that environmental impact assessment SHOULD BE REQUIRED, and that bats SHOULD BE INCLUDED in the environmental impact assessment.
I
II
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PRACTICAL SECTION
Legal foundation
Law on environmental impact assessment, Articles 17, 23 and 24
Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study
Legal foundation
Law on environmental impact assessment, Article 17, Line 1, point 5)
Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study Article 3, Line 1, point 5) Article 6, Line 1, point 2)
DECISION ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDY APPROVAL
(including the EIA Study evaluation procedure)
In order for the environmental impact assessment study, which according to the Decision on scope and content of EIA study has to include bats, to get a positive evaluation in part pertaining to bats and therefore get an approval of competent authorities, it must fulfill the relevant criteria prescribed by Law on environmental impact assessment, Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study and Decision on content and scope of study. These criteria have been implemented for bats here in form of questions that must be answered in unambiguous manner by the EIA study, and steps that should be taken during the procedure of evaluation of EIA study, in order for the study to be approved in the part concerning bats.
WERE PRESENCE OF BATS AND FUNCTIONS OF HABITATS
AND LANDSCAPE FOR BATS AT THE PROJECT SITE RELIABLY
PROVEN OR EXCLUDED IN APPROPRIATE WAY?
This question consists of three sub-questions:
Was research on bats performed by using adequate 1.
methodology?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 7 p. 18 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF BAT RESEARCH p. 62
Only with use of adequate methodology it is possible to RELIABLY determine or exclude presence of bats and function of habitats and landscape for bats.
If in the EIA study there are any aspects of methodology NOT CLEARLY STATED, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study.
III
1
26
PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX V p. 118
ANNEX IX p. 123
ANNEX I p. 114
ANNEX IV p. 117
ANNEX VI p. 120
ANNEX VII p. 121
The adequate methodology includes:
Use of methods that can reliably prove or exclude • (ANNEXES V and IX) presence of expected species (ANNEX I);
Use of methods that may reliably prove or exclude • presence of life functions of habitats and landscape for bats (ANNEX IV);
Use of methods matching the habitat conditions at the • particular site (ANNEX VI);
Appropriate dynamics (ANNEX VII);•
Appropriate spatial coverage and intensity of research.•
If the methodology is NOT ADEQUATE for any of the cited reasons, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study, which will include ADDITIONAL RESEARCH with use of adequate methodology. In case of any dilemma regarding the methodology, it is necessary to consult a bat expert.
If all aspects of research methodology are CLEARLY PRESENTED AND ADEQUATE, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
Was presence of any bats recorded at the project site?2.
If the PRESENCE of bats at the site (and close vicinity of site) was RELIABLY EXCLUDED (if it was not proven by using adequate methodology), the study should be POSITIVELY EVAULATED and the decision GRANTING THE APPROVAL of the EIA study adopted. In case of dilemma that might appear when presence of bats was expected (ANNEX I) but not proven, it is necessary to consult a bat expert.
If PRESENCE of bats at the site (and closer vicinity) was PROVEN, an integral part of EIA study must be the SPECIES LIST of bats. If the list of determined species (with application of adequate methodology) shows significant differences from the expected conditions (ANNEXES I, VIII and IX), the study must include a proof-based comment/explanation of recorded condition.
27
PRACTICAL SECTION
If the study DOES NOT INCLUDE THE SPECIES LIST AND APPROPRIATE DISCUSSION of comparison between expected and determined conditions, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma, a bat expert should be consulted.
If the study DOES INCLUDE THE SPECIES LIST AND APPROPRIATE DISCUSSION of comparison between expected and determined conditions, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
Were functions of habitats and landscapes as pertaining 3.
to bats positively proven at the project site?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 8 p. 20
Without the reliably determined functions that habitats and landscapes of project site (and close vicinity) have for present bat species, it is impossible to perform a well-founded assessment of this project’s impact on bats. Therefore, it is necessary for the study to state in a clear, well-explained manner the positions and importance of determined and potential ecological functions of habitats at the site (and closer vicinity) for bats, and especially: roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes.
If the study DOES NOT CONTAIN THE REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS OF HABITATS at this site for bats, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma that may appear if the determined ecological functions are significantly different from usual (ANNEX IX), a bat expert should be consulted.
If the study DOES CONTAIN THE REPRESENTATION OF ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF HABITATS at this site for bats, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
28
PRACTICAL SECTION
Legal foundation
Law on environmental impact assessment
Article 17, Line 1, point 6)
Rulebook on content of environmental impact
assessment study.Article 7, Line 1, points 4) and 8)
.
2IS IT POSSIBLE TO MAKE A WELL-FOUNDED ASSESSMENT
THAT THE PROJECT MAY HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE
EFFECT ON BATS?
This question consists of three sub-questions:
Was the performed analysis of possible impacts of this 1.
project on bats complete?
A complete analysis of possible impacts of the project on bats and evaluation of their significance must include:
all phases of the project (research and planning, • construction, operation and decommission);
all activities proposed by the project;•
all project alternatives;•
regarding:
all species and populations of bats determined at the • site (and in the close vicinity);
all determined and possible functions of habitats • and landscape at the site (and close vicinity) for bats (particularly: roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes).
Impact analysis not addressing all these aspects of project and presence of bats cannot be considered complete.
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 4 p. 14 GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 9 p. 21
If IMPACT ANALYSIS WAS NOT COMPLETE, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma, a bat expert should be consulted.
If the study INCLUDES A COMPLETE IMPACT ANALYSIS, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
29
PRACTICAL SECTION
ANNEX III p. 116
Was the significance of all possible impacts of the 2.
project on bats adequately evaluated with proper
proofs?
Significance of all possible impacts of the project on all determined aspects of presence and life of all recorded bat species should be clearly evaluated with proper proofs.
If ADEQUATE PROOF-BASED IMPACT EVALUATION WAS NOT PERFORMED, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma that may appear if evaluations of impact of certain activities are significantly different from the usual values (ANNEX III), a bat expert should be consulted.
If ADEQUATE PROOF-BASED IMPACT EVALUATION WAS PERFORMED in the study, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be, CONTINUED.
Was it estimated that the project may have a significant 3.
adverse effect on bats and determined functions of
habitats and landscapes for them?
If it was assessed (by using well-proven facts) that the project DOES NOT HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECT on bats at the site (and close vicinity), the study should be POSITIVELY EVAULATED and the decision GRANTING THE APPROVAL of the EIA study adopted.
If it was assessed (by using well-proven facts) that the project MAY HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECT on bats at the site (and close vicinity), The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
30
PRACTICAL SECTION
Legal foundation
Law on environmental impact assessment,
Article 17, Line 1, point 8) Article 23, Line 1
Rulebook on content of environmental impact
assessment study.Article 9, Line 1
3DOES THE STUDY CONTAIN A COMPLETE AND ADEQUATE
PROPOSAL OF AVOIDANCE, MITIGATION AND COMPENSATION
MEASURES OF ADVERSE EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT ON BATS?
This question consists of two sub-questions:
Is the study containing the full description of measures 1.
for avoidance, mitigation and compensation?
In order for the proposal of measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any significant adverse effects of the project on bats to be complete, it must include the measures pertaining to all identified more important impacts of this project on bats and functions of habitats and landscape for bats.
If the DESCRIPTION OF MEASURES for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of this project on bats is INCOMPLETE, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study.
If the DESCRIPTION OF MEASURES for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of negative impacts of this project on bats is COMPLETE, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
Are the avoidance, mitigation and compensation 2.
measures suggested in the study adequate?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 10 p. 22
Adequate measures are those that are efficient and appropriate to identified impacts, particularly regarding:
the ecological features of bat species;•
determined specific features of presence and activity • of bat species and populations at the site (and in the close vicinity);
specific characteristics of the project.•
The guidelines for developing adequate avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures for certain types of projects are presented in detail in this manual, within special chapters for each particular type of project.
31
PRACTICAL SECTION
Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment, Article 20 Article 23, Line 1
Legal foundation
Law on environmental impact assessment,
Article 24, Line 2,Article 31, Article 35,Article 36, Line 1, point 5)Article 37, Line 1, points 4)-7)
4
If the suggested MEASURES of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of particular project on bats ARE NOT ADEQUATE (i.e. do not match the recommendations for particular type of project outlined in these manual), it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma, a bat expert should be consulted.
If the study is indeed suggesting ADEQUATE MEASURES of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of particular project on bats, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.
WAS THERE ANY NEW IMPORTANT AND VALID INFORMATION
PROVIDED DURING THE PUBLIC HEARING?
Information collected during the public hearing should be compared with the EIA study and their validity checked according to criteria/questions 1-3 in this questionnaire, while in case of any dilemma a bat expert should be consulted.
If the PUBLIC HEARING HAS PROVIDED NEW IMPORTANT AND VALID INFORMATION, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study.
If the PUBLIC HEARING DID NOT PROVIDE NEW IMPORTANT AND VALID INFORMATION, the study should be POSITIVELY EVAULATED and the decision GRANTING THE APPROVAL of the EIA study adopted, setting out specifically the conditions and measures, which should be undertaken to avoid, mitigate and compensate adverse effects of the project on bats.
***After the study on impact assessment is approved,
it is necessary to consistently implement CHECKING THE FULFILLMENT and SUPERVISION OVER THE FULFILLMENT OF CONDITIONS set out in approval, and particularly measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of particular project on bats.
32
PRACTICAL SECTION
Legal foundation
Law on strategic environmental impact assessment
Article 9, Line 1 Article 6 Annex I
Legal foundation
Law on strategic environmental impact assessmentArticles 21 and 22
Annex II
DECISION ON THE STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT E L A B O R AT I O N
Competent environmental protection authority provides a recommendation/opinion upon which the competent planning authority, shall make the decision on the strategic assessment elaboration.
KEY QUESTION:
Is it possible to expect/estimate that this plan/program
may have a significant impact on bats?
This question consists of two sub-questions:
Are bats present or probably present within the 1. planning area?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 1 p. 13 ANNEX I p. 114
Is it possible that this plan/program will significantly 2. affect bat habitats and activities?
See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 2 p. 13 ANNEX III p. 116
If the answer is YES to both questions, it should be officially stated that this plan/program may have a significant impact on bats, so the recommendation/opinion should state that strategic environment impact assessment is NECESSARY and SHOULD INCLUDE bats.
DECISION MAKING ON APPROVAL OF THE STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT REPORT (including the evaluation of the strategic assessment report)
The competent environmental protection authority evaluate the strategic assessment report and decides on approval of the strategic assessment report,
The list of questions developed for environmental impact assessment may be also used for evaluation of the strategic assessment report.
See: DECISION ON THE EIA ASSESSMENT APPROVAL III p. 25.
I
II
LEGISLATION
OVERVIEW
INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION
RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS
NATIONAL LEGISLATION
RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS
NATIONAL LEGISLATION
ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
RELEVANT FOR BATS
34
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
The European Bat Night
The European Bat Night (EBN) is organized simultaneously in almost all European countries
each year, for 14 years running. The initiative came from within theEUROBATS
Agreement. The goal of The EBN is popularization of these
flying mammals, introducing the public to the specific
details of their way of life, as well as eliminating the
beliefs regarded these animals, which are often thought to
possess some unnatural and magical qualities. On the
EBN, educational events are organized in many European countries. In Serbia, Wildlife
Conservation Society “Mustela” and Natural History Museum organized the first European
Bat Night on August 25 2001 at Mali Kalemegdan in Belgrade,
and since then it has been traditionally celebrated every
year.
Detail from the European Bat Night in Belgrade
INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS
Many international agreements and contracts pertain to conservation of fauna and flora, certain elements or environment as a whole. Some of them have a direct or indirect goal of protection and conservation of bats or their habitats and roosts.
CONVENTION ON CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY WILD SPECIES (THE BONN CONVENTION)
This convention pertains to migratory species and those that regularly cross the political boundaries of countries. It prescribes joint activities of all countries where the migratory species spend at least one part of their life cycle within their borders, as it is recognized that the threatened migratory species may be successfully protected and safeguarded only if the protection measures are implemented along the whole migration route of these species.
Serbia has ratified the Bonn Convention in 2007 (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 102/07).
Appendix I of this convention includes species in danger of extinction, where capturing and use of this species is completely forbidden except in special and exceptional cases. Species listed in Appendix II are migratory species with unfavorable conservation status or ones that would benefit significantly from international cooperation that may be achieved with international agreements.
All European bat species are included in Appendix II.
The Convention allows for development of special agreements or memoranda of understanding in order to protect certain species. One of such instruments that include all European bat species is The Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (EUROBATS).
35
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
On the EUROBATS Secretariat
The EUROBATS Secretariat
was formed in 1995, at the
First Session of the Meeting
of Parties. Its activities
have started in 1996 and its
headquarters are located
with the Secretariat of the
Bonn Convention and other
institutions of the United
Nations in the field of
environmental protection and
development in Bonn, Germany.
Its particular functions are to:
serve as a point for •exchanging information, and
to co-ordinate international
research and monitoring
initiatives;
organize Meetings of the •Parties and the Advisory
Committee;
stimulate proposals for •improving the effectiveness
of the Agreement, and attract
more countries to participate
in and join the Agreement;
increase public awareness, •through all available
media, of the threats to bat
populations in Europe, and to
indicate the possible activities
towards their conservation.
THE AGREEMENT ON THE CONSERVATION OF POPULATIONS OF EUROPEAN BATS (EUROBATS)
This agreement is a special implementation document of the Bonn Convention. It was prepared in 1991 and became legally binding in 1994. Through legislation, education, measures of conservation and international cooperation of Parties to the Agreement and prospective future Parties, the goal of this Agreement is protection and conservation of European populations of all 52 species of bats that have been recorded in Europe recently.
Serbia has not yet joined this Agreement, but since 2000 is an active observer in the Advisory Committee. Inclusion in the Agreement is expected to take place in near future, as the European integrations include integration in the international system of nature conservation and protection.
The international action plan was formed in 1995 at the First Session of the Meeting of Parties to the Agreement. The Advisory Committee was established in order to monitor the implementation of action plans between the annual meetings of Parties. The most important activities of Advisory Committee are monitoring and international activities. The goal of Pan-European monitoring is to identify population trends and to facilitate the timely introduction of measures to address any problems that may be noticed during the monitoring. The study was based on representative species.
The international protection measures should primarily be directed at the species with the longest distance migrations over Europe, in order to identify and address possible dangers caused by certain phenomena or events during the migration. Therefore, the task of the Advisory Committee is to examine the available data on migration behavior of representative bat species. The results of these studies should lead to a comprehensive international program of conservation for the most threatened bat species in Europe.
36
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSIT Y ( THE RIO CONVENTION)
The countries signing this Convention are obliged to take measures of rehabilitation and renewal of degraded ecosystems and promotion of recovery of threatened species, through development and implementation of plans and other management strategies, with the goal of conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The signing Parties must also develop the necessary laws and/or other regulatory legislatives for conservation of the threatened species and populations. The Parties must also adopt measures of recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and their reintroduction into the natural habitats under appropriate conditions.
Serbia is a Party of this Convention since 1992. The Convention was ratified in 2001 and became legally valid in May 2002.
CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF EUROPEAN WILDLIFE AND NATURAL HABITATS ( THE BERN CONVENTION)
This convention pertains to conservation and protection of plant and animal species in nature and their natural habitats, particularly when said protection demands international cooperation.
Serbia has ratified this convention in 2007 (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 102/07).
Appendix I includes strictly protected species of flora under special legal and management conservation measures, including the ban on deliberate picking, collecting, cutting, uprooting, possession and sale. Appendix II includes strictly protected species of fauna under special legal and management conservation measures, including the ban on capturing, keeping, disturbance, deliberate killing, possession and sale. Appendix III includes a list of protected species of fauna under special conservation measures, including closed season and other measures of limited and regulated exploitation.
37
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
All bats are included in Appendix II, with the exception of species Pipistrellus pipistrellus, which was placed in Appendix III.
EUROPEAN UNION DIRECTIVE [92/43/EEC] ON THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL HABITATS AND WILD FLORA AND FAUNA (HABITATS DIRECTIVE)
This directive is an implementation instrument of the Bern Convention for countries that are member states of European Union. The directive obliges the member states of EU to provide adequate protection and conservation of wild flora and fauna and of natural habitats.
As a potential candidate for membership in EU, Serbia is still not obliged to implement the European Directive on Habitats and Species, but its parts are mostly either already included within the national regulations or their inclusion is presently being prepared.
This Directive prescribes determination of a network of special protected areas (NATURA 2000), necessary for conservation and protection of certain species of fauna and flora.
This Directive includes two categories of protected species:
Annex II • – Animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation. This annex includes 13 species of European bats: Rhinolophus blasii, Rh. euryale, Rh. ferrumequinum, Rh. hipposideros, Rh. mehelyi, Barbastella barbastellus, Myotis bechsteinii, M. blythii, M. capaccinii, M. dasycneme, M. emarginatus, M. myotis i Miniopterus schreibersii.
Annex IV • – Animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection. All bat species were included in Annex IV.
38
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
NATIONAL LEGISLATION RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS
According to the goal of Serbia to achieve the status of candidate for joining the European Union, followed by the full membership, as soon as possible, the national legislative in the field on environmental conservation was mostly harmonized with regulations of European Union over the last several years.
LAW ON ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 135/04, 36/09)
This is an umbrella law “determining the integral system of environmental conservation that will provide fulfillment of human right to life and development in healthy environment and a balanced relationship between the industrial development and natural environment” (Article 1, line 1). The key points for conservation of biodiversity and of flora and fauna are paragraphs 26 and 27.
Article 26, Line 1 and 2
Conservation of biosphere includes conservation of organisms, their associations and habitats, including the conservation of natural processes and natural balance within the ecosystems, with maintenance of their sustainability.
Biodiversity and the biological resources should be preserved and used in a way that enables their survival, diversity, renewal and enhancement in case of disruption.
Article 27, Line 2
It is forbidden to create disturbance, abuse, harm or destroy wild fauna and destroy its habitats.
In case when this regulation is broken, the Law implies misdemeanor responsibility with fine or imprisonment sentence (Article 118, Line 1, point 1) as well as right and duty of inspector to “prohibit destruction and damage on wild flora and fauna and on their habitats” (Article 111, Line 1, point 4).
39
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10)
“This law specifies conservation and protection of nature and biological, geological and landscape diversity as parts of natural environment.” (Article 1, Line 1). The object of conservation as specified in this law includes biological diversity, species, habitats, ecosystems (particularly forest, wetland and water ecosystems and habitats within the agroecosystems), landscapes and speleological objects.
Protection and conservation of wild species, Article 71
Protection and conservation of wild species includes prevention of all activities influencing the suitable conditions of populations of wild species, destruction or damage of their habitats, litters, nests or disruption of their life cycle or suitable conditions.
Suitable conditions for wild species are provided by protection of their habitats and preventive measures for certain species, in agreement with this law.
Protection of habitats of wild species; Article 72, Line 1
During the implementation of tasks and activities in nature and use of natural assets in habitats of wild species, it is necessary to use measures, methods and technical means that contribute to conservation of suitable conditions for these species, and do not pose a threat to wild species and/or disturb habitats of their populations; or these tasks and activities may be limited in the period matching important phases of their life cycle.
Articles 36, 48, 73 and 74
Regulation on proclamation and protection of strictly protected and protected wild species of plants, animals and fungi (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 5/10)
Out of 29 species identified in Serbia, 28 species (all except Myotis alcathoe) have a status of strictly protected wild species throughout the territory of Serbia. “It is forbidden to use, destroy or perform any other activities that may endanger the strictly protected species of plants, animals and fungi or their habitats” (Article 74).
40
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
Measures of protection for migratory species, Article 80
Public roads and other types of traffic lines, telecommunication and electric energy systems, hydro-construction and other objects where construction cuts through the usual corridors of circadian and seasonal migrations of wild animals, causes fragmentation of habitats or otherwise disrupts their normal life cycle, have to be constructed in such a way to diminish the negative effects, with use of special construction and technical-technological solutions in objects and their vicinity, during both the construction and exploitation activities.
Special technical-technological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication of wild animal populations (ecological bridges, overpasses and underpasses, tunnels, underground tubes, ditches, safeguarding and directing objects, fish paths and elevators etc.) as well as the protection measures and way of maintenance of technical- -technological solutions are prescribed by the Minister, with the agreement of Ministry in charge of traffic, mining and energy, agriculture, forestry and water industry.
Regulation on special technical-technological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication by wild animals (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 72/10), Article 3
The ecological corridors are determined according to the analysis of ecological conditions and threats to the area, composition of natural vegetation and movements of wild animals, particularly in the reproductive period, which is determined within the procedure of assessing the conditions of nature conservation, or environmental impact assessment, and is an integral part of the document of environmental impact assessment, as regulated in special legislations.
Conservation measures for birds and bats, Article 81
Pillars and technical components of medium- -voltage and high-voltage power lines must be connected in a way that will prevent birds and bats from electricity shock and mechanical injuries.
The first line of this Article does not include top pillars of railway.
41
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
Locations of electricity generators powered by wind (wind farms) are determined in a way that will avoid their important habitats and migration routes.
During the construction of high objects (wind generators, pillars, towers, bridges etc.) in the vicinity of ecologically important areas, it is necessary to implement technical-technological measures, primarily concerning the lighting of the objects, in order to avoid the negative impacts caused by such objects.
It is forbidden to use strong sources of light (rotating billboard reflectors, lasers etc.) directed toward sky, unless they are used for needs of safety and control of air traffic.
Ordinance on ecological network(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 102/10)
This ordinance determines the scope of ecological network, as well as the detailed forms of management and financing of the ecological network, in order to preserve biological and landscape diversity and habitat types particularly important for conservation, renewal and/or enhancement of disrupted habitats and for conservation of certain species, so it represents the process of Serbia preparing for full implementation of NATURA 2000.
Article 11, Line 1
In the area of ecological network, it is necessary to monitor conditions of:
Habitats for populations of wild species;1)
Habitat types of particular importance for conservation;2)
Efficiency of implemented measures of conservation 3) and enhancement, as well as the degree of fulfillment of certain goals and enhancement of functionality and integrity of ecological network.
Article 14
The ecologically important areas for EU NATURA 2000 will be identified and they become a part of European ecological network NATURA 2000, on the day when Republic of Serbia joins the European Union.
42
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
NATIONAL LEGISLATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT RELEVANT FOR BATS
National legislatives in field of environmental impact assessment were completely harmonized with the regulations of European Union several years ago.
LAW ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 135/04, 36/09)
Directive of EU on Environmental impact assessment was introduced in 1985 [85/337/EEC], augmented in 1997 [97/11/EC] and implemented in the Serbian law system in 2004 with this law. “This law determines the procedure of impact assessment for projects that may significantly impact the environment, content of study on environmental impact assessment, participation of interested bodies and organizations and public, trans-border flow of information on projects that may have significant environmental impact on another country, monitoring and other questions relevant for environmental impact assessment.” (Article 1, Line 1).
The main purpose of this law is to provide that the consequences of projects on environment should be identified and assessed before the approval is granted.
Subject of impact assessment, Article 3, Lines 1 and 3
The subjects of the impact assessment are planned projects and projects being implemented, changes in technology, reconstruction, the extension of capacity, the termination of operations, and the removal of projects that may have significant impact on the environment.
Impact assessments shall be elaborated for projects in the fields of industry, mining, energy production, transport, tourism, agriculture, forestry, water management, waste management and utility services, as well as for all the projects that are planned in areas with protected natural resources of special value and within the protected zones of immobile cultural resources.
43
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
Article 6
The impact assessment procedure is composed for the following phases:
The decision on the need for an impact assessment 1) of projects (...);
The definition of the content and scope of an impact 2) assessment;
The decision on the approval for an EIA Study.3)
Article 12
Regulates the appeal for determining the scope and content of study, and defines the criteria used to define scope and content, including:
description of environmental factors that may be • affected;
description on possible significant negative impacts • of this project;
description of measures prescribed with the goal of • avoidance, mitigation and compensation of significant negative impacts
Article 17, Line 1, Points 1)-8)
The EIA Study shall contain the following mandatory data, information and documents:
The data on project developer;1)
The description of the planned project site;2)
The description of the project;3)
The outline of the main alternatives studied by the 4) project developer;
The outline of the environmental status at the site and its 5) close vicinity (micro-location and macro-location);
The description of likely significant effects of the 6) project on the environment;
The environmental impact assessment in cases of 7) accidents;
The description of measures envisaged to prevent, 8) reduce and, if possible, eliminate any significant adverse effects on the environment;
44
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
Regulation on content of study on environmental impact assessment (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 69/05)
It includes precise description of certain content elements in the study on impact assessment, as defined in the Article 17 of Law.
Article 3, Line 1, Point 6)
Description of site where project is planned to be implemented includes particularly:
6) description of flora and fauna, natural assets of particular value, (protected) rare and threatened plant and animal species and their habitats, and vegetation;
Article 6, Line 1, Point 2)
Description of environmental factors that are possibly under significant risk if the suggested project is implemented includes particularly:
2) fauna and flora;
Article 7, Line 1, Points 4) and 8)
Description of possible significant impact of this project on natural environment includes a qualitative and a quantitative representation of possible changes in natural environment during the implementation of project, the regular activity and the case of disaster, as well as the assessment if the changes are of temporary or permanent form, particularly regarding:
4) ecosystems;
8) natural assets with special values and immobile cultural assets and their vicinity etc.
Article 9, Line 1
Description of measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any more significant negative impact on natural environment includes the measures for organizing the space, technical-technological, sanitary-hygienic, biological, organizational, legal, economic, and other measures.
45
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
Ordinance on determining the List of projects for which an impact assessment is mandatory and the List of projects for which an impact assessment may be required(Službeni glasnik RS, br.114/08)
This ordinance gives a precise description of projects where the impact assessment is mandatory and the projects where it may be required. It also defines the criteria of important and possible impact of projects on environment, which are used to determine the need for impact assessment.
LAW ON STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 135/04, 88 /10)
The EU Directive on strategic environmental impact assessment [2001/42/EEC] from 2001 was implemented into the Serbian legislation system in 2004 with this law, which “regulates the conditions, methods and procedure according to which the assessment of impact of certain plans and programmes on the environment (...) shall be carried out in order to provide for the environmental protection and improvement of sustainable development through integration of basic principles of environmental protection into the procedure of preparation and adoption of plans and programmes” (Article 1).
The goal of this law is to identify and assess the environmental consequences of certain plans and programs during their implementation and before acceptance.
Subject of the strategic assessment, Article 5
The strategic assessment shall be carried out for all plans, programmes and sectoral master-plans (...) in the fields of spatial and town planning or land use planning, planning in the fields of agriculture, forestry, fishing industry, hunting, energy, industry, transport, waste management, water management, telecommunications, tourism, preservation of natural habitats and wildlife (flora and fauna), that set the frameworks for granting the approval for future development projects defined by the environmental impact assessment related legislations.
46
LEGISLATION OVERVIEW
ANNEX I
Criteria for determining the possible characteristics of significant impacts:
1. Characteristics of plans and programs, and particularly:
2) problems of environmental protection with this plan and program and possibility of impact on:
(5) plant and animal life;
(6) habitats and biodiversity;
2. Characteristics of impacts, and particularly:
7) impact on threatened areas:
(5) particularly sensitive and rare areas;
(6) ecosystems;
(7) plant and animal species.
ANNEX II
Criteria for assessing the report on strategic assessment
Elements of strategic assessment
5. Assessment on environmental impact
2) the impact assessment includes the following factors:
(5) plant and animal life;
(6) habitats;
(7) biodiversity;
6. Measures and program of environmental monitoring
1) measures for avoidance and limiting the negative and enhancement of positive environmental impacts are planned for each assessed type of impact;
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BATS OF SERBIA BASIC INFORMATION
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
OF BAT RESEARCH
PROJECTS AND PLANS FOR WHICH
STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT IS NEEDED
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Geoffroy’s bat
Brandt’s bat
Palaeochiropteryx tupaiodon, a very well preserved 50 million
years old bat fossil, discovered in Germany
BATS OF SERBIA BASIC INFORMATION
WHAT ARE BATS?
What is it that flies with its hands, spends most time upside down and gets along in the dark as if it was daylight? Of course – a bat!
In the ancient times, people wondered – are these flying mice or hairy birds? They are neither, as bats are – bats. In the Serbian language, the term “slepi miš” (“blind mouse”) is the most common, but not the only one. Even though bats are not blind, their tiny eyes and life in the dark helped this attribute to be an integral part of their name. At the very beginning of biology as a science in our region, the first scientific and scientific-popular books included various names for bats, such as “prstokrilci” (“finger-wings”), “šakokrilci” (“hand-wings” – the literal translation of their scientific name Chiroptera), and even “životinje nogokrilate” (“animals of winged legs”)! However, the term “slepi miš” is known as an old, deeply rooted folk name for the bat.
Bats are the only mammals with the ability of active flight which enabled them to conquer new areas and ecological niches, and this ability appeared very early in their evolution. Besides the flight, many bats have also developed the ability of echolocation, which enabled them to get around in space and to hunt in complete darkness.
Most bats are relatively small-sized animals. They have hair and fur like other mammals. Females give birth to live young that feed on milk until they are ready to find their own food.
The first bats are known from the Eocene period, about 50 million years ago. The fossils from that period indicate their origin from the insectivore stock, almost fully evolved wings and an already developed ability of echolocation.
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Rousettus aegyptiacus, the only European representative of Megachiroptera
Western barbastelle bat
Schreiber’s bent-winged bat
The taxonomic order of bats is second among mammals in number of species, just after the rodents (Rodentia). It includes two suborders – flying foxes (Megachiroptera) and insectivorous bats (Microchiroptera). It is believed that both suborders have a common (monophyletic) origin.
Bats are distributed all over the planet Earth, except Arctic, Antarctica and open water areas of the world oceans. The diversity is smallest in areas near the Poles, growing toward the Equator and culminating in the tropical rainforests.
Even though they have been mostly considered evil spirits and devil embodiments from the dawn of civilization to this very day, recently there is more attention focused on recognizing their characteristics, way of life and their role in the nature, as well as their protection and conservation.
MORPHOLOGICAL, ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Bats are the only mammals capable of active flight, absolutely conquering the airspace. Their body shape and structure were completely morphed by this main characteristic. The flying and echolocation enabled them to conquer nocturnal ecological niches that were not available to other mammals or any other Vertebrate group.
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Grey long-eared bat
Parti-coloured bat
Greater horseshoe bat
Among the bat species, 80% have the body weight under 27 g. The largest bats in the world belong to suborder of flying foxes (Megachiroptera). The bats recorded in Serbia may reach wingspan of up to 45 cm and weight of 4-45 grams. Thick, soft, medium-length fur covers their head and body, while the flying membrane is covered only with sparse hairs. Bats are generally unicolored, in dark tones. Many bats have specific skin glands on their throats, foreheads and flying membranes, secreting a substance with a strong musky smell. The females have one pair of functional teats on the sides of the chest region. The hind legs have a special structure, as the head of the femur is pressing against the surface of acetabulum not with its central part (as in other mammals), but with its lateral side. The hind leg therefore looks inverted by 180 degrees. The short toes bear sharp claws, enabling the bats to be firmly attached to the substrate while hanging upside down, even on almost smooth surfaces.
The front extremities are transformed into wings. The elastic flying membrane patagium is made of skin stretched between the elongated fingers, shoulders, wrists, sides of the body, hind legs and tail. It is impregnated with a network of thin, elongated muscles giving it its strength and shape. The first finger is much less developed than the others and it is separated from the flying membrane.
tragus
forearmupper arm
I finger(thumb)
IV finger
V finger
tail
II fingerIII finger
lower leg
upper leg
calcar
foot
ear
propatagium
dactylopatagium
uropatagium
flig
ht
me
mb
ran
e
plagiopatagium
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Serotine bat
Noctule bat
Soprano pipistrelle bat
Greater mouse-eared bat
The whole skeleton of bats is fine and light, all the larger bones are hollow, and the muscles are extremely strong, just like in birds. The heat, which is generated in great amount during the flight and which could damage their fragile bodies, is released through the rich systems of blood vessels in the flying membrane and earlobes.
The Microchiroptera are heterothermic animals – outside of their period of activity, the temperature of their bodies depends on the temperature of the environment. The unsuitable temperatures are those below 0oC as well as the very high ones as they cause the body to overheat. In the tropical areas Microchiroptera are active throughout the year, while in the temperate areas they hibernate during the colder period of the year.
ECHOLOCATION
Besides the flight, echolocation is the principal adaptation that enabled bats for a special way of life, specific orienteering in space, use of special types of habitat and shelter, as well as a special way of hunting and feeding.
Bats are superbly adapted to night conditions and they maneuver without mistakes, evading even the smallest obstacles and catching even the tiniest insects. Their sense of sight plays almost no role in orientation in dark, but the sense of hearing is crucial. Bats emit high-frequency sound waves and later register their echo. The ultrasound is produced in bats’ throats and emitted through their mouths or nostrils. It bounces off all solid objects and through ears and skin folds that concentrate the impulses reaches the bat’s brain. Within parts of a second the sound is analyzed, giving a very precise picture on space, objects, prey, enemies and obstacles, enabling the bat to react almost immediately.
All the representatives of Microchiroptera have an exceptionally well-developed ability of echolocation, while in Megachiroptera this ability was recorded only in those representatives of genus Rousettus that live in caves.
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Mosquitoes are common prey of bats
Inner forest edges, including streams, forest paths and glades,
are particularly important for bats.
DIET
European bats feed exclusively on insects. The composition of insect fauna recorded in bat diet depends both on species of bat and availability of insect species. In any case, bats have a great impact on regulation of numbers of many species of flying insects, including mosquitoes, and they are their only significant predators. A single bat may eat up to 3,000 insects in a single night and up to 600 mosquitoes within an hour. Bat prey includes some dangerous pests of forests and agricultural crops as well as vectors of many diseases of humans and domestic animals. The great importance of bats is therefore recognized in agriculture, forestry, human and veterinary medicine.
HABITATS
Bats live in the most diverse habitats, from the seacoast and banks of still and flowing fresh water bodies, forest complexes, shrub, bush and meadows, to the high-mountain pastures. They are also present in towns and villages as the closest neighbors of humans. The habitats are areas where bats fulfill their needs of shelter and diet.
Forest habitats are most important for the bat conservation in Serbia
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Linear landscape elements are very important for bats
Water and wetland habitats are important hunting territories for bats
Parks are extremely important for city-dwelling bats
For bats in Serbia, the forest habitats are of key importance for survival. Additionally, for the insectivorous species the most important feeding areas are the wetland and waterside habitats, including rivers, streams, lakes and irrigation channels, as they present the optimal conditions for development of a large amount of insect prey. The studies in the habitats drastically altered by human intervention in the temperate climatic zone have shown that the so-called linear elements of landscape, primarily hedgerows, forest edges, tree alleys, channels and other natural objects that are vital connections between the feeding and roosting areas have a high importance for bat survival. If the natural objects are lacking, the artificial ones may assume their important role, for example the roads, electric and telephone lines etc.
Some species have adapted well to the urban environment, where they may fulfill their whole life cycle, finding enough food and shelter. The inner city centers are mostly characterized by intensive traffic and the greatest density of human populations. There are areas both with and without green surfaces, as well as spacious parks. These are the oldest parts of towns and cities, with a large number of old buildings that are very suitable for roosts. The outskirts of cities, due to the presence of larger surfaces covered with water and green vegetation and less pollution leading to higher density of insect populations, represents an important feeding area for bats.
Many bat species have adapted to urban environment
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Bats may use roosts inside the most diverse variety of
human-made objects and structures
ROOSTS
Bats are generally colonial animals, although single individuals have been recorded regularly in many species. They are not only forming groups in their daytime and winter roosts, but also when they fly out in flocks to feed. A colony of bats is a group of individuals living together in close contact. They may be very diverse regarding the number, sex and age of individuals, composition of species and function within the annual life cycle (the season when they are formed).
Bats feel the need to spend most of the daytime hours in their roosts. The reasons for this behavior are their diet of crepuscular and nocturnal insects and the fact that during the day their living environment is occupied by birds. The high day temperature and low air humidity may also damage their tender wings and completely prevent the cooling process in their bodies that release a high amount of heat energy during the flight.
According to the function in the life cycle of bats of the temperate climatic zone, the roosts may be generally divided into summer, nursery, mating, transitory and winter roosts.
According to the roost types, all bats may be divided into three large ecological groups: lithophilous – cave-dwelling, dendrophilous – forest-dwelling and antropophilous – human-loving species.
Caves are the most important and best-known bat roost sites in Serbia
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Dendrophilous bats use roosts in tree hollows or crevices, or under the bark
Presence of bats in certain roosts is apparent only thanks to their guano – this Kuhl’s Pipistrelle’s guano on a windowsill reveals presence of a small nursery colony in the narrow crevices above the window
Some bat species find suitable roosts inside human-made objects
The protection of roosts is the key for survival and conservation of bats, together with habitat conservation.
CIRCADIAN AND ANNUAL LIFE CYCLE
With the onset of cooler weather in autumn, the quantity of insect prey decreases. Bats have answered this challenge with two strategies: hibernation and migration.
Certain species move to winter roosts in the first days of autumn. There they huddle together in colonies, spending the cold period of the year in hibernation or winter sleep. All the activities and flight cease completely, and the life functions slow down and include only the occasional
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Some bats hibernate as solitary individuals, while other form
large colonies
Mating greater mouse-eared bats
disposal of metabolism by-products. The heartbeat rate drops to only about a dozen beats per minute, while the body temperature drops to just a few degrees above zero. The hibernation sites are winter roosts with constantly high humidity and temperature of 0-12oC. This does not sound very exciting, as many other mammals, such as bears, squirrels and dormice also hibernate. However, while all these other hibernating species need certain amount of time to start their life activities after hibernation, bats are able to do it in just about minute!
Some other species, however, undertake migration from tens to thousand kilometers, just like birds. Several species of bats from our region migrate to the Mediterranean coastline for the colder period of the year, as prey is available throughout the year in those areas. With the first spring days of March, flights of bats already return to their more northern homelands.
Our bats have a single reproduction cycle each year. Mating usually takes place in autumn and birth in spring or early summer. The spermatozoids mature in late summer, while the onset of maturation of egg cell, fertilization and implantation happen in early spring, at the awakening from hibernation. In females that have mated in autumn, the spermatozoids remain alive in the sexual ducts until the egg cells are mature. This phenomenon of prolonged preservation of living spermatozoids within the sexual ducts of males and females throughout hibernation is unique in mammals. Therefore, it may take 150-240 days from mating to birth. There is generally only one young in the litter, while in certain species there might be 2-3. Young animals develop very fast. They are born without any hair and with closed eyelids, but with feet as large as in the adult! For the first several days, young animals hang on their mothers’ bodies, attached to the nipple. They are carried by their mother while she goes hunting until they become too large. In certain species, the young start flying independently at 20-40 days, while in others it takes them three months. They generally reach sexual maturity in their second year. In many species some females may mate even in the same year they were born.
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Nursery colony of greater horseshoe bats – the young differ from their mothers by their smaller size and muted grayish color
Large piles of guano often form under the roosts of large colonies, increasing year after year
Remains of dead bats are rarely found, as they rapidly decompose
The low production of bats is compensated by their long lifespan. Individuals of small species can live up to 20 years or longer. Megachiroptera may live 15-17 years in captivity, while the data on bat longevity in the wild has been collected by banding.
Bats die at the same sites where they live and spend most of their lives. The greatest mortality was recorded in young specimens before their first flight, so dead young animals may be observed on guano piles for a short time after death. This is particularly visible in cave-dwelling species, as the acid reaction of fermented guano soon destroys calcium carbonate as well as the tissues and bones of dead animals. Therefore, it is almost impossible to find solid remains of bats under their colony roosts, so study of fossil remains is very complicated. However, the guano layer under the colony is the source of life for cave-dwelling organisms – fungi, insects, worms and other invertebrates, of which many are unique to a single cave (endemic). As these tiny creatures are so well adapted to darkness and the microclimate of the cave, they are unable to leave it. Their almost complete isolation turns almost every larger cave into a habitat for a large number of endemic species.
This young Geoffroy’s bat has just been born and is still connected to its mother with the umbilical cord
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ALL SERBIAN BATS
Bats are distributed throughout Serbia. There are proven records of representatives of 29 species, within 10 genera and 2 families: horseshoe bats (Rhinolophidae) – all 5 European species, and Vespertilionid bats (Vespertilionidae) – 24 recorded species. This number is considered temporary as geographic position and climatic and ecological characteristics of Serbia offer hope for finding evidence of the presence of at least five more species.
Table. List of 29 bat species recorded in Serbia up to now.
Scientific name Common english name
Rhinolophidae Horseshoe batsRhinolophus blasii Peters, 1866 Blasius' horseshoe bat
Rhinolophus euryale Blasius, 1853 Mediterranean horseshoe bat
Rhinolophus ferrumeqinum (Schreber, 1774) Greater horseshoe bat
Rhinolophus hipposideros (Bechstein, 1800) Lesser horseshoe bat
Rhinolophus mehelyi Matschie, 1901 Mehely's horseshoe bat
Vespertilionidae Vespertilionid batsBarbastella barbastellus (Schreber, 1774) Western barbastelle bat
Eptesicus serotinus (Schreber, 1774) Serotine bat
Hypsugo savii (Bonaparte, 1837) Savi's pipistrelle bat
Myotis alcathoe von Helversen & Heller, 2001 Alcathoe whiskered bat
Myotis bechsteinii (Kuhl, 1817) Bechstein's bat
Myotis blythii (Tomes, 1857) Lesser mouse-eared bat
Myotis brandtii (Eversmann, 1845) Brandt's bat
Myotis capaccinii (Bonaparte, 1837) Long-fingered bat
Myotis dasycneme (Boie, 1825) Pond bat
Myotis daubentonii (Kukl, 1817) Daubenton's bat
Myotis emarginatus (Geoffroy, 1806) Geoffroy's bat
Myotis myotis (Borkhausen, 1797) Greater mouse-eared bat
Myotis mystacinus (Kuhl, 1817) Whiskered bat
Myotis nattereri (Kuhl, 1817) Natterer's bat
Nyctalus leisleri (Kuhl, 1817) Leisler's bat
Nyctalus noctula (SchreberR, 1774) Noctule bat
Pipistrellus kuhlii (Kuhl, 1817) Kuhl's pipistrelle bat
Pipistrellus nathusii (Keyserling & Blasius, 1839) Nathusius' pipistrelle bat
Pipistrellus pipistrellus (Schreber, 1774) Common pipistrelle bat
Pipistrellus pygmaeus (Leach, 1825) Soprano pipistrelle bat
Plecotus auritus (Linnaeus, 1758) Brown long-eared bat
Plecotus austriacus (Fischer, 1829) Grey long-eared bat
Vespertilio murinus Linnaeus, 1758 Parti-coloured bat
Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1817) Schreiber's bent-winged bat
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Table. List of 4 bat species potentially present in Serbia.
Scientific name Common english name
Vespertilionidae Vespertilionid batsEptesicus nilssonii (Keyserling & Blasius, 1839) Northern bat
Nyctalus lasiopterus (Schreber, 1780) Greater noctule bat
Plecotus macrobullaris Kuzyakin, 1965 Mountain long-eared Bat
Molossidae Vespertilionid batsTadarida teniotis (Rafinesque, 1814) European free-tailed bat
POSITION IN THE NATURE
Bats are important members of every terrestrial ecosystem. They are particularly reliable indicators of current state and preservation of the ecosystems they inhabit, as well as of the balance of ecological conditions. In the temperate climate belt, they are primarily important as regulators of population numbers of flying crepuscular and nocturnal insects. Regulation of population numbers of insects to the optimal values contributes to ecological stability.
In the absence of primary organic production, the troglodyte wildlife greatly depends on intake of organic matter from the outside environment. The most important vectors are cave-dwelling bats, as they leave excrements daily and often die underground as well. The organic materials brought by bats are a source of life for diverse fauna as well as flora and fungia. The intake of organic matter by bats may be considered the key for survival of fragile, partially or completely isolated underground ecosystems and their specific members.
Organic matter brought in by bats is the key survival factor for wildlife in underground ecosystems (diplopod Apfelbeckia sp. and an endemic Balkan cave cricket Troglophilus sp.)
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In many parts of Europe, it is believed that a bat nailed above the
door prevents evil from entering
Beliefs on bats
There are many mystical beliefs, superstitions and fears
associated with the bats. Whole bats or their body parts are still
used as obligatory ingredients of magic potions and objects in
secret rites and magic. While the angels have always been represented with white, oval
bird wings, the devils, demons and other evil beasts always
had black, pointy, leathery bat wings. In Europe, the bats were
associated with the evil, the devil and the witches from the time of Ancient Romans to the end of Middle Ages. However,
the advance of science has gradually revealed the truth
on bats. Their demystification is still one of the main tasks
of conservationists and nature protectors.
Bat as an architectonic detail of the Triumphal Arch in Barcelonai
The natural enemies of bats are small carnivores such as cats, weasels, martens, as well as the owls. However, their impact on bat populations is a far lower threat than the one posed by human activity. Due to superstitions and mystic elements, people have always been killing bats at their roosts. Whole bodies or body parts of bats are still being used for magic rituals, preparation of various magical potions and even “folk medicine”. On the other hand, the uncontrolled overuse of chemical materials in agriculture leads to mass deaths of these mammals – natural insecticides.
THREAT STATUS, PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION
The human activities that pose a threat to bats are numerous and diverse. Therefore, we are now facing the fact that European bats are involved in accelerated, almost frantic, protection and conservation measures. Activities aiming at the survival and recovery of certain species have already shown significant results in certain European countries. They are observable as a slow but steady return of representatives of certain species to the boundaries of their former ranges.
In the countries of Western and Middle Europe, where industry, agriculture and forestry are characterized as highly developed and where general human pressure on environment is extremely high, the level of threat is alarming. These phenomena were first recorded a long time ago and there is a whole system of measures aiming to suppress such a high pressure on environment, through legal measures of conservation and protection, strict realization of practical measures and constant popularization and education. The protection of species, habitats and roosts is the key factor of bat conservation.
The main threatening factors for bats in Serbia have been determined during the field studies (see the Table).
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Tabela. Overview of threat factors in the most important habitats and roosts in SerbiaR
oost
s
Na
tura
l a
nd
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s
Disturbance
Fire
Noise
Research
Use of guano
Direct killing
and attacking
Out of meanness
For magic rituals
For collections
Inadequate
protection of
roosts
Being built over (walls erected)
Bars
Illuminating
“Adaptation” for tourist purposes
Change of useClosing of the entrances
New use
An
thro
po
gen
ou
s
roo
sts
Buildings being torn down
Accidental poisoning
Disturbance
Exterminating
Limiting the trophic resources
Hab
itat
s
Chemical pollutionIndustry
Insecticides
Changes in habitats
Cutting down forests
Clear-cuttings
Intensive agriculture and monocultures
Management of channels and rivers
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For more details on methodology of studying bats
and standards of best practice, please see:
Battersby, J. (comp.) (2010): Guidelines for Surveillance and
Monitoring of European Bats. EUROBATS Publication Series
No. 5. UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 95 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/
publications/publication%20series/pubseries_no5_english.
pdf>
Mitchell-Jones, A.J., McLeish, A. P. (eds). 2004. 3rd Edition
Bat Workers’ Manual. Joint Nature Conservation
Committee, Peterborough, UK, 178 pp. <http://www.jncc.gov.
uk/page-2861#download>
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF BAT RESEARCH
Methods and techniques for studying bats are specific and mostly different from those applied for studying other taxonomic groups of mammals. This specific feature is a reflection of special biological characteristics of bats that set them clearly apart from other mammals. In order to perform any scientific and/or expert research on bats and prepare the studies on the presence and present state of populations and impact of infrastructure projects on them, it is necessary to use one or more proven methods and techniques. The methods and techniques that will be used are ascertained by an expert on bats within the impact assessment team for each individual infrastructure project. That person has the appropriate responsibility to make a choice. In order to obtain the most complete and useful results necessary for performing impact assessments of all types of projects/plans, it is necessary to combine several methods.
According to the Law on Nature Protection (Službeni glasnik 36/09) and Guidelines on declaration and preservation of strictly protected wild species of plants, animals and fungi (Službeni glasnik 5/10), in order to perform any studies that require direct contact with bats it is compulsory to obtain a permit from the Ministry of Environment. It is also necessary to take precautions when using any of the chosen methods and techniques in order to have a minimal impact on bats, and they must be applied according to best practice standards.
Short overview of methods and techniques of studying bats:
Analysis of the existing information - bibliography1. Roost inspection2. Analysis of the dead bat remains3. Capture4. Artificial roosts – bat houses5. Marking6. Ultrasound audio-detection7. Molecular-genetic methods8.
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A N A LY S I S O F E X I S T I N G I N F O R M AT I O N – B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Systematic and thorough study of bats in Serbia started at the Natural History Museum in 1954, although the collections of mammals include proof specimens collected even in the late 19th century. The first written study with concrete data on bats and other mammal species dates from the second half of the 19th century. It was a part of the scientific work performed by Josif Pančić, the first Serbian biologist and botanist (Pančić 1869). The most intensive studies were performed in mid 1990s, yielding a very high amount of data; however, most of them remain unpublished to the present day. At the Natural History Museum in Belgrade, a project of collecting, systematization, combining and forming an electronic database on the bats of Serbia was started recently. The collected research data indicates that forest species of bats are the least studied in Serbia, while cave species are the ones most studies have been written about. The smallest number of data was collected in urban, central and southern parts of Serbia and the greatest number in limestone areas of Eastern and Western Serbia. The main bibliographic sources of the data on bats in Serbia are presented in a special annex at the end of this study.
Advantages
It does not require special investment, as the employed experts should already be in possession of the national bibliography available for the analysis. The experts should be responsible for proper understanding and adequate use of the data in individual cases, as well as for assessment on whether the additional field studies are necessary, or if the existing data are sufficient.
Limitations
There is a high probability that precise data is lacking for the particular site where the environmental impact assessment is being performed, particularly data for the period of five years prior to the assessment. If that is the case, it is necessary to perform the field research by using the other methods.
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Roost inspection is the most suitable method for the species
that form larger colonies in visually easily accessible parts of roosts
ROOST INSPECTION
In Serbia, bats use a wide spectrum of different roosts during the period of daytime rest and hibernation. Various species have different preferences for roost type (underground, tree hollows, artificial), and within the same roost they also prefer different parts of the roost (for example ceilings of spacious galleries or narrow cracks within the walls of caves, hollows, cracks or space underneath the tree bark, spacious attics or narrow spaces between structural elements of buildings). Additionally, within the roosts certain species form colonies composed of a large number of individuals, other form colonies of just a handful of individuals, some are solitary, and in certain species this behavior varies according to season. In Serbia, roosts may be composed of several individuals to several tens of thousands of bats!
Therefore, roost inspection will be a more suitable method for species that form larger colonies in visually easily accessible places, and relatively complicated for solitary species that use visually poorly accessible fissure spaces. For the species that are visually poorly accessible within the roost, it is much better to perform the monitoring in immediate vicinity of the roost during the evening departure or early morning return.
During the roost inspection, it is also possible to use equipment such as night-vision binoculars, classical or infrared (thermal) photographic equipment, as well as the endoscopes, which enable observation within the inaccessible narrow spaces.
Inspection of roosts is most commonly performed with the goal of counting, including the identification of species and the assessment of bat population size. It is one of the basic and simplest methods. It may be performed on a particular site, regionally or in a whole country. For the purposes of assessment, the primary level is local counting; but for understanding and assessment of local population, it is necessary to understand the situation in the whole area. In order to perform the census, it is first necessary to identify and count the roosts, and then to identify the species, count the specimens and record the phases of their life cycle, ways of grouping
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Roost inspection yields poor results in finding solitary species using visually poorly accessible crevice spaces
In large colonies, it is better to perform counts from photographs, as this method is more precise and the disturbance is minimized
and other aspects of behavior and ecology of recorded bats. They may be counted within their roosts or in their immediate vicinity during the evening departure from the roosts or the early morning return to them.
Advantages
This is the easiest and most economical method for in situ assessment of species composition, population numbers and function of various bat roosts.
Limitations
Due to the well-known fact that bats rarely use the same roosts throughout their annual cycle, a single visit to the roost may lead the researcher to wrong conclusions. Therefore, it is necessary to study each roost during all four seasons, including the periods of mating, reproduction, transitory periods and hibernation. This method does not yield data on other aspects of life activities of bats, or other functions of landscapes and habitats for bats. Regarding the analysis of owl pellets, it should be noted that owls have an ability to fly and may hunt in surrounding area outside of the zone included in the project.
Recommendations
Individual bats may be counted as they fly out of their roosts, or while they are hanging from the ceilings and walls during the torpor. In large colonies, it would be more precise to count bats from photographs, and that method would also decrease the length of disruptive activities.
ANALYSIS OF THE DEAD BAT REMAINS
During the inspection of roosts, but also at some other sites within the habitats, it is possible to find dead individuals and their remains, as well as owl pellets (for explanation see the Glossary at the end of this manual) which may include bat remains mixed with other prey. Study and analysis of the remains may be useful for species identification and thus yield important data on their presence. If remains are collected at roost sites, it is even possible to determine certain features of species ecology (reproductive status of colony, age, sexual structure, even relative number of bat species) or roost functions.
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Hand-nets may be used to capture resting bats
CAPTURE
There are several bat species where representatives are difficult to tell apart unless held in hand. Only by capturing and immediate observation, it is possible to notice subtle discriminatory morphological characteristics and measure the diagnostic morphometric parameters. When species are to be inventoried in an area, capturing may be much more efficient for species detection than the acoustic techniques, as certain individuals emit only weak ultrasound signals that are absorbed in the habitat or difficult to distinguish. Capturing is also necessary for realization of the method of marking each individual. Sometimes capturing may be done simply by hand, but in most cases, it is necessary to use various types of specific equipment, depending on the roost and/or habitat type. The general rule during capturing is to avoid hurting animals in any way and to manipulate with them as short as possible, in order to decrease the length of stress situations.
Hand-nets
These nets are a well-known piece of equipment for studying butterflies, but they also yield good results when catching bats. Nets with thick mesh (as for butterflies) are very suitable, as they prevent the bats from being entangled and allow for easier extraction. This technique should be used for motionless bats hanging from the ceiling or on the wall of the roost, but their use on flying individuals may lead to injuries if bats get hit with the rim of the net.
Funnel traps
They consist of a conic plastic tube, rings connected with fine polyethylene net in a form of a tunnel, and a textile-based collector at the end. This trap should be placed at the openings of tree hollows or small cracks. Bats leaving the roost pass through the cone and through the tunnel, ending up in the collector from which they are manually removed for further processing.
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Captured bats should be removed from the net as quickly and carefully as possible
Harp-trap made of household materials
Mist-nets
They are made of very thin polyester threads so the very sensitive echolocation system in bats would detect a fairly harmless obstacle. These nets have pockets into which the bats fall. The mesh size (distance between the two adjacent knots) should be 16-19 mm for representatives of European bat species. These nets are placed between vertical holders, usually at the entrances of speleological objects, galleries, tunnels, above the surface of rivers and streams, at forest glades and above paths.
Mist nets should not be left unattended
Harp-traps
These traps are composed of one or two rectangular frames with parallel vertical monofilaments of fishing nylon. A collector’s bag is placed underneath the frame. The principle of this trap is that the frames with fishing nylon should be placed in areas where bats regularly pass, so they hit the cords of fishing nylon and fall into the bag they cannot leave without help. This type of trap is placed at small openings and places where bats fly through but it is impossible to use mist nets.
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Capturing enables reliable identification of species that
may be distinguished only by measuring and/or checking the
morphological parameters
If necessary, captured bats can be kept for short periods of time
in non-transparent bags made of natural textile
Advantages
The method of bat capture and its various techniques are important in cases where direct approach is unfeasible and when it is not possible to directly observe the colonies in order to determine the number of individuals and the presence of species. The capture equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple for handling and transport. The techniques may be modified in various situations and according to present conditions in habitats and/or roosts.
Limitations
Capturing is of course an invasive method, causing smaller or greater stress in animals. Previous experience is necessary in order to apply this method properly, as the equipment should be placed in a proper way and in a proper position. If nets or traps are placed in unsuitable places, the results may be inadequate or insufficient. Additionally, in case of roosts with a larger number of bats, it is necessary to have several helpers so the captured bats would be processed and released as soon as possible in order to minimize their stress.
Recommendations
Nets are placed in the chosen position at dusk, in order to prevent birds and other animals from being caught. It is necessary to have at least one net. Whether it is practical or not to set several nets at once depends on the number of persons who will check them, and a better effect can be achieved with several nets placed in different directions, depending on the habitat. This is particularly true for forest habitats.
During the capture, the experts must be immediately next to the net in order to process and release the captured specimens as soon as possible. If it is necessary to keep the bats in captivity for a short time, they should be kept in nontransparent bags made of natural textile.
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Placement and monitoring of bat boxes includes working at great heights so it necessary to exercise maximum caution
ARTIFICIAL ROOSTS – BAT BOXES
Bat boxes are essentially artificially made roosts that play an important part both in research and in conservation and protection of bats. In nature, bats are sometimes faced with the lack of suitable roosts, so placement of bat houses may be crucial for their existence in some areas. Such habitats are, for example, young artificially or naturally formed tree stands, shrub thickets or agricultural areas where adequate roosts are lacking or very scarce. In such cases, bats eagerly use provided artificial roosts, enabling the researcher to gather important data on the presence of species and the abundance of local colonies, ecology and behavior by simply checking on such roosts. They are commonly made of wooden planks, but might be made of concrete as well. Their shape and size vary depending on the species they are intended for. The opening is situated at the ventral side and it is very narrow, so exposure of bats to predators would be greatly reduced. The boxes are usually placed at greater heights from the ground level, and the number of occupied boxes, recorded individuals and species all increase with their height.
Advantages
Boxes allow easy access, necessary for monitoring those bat species in which the natural roosts are otherwise poorly accessible or completely inaccessible.
Limitations
Placement and periodical checking of bat boxes assumes working at greater heights. In order to achieve significant results in populating the boxes, and therefore an important amount of valuable data, it is necessary to set a large number of boxes at a site – the optimal number is about 100 boxes. Sometimes bats may be “shy”, visiting the new boxes only 2-3 years after they were placed in the habitat.
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The properly placed band may slowly glide along the forearm.
It doesn’t hurt the animal and it doesn’t interfere with its activities
MARKING
Marked individuals may be monitored visually, acoustically and in time, using different methods. The marked bat has its individuality preserved and may be monitored from a distance. This is one of the most invasive methods as it involves capturing an animal and placing a foreign object on its body. During the marking procedure, it is necessary to observe the standard procedures for handling bats to the fullest, in order to minimize the consequences and prevent the marker from threatening the health of the animal or in any way influence the lifespan of the marked individual.
Light-tags
Light-tags are small plastic capsules containing two components that produce light when they are mixed up. The chemical reaction starts when two glass elements, each containing one of the active substances, are destroyed within the outer shell. The light capsules are attached to bats (usually to their backs) with a special surgical adhesive that dissolves in time and is not toxic. The light-tags are visible from the distance of up to 200 m, or greater if using binoculars. The emission of light lasts for several hours, and the bats remove the capsules in a day or two.
This way of marking is used to determine the roosts, flight paths and hunting areas. In order to collect massive amounts of data it is necessary that a larger number of researchers cover the study area, so the marked bats could be adequately monitored. This is an inexpensive method, but not useable in habitats with thick vegetation, as monitoring of marked specimens is impossible in those conditions.
Metal bat bands
Metal bands are the oldest method of bat marking, which has been used in Europe for over 80 years. Bands made of light metal (most commonly some harder aluminum alloy) are placed on the arm of the bat’s wing. The bands
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Recapturing banded individuals is useful for determination of their life span - this individual of greater horseshoe bat wore its band for 14 years
Banded individuals should be best left hanging in vicinity of roost (banded individuals of noctule bat and Bechstein’s bat)
have flanges at the edges in order to prevent damage to the flying membrane. Each band bears the inscription of the name of marking centre, size, serial number of the band and the individual number for each bat. The bands are made in several sizes, appropriate for different sizes of various bat species. Banding is performed in cases when it is necessary to recognize individuals and follow them in time and space. This method is useful in learning about the longevity of marked individuals, migration routes, use of roosts, size and density of populations. The individuals may wear bands throughout their lives. Marking with bands is relatively inexpensive, but not necessary for assessing the impact of infrastructure projects on local bat populations.
Bat marking in Serbia is performed under the supervision of the Center for Animal Marking, at the Natural History Museum in Belgrade. In order to mark and manipulate bats, a person must have a permit, updated annually, from the Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia. Marking is performed by banding associates who are specially trained in handling bats. In Serbia, about 300 individual bats of different species are banded on average each year. The bands are made in three sizes, covering all species recorded in Serbia.
Bat bands (right) differ from bird bands/rings (left) in specially made flanges, which, if placed properly, do not cause damage to flying membrane
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Radio-transmitter for bats
The radio-transmitter is attached to fur on a bat’s back with
special adhesive
Radio-telemetry
Although it belongs to marking methods, radio-telemetry facilitates research of numerous very important aspects of bat ecology and provides much more information than marking with light-tags or metal bands. This method assumes that animals are located in space with the help of radio-transmitters attached to their bodies, emitting short repeated radio signals. The signals may be detected with a VHF radio receiver. This method, very popular in recent times, is used only in case when the less invasive methods cannot provide sufficient useful data for impact assessment. This method enables collecting data, primarily about movement and behavior, but also including:
The type of activity for an individual;•
Measuring the greatest distance covered from the • roost, the greatest altitude, size and structure of individual range;
Assessment of main hunting areas and habitat • selection;
Locating roosts above ground level.•
Radio-transmitters used with bats have very small dimensions, only up to 10% of the total weight of the animal. The most commonly used transmitters are oval shaped and have a long antenna. They are attached to the dorsal side of the animal with a special surgical adhesive. Due to their small size, the period of activity with one set of batteries is only 4-7 days. The working frequency is 149-151 MHz, and in the ideal conditions, the maximal distance of signal detection is 5-7 km (up to 2 km in the hills). The main parts of the apparatus are transmitter, receiver and the directional antenna.
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The radio-transmitter is extremely small and light, so it does not significantly disturb the activity of the bat
The directional antenna enables location of the signal produced by radio-transmitter
This powerful method is very expensive and still developing, thanks to the innovations in transmitter technology, increase in length of their functioning time, strength and detection ability, as well as decrease in size. This method is considered unsuitable for impact assessment of infrastructure projects, so it is rarely used for that purpose.
Advantages
This is the only method that allows collection of a large number of important ecological data on bat roosts, activities, diet, biology, hunting areas and individual behavior over short periods of time
Limitations
The equipment is relatively expensive and has to be ordered in advance. The research team must include at least two members, and in order to locate certain positions in space it is necessary to use additional geo-location devices such as GPS. This method requires a very high intensity of application, with many workdays/nights, to be considered successful.
Recommendations
Best results are achieved with digital interactive maps and GPS devices for direct visualization of recorded spatial data.
This method enables precise determination of spatial position of individuals or colonies, which is particularly important in areas without underground roosts. Additionally, it is possible to determine local flight paths, size of hunting areas and the amount of time used for hunting and resting, respectively.
Marking with radio-transmitters should only be used as the last resort, when the desired data could not be obtained by any less invasive method.
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Professional ultrasound bat detector, with the time expansion
and heterodyning systems
ULTRASOUND AUDIO-DETECTION
It is a well-known fact that the European bats orient in space and hunt using echolocation – a sophisticated natural system similar to modern artificial sonar systems that function according to precisely the same principles. Echolocation represents one of the most exciting ways of studying bats and plays an important role as a non-invasive method for studying their distribution and ecology.
Echolocation allows bats to form an “acoustic picture” of the world around them. The frequency of echolocation sounds is above the range of about 20 kHz, which represents the boundary of human hearing perception. Therefore, all sounds above 20 kHz are called ultrasound. Besides the echolocation ultrasound signals, certain species of bats (particularly males in the mating season) also emit communication signals at the higher registers of sound spectrum or lower parts of ultrasound spectrum. The range of echolocation signals of bats recorded in Serbia is from around 18 (Nyctalus noctula) to over 100 kHz (Rhinolophus hipposideros, Rh. euryale, Rh. blasii, Rh. mehelyi). The length of individual echolocation impulses is from 1 (certain species of genus Myotis) to 80 milliseconds (certain species of genus Rhinolophus), and bats emit series of individual signals during echolocation.
The ultrasound audio-detection may be used both for the analysis of echolocation signals and of the communication sounds made by bats.
This method requires the use of a special bat ultrasound detector, and the full analysis is possible only with the use of appropriate audio-recorder and a specialized software for analysis of recorded ultrasound signals made by bats. Besides the equipment, it is the researcher must have a good acoustic sensitivity (to have “an ear for music”), to pass special training and to have experience and practice in working with detectors. The
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detector transforms the ultrasound signals into sound audible to the researcher, who analyzes and interprets it on the spot. Most detectors also have an option of producing a signal that may be recorded (with an integrated or cable-connected recorder) and then analyzed in the laboratory with the help of special software, in order to provide further information and increase the possibility of species identification.
There are three basic types of ultrasound detectors for bats - heterodyning, frequency division (+ envelope detection) and time expansion. They differ in the system they use to transform the ultrasound signals into sound signals as well as some other technical characteristics, leading to further differences in possibility of both direct audio analysis of produced sound signals at the site and the later computer analysis of recorded signals, and therefore in possibility of species identification. The most complete computer analysis of recordings can be obtained through the time expansion system, while analysis of records in the frequency division system offers less information, and the information provided by the recordings made in heterodyning is almost negligible and their later computer analysis would be almost useless.
There are several brands and many commercial models of ultrasound bat detectors. The least expensive detectors contain only the heterodyning system and they are good mostly for amateurs and beginners, as their usefulness in research is limited by their characteristics. The most expensive, but also most suitable for expert use, are the detectors with the time expansion system, which as a rule also have an integrated heterodyning system. The detectors with the frequency division system, which also generally have an integrated heterodyning system, are somewhere in the middle, both regarding the price and the quality of information they can provide.
There are two basic ways of using this method: hand- -held detection and automatic systems (bat-boxes).
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Automatic system for ultrasound audio-detection (bat-boxes)
Ultrasound audio-detection provides best results when
combined with visual detection by using a hand-held reflector lamp
and the computer analysis of recordings
Ultrasound audio-detectionwith automatic systems (bat-boxes)
This method may be used stationary at census points, or moving along transects, usually with a vehicle.
The automatic audio-detection systems are composed of a detector with the time expansion or, more commonly, the frequency division system, connected with a recorder. All data on recorded activity of bats is gathered through a computer analysis of recordings. As this method does not allow combining audio and visual data, the possibility of species identification with this method is considerably smaller than with the hand-held detector. The advantage of this method is that it allows us to follow the activities in a long-term manner, on several locations at the same time.
Ultrasound audio-detectionwith hand-held detector
This method may be used in stationary census spots or on walking transects. The best results are achieved when in combination with visual detection, with the help of a hand-held reflector lamp. Combination of audio and visual characteristics (morphology, type of flight, behavior) contributes greatly to the possibility of proper determination of species and quality of information on behavior of individual bats, thus also to understanding the bat use of space, including the ecological functions of habitats and landscapes to bats. Whenever it is possible, the audio-visual analysis should be used in combination with the later computer analysis of the recordings.
Potential of different detector systems, when used together with visual detection and computer analysis of records in conditions where relatively good audio-visual perception is possible, for identification of the bat species recorded or considered highly probably present in Serbia, is presented in the following Table:
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Legend:
* when used together with computer analysis of the recordings
** when used together with visual detection
� Identification difficult, possible only in certain cases
�� Identification possible, if certain audio-visual characters can be observed
��� Identification relatively easy in most cases
Species
hete
rod
yn
ing**
tim
e e
xp
an
sio
n*
freq
uen
cy d
ivis
ion*
Rhinolophus hipposideros �� ��� ���Rhinolophus ferrumequinum ��� ��� ���Rhinolophus euryale �� �� ��Rhinolophus mehelyi �� �� ��Rhinolophus blasii �� �� ��Myotis myotis/blythii �� ��� ��Myotis myotis �Myotis blythii �Myotis daubentonii/capaccinii ��� ��� ��Myotis daubentonii � �� �Myotis capaccinii � �� �Myotis dasycneme �� ��� ��Myotis nattereri � �� �Myotis emarginatus � �� �Myotis bechsteinii � �� �Myotis mystacinus/alcathoe/brandtii �� �� ��Myotis mystacinus �Myotis alcathoe �Myotis brandtii �Pipistrellus pygmaeus ��� ��� ���Pipistrellus pipistrellus ��� ��� ���Pipistrellus kuhlii/nathusii ��� ��� ���Pipistrellus kuhlii �� ��� ��Pipistrellus nathusii �� ��� ��Hypsugo savii ��� ��� ���Nyctalus noctula ��� ��� ���Nyctalus leisleri ��� ��� ���Nyctalus lasiopterus ��� ��� ���Eptesicus serotinus ��� ��� ���Eptesicus nilssonii ��� ��� ���Vespertilio murinus ��� ��� ���Barbastella barbastellus �� ��� ���Plecotus auritus/austriacus �� ��� ��Plecotus auritus �Plecotus austriacus �Miniopterus schreibersii �� ��� ���Tadarida teniotis ��� ��� ���
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HEALTH RISKS OF BAT WORK
Rabies
Just like many other wild animals, bats may transmit
certain diseases found in humans and domestic animals.
Therefore, when they are handled it is necessary to take proper measures of
precaution and protection in order to prevent transmission
of infection. Studies on the presence of specific EBL
(European Bat Lyssa) virus were recently performed in
Serbia. The European bat species are the reservoirs of
this virus, similar to the virus of sylvatic rabies. The studies
in Serbia had a negative result – the presence of virus
was not proven (Vranješ et al. 2010). However, bat
bites are best prevented using physical protection
during manipulation (thick glove, rag). If a bite or some
other injury that may lead to infection still occurs, it
is necessary to apply the anti-rabies preventive and
protection.
Histoplasmosis
This disease is caused by spores of fungus Histoplasma
capsulatum, which grows on bat guano in warm, humid
roosts. It is more common in tropic areas. After inhaling
the spores, humans and other mammals may get a
respiratory infection that is not contagious. Therefore, it
is necessary to use protective equipment during the visits
to potentially risky bat roosts with larger piles of guano.
Advantages
This method is particularly suitable for open habitats such as wetlands and steppes, but it can also be used in forests and urban habitats. It is very important for bat monitoring as it may be repeated in various periods and seasons, using the same transects. It also enables us to compare the present conditions at different positions of the same site, as well as the results recorded in different sites and even regions.
Limitations
Detectors, particularly the professional ones, are expensive pieces of equipment, and only highly trained experts may use them efficiently. Due to the differences in strength and modulation of echolocation signals of various bat species, the species are recorded with different quality, and some are even very difficult to tell apart. Therefore, the exclusive use of this method may be insufficient to make the complete faunistic list of a given area, so it is necessary to combine it with other research methods. The ultrasound noise produced by other animals (particularly crickets, grasshoppers and some other insects), wind etc. may significantly complicate or even completely disable any efficient use of this method in certain situations.
Recommendations
Even the simple detectors with limited functions of ultrasound detection may enable recording of flyover – existence of bat activity above the studied site.
The detectors may enable determination of those parts of the site where the number of bats is the greatest, and therefore save much effort, energy and resources, particularly during research of wide-open areas.
Ultrasound detectors are very useful in determination of suitable locations for placing mist nets, as well as places with intensive bat activity.
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OTHER SAFETY RISKS OF BAT WORK
Bats may live in places that are barely accessible, so activities at their roosts may be very risky and often demand alpinist and other extreme-sport equipment. These sites may be researched only if the researcher is well trained. Otherwise, it is necessary to provide assistance of well-trained, experienced, licensed experts who can perform such tasks.
All measures of personal protection must be observed while visiting any risky objects if it is necessary for the studies of impact assessment. Therefore, it is important not to take any risks if you are not experienced and trained enough!
MOLECULAR-GENETIC METHODS
Certain species of bats in Europe and Serbia are
difficult, and sometimes even impossible to identify in
the field. The only method useful for identification of
these cryptic species demands genetic and molecular
analyses of small tissue samples from each individual.
The samples most commonly collected are small
pieces cut out of the flying membrane in the wing,
as the wound heals very fast and that injury does not
jeopardize the life of a bat.
Advantages
This method may be used when the assessment
requires precise determination of an individual bat as a
certain species living in some roost or habitat.
Limitations
This method is very expensive, especially if it
is necessary for identification of a larger number of
individuals.
Recommendations
Before samples are taken, the person who will
perform the analysis, as well as the laboratory where it
will be performed must be known.
There are several laboratories for molecular-genetic
studies in Serbia, but none of them has performed studies
on bats to this day. Negotiations for work on bat genetics
are presently in progress in Serbia.
Note
This method is rarely used in surveys of impact
assessment of development projects/plans on bats.
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All speleological objects are protected by Law on nature
protection, and many are additionally protected as important natural assets.
Environmental impact assessment may be required for all projects within the protected
natural asset.
LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION(Službeni glasnik RS,
No. 36/09, 88/10)
Protection of speleological objects Article 24
Speleological objects are public property of the Republic of Serbia.
Due to their natural and cultural values, speleological objects are protected and used according to
this Law and other legislative.
A Cadastre of speleological objects is prepared in form of
digital geographic information system (in further text: cadastre).
Protection and use of speleological objects
Article 25In speleological objects and their
vicinity, it is forbidden to:
1) Pollute watercourses and springs, release, bring and leave
poisonous matter, solid waste and dead animals, or store any form of
waste material at these sites and in such way that they may be brought
into the speleological object by moving water or free movement;
2) Destroy, damage or remove parts of cave ornaments, cave sediments,
fossil remains and artifacts;
3) Destroy or remove representatives of fauna and flora
and disturb their habitat conditions;
4) Perform construction activities that may cause significant
negative and permanent changes in geomorphologic and
hydrological features.
Government prescribes the forms and conditions of management,
use and research of speleological objects, as well as preparation
and maintenance of the cadastre as outlined in Article 24, Line 3
of this Law..
PROJECTS AND PLANS FOR WHICH STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IS NEEDED
MANAGEMENT OF UNDERGROUND HABITATS
All types of underground habitats with a relatively stable microclimate and temperature above 0oC are potential bat roosts. These include caves and abysses, abandoned mines and tunnels, artificial underground systems of tunnels and catacombs, etc.
Use of underground habitats by humans usually includes a certain degree of “adaptation”, causing changes in accessibility, complete or partial closing of entrances, installation of a transfer system for water and/or electric energy, excavation and leveling of floors, filling the crevices and hollows, and much more. All these activities alter the shape and climate of caves, disturbing the bats either immediately or during the use of the object, and may lead to a decrease in population numbers or even to complete desertion of the locality. This is in complete contradiction with the LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION and relevant international conventions, especially in cases when these activities threaten the most important known underground bat roosts in Serbia.
Several decades ago, the common practice during the adaptation of a cave for tourism (show caves development) was to completely or partially close the entrances with impermeable material (concrete, rock, iron doors or
The previously common practice of building walls over cave entrances is unacceptable, as it changes the microclimate, leading to great changes or
complete extinction of the cave fauna (Lazareva Pećina, Eastern Serbia)
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CASE STUDIES
Consequences of anthropogenous impact on natural assets of Lazareva Pećina without an impact assessment on bats
The best known and best studied example of not taking bats and other biospeleological assets in consideration while developing the cave for tourism is the cave of Lazareva Pećina near the village Zlot in Eastern Serbia (Paunović 2000). This example is very illustrative and at the same time documented with a substantial amount of data. There is some rich documentation even from the 19th century. The consequences were not suffered only by bats but also by other biospeleological, paleontological and archeological assets that used to be plentiful at the Lazareva Pećina (Ćurčić et al. 1997). Although this cave is a known prehistoric human shelter, large-scale anthropogenic activities have started in 1953 when sediment started to be removed in order to enlarge the entrance. These activities have lasted for 25 years (until 1978) when the cave was officially open for tourist visits, with the peak of intensity in these last several years. One of the main indicators of changes and resulting damage was bat fauna, which became much poorer, first in qualitative and then in quantitative sense. The cave is presently just a winter roost of a mixed colony of about 2000 medium-size horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus euryale, Rh. blasii, Rh. mehelyi). These species are thriving in the present microclimatic conditions of high humidity and increased temperature. The former richness, composition and ecology of bat fauna of Lazareva Pećina are indicated by subfossil records of these animals as well as huge ancient burnt piles of their guano.
��p. 82
other construction elements) in order to facilitate and increase the creation of cave ornaments and thus its visual attractiveness. This type of practice is completely unacceptable, as it drastically changes the microclimate of an underground habitat, leading to complete extinction or great changes in the overall fauna of the cave!
Therefore, whenever any projects are undertaken in the caves, and especially those with a status of a protected natural asset, the high probability of presence of bats should be considered and a study of environmental impact assessment required, as it will have to include bats.
Impact assessment for each project planned in underground bat roosts must include data on population numbers and seasonal dynamics of all species within the cave, as well as the list of precisely determined locations where bats were recorded in different seasons. The priority species for protection are those using the cave as an important site for reproduction, hibernation or rest during migration.
The imperative is to protect important bat habitats from adverse effects of the projects (as they might lead to drastic changes or complete disappearance of bat fauna) through implementation of appropriate measures if avoidance, mitigation and compensation or, if this is not possible, by complete legal protection – denying to issue a permit for implementation of such a project.
Part of hibernation colony of horseshoe bats at Lazareva Pećina
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Although presently there are only 3 species living in the cave in greater numbers during the
winter months, before the start of anthropogenic activities there were at least 9, both
in breeding and hibernation period. The microclimate used
to be more constant, with much lower humidity and
lower temperature. The first great impact on disruption of
wildlife of Lazareva Pećina was the enlargement of the
entrance, which remained in that position for a long
time until in mid 1970s it was completely closed by barrier
wall and large front door. This in turn led to drastic increase of humidity and temperature
in the cave, additionally amplified by installment of
strong inappropriate lighting that significantly contributed to increase in air temperature
and disturbance of bats with light. Eventually an inadequate cage bar obstacle was installed
in front of the barrier wall, disabling bats from entering
the cave, particularly the larger species. In this way the bat
fauna was irreversibly changed and significantly deprived.
There is no documentation on possible assessment of impact and consequences
of plans and realization of cave development. During
the recent enhancement of anthropogenous activities,
the expert public successfully insisted that several changes
must be made in order to reduce adverse effects on cave wildlife. The upper part of the grill was modified in order to enable and ease the passage
of bats. Holes were made above the entrance door on the
barrier wall, so bats can freely pass in both ways.
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Show caves development projects (adaptation of a cave for tourism)
During the planning stage of a show cave development, it is necessary to perform an impact assessment in order to precisely determine the possible adverse effects of this project on bats.
Expected impacts during the construction
Complete disappearance of all bat species due to • constant disturbance, noise and light over a relatively long period of time.
Direct destruction of unique cave microhabitats for • troglodytes.
Expected impacts during the operation
Artificial lights and presence of humans change the • microclimate, increasing the temperature in the cave for about 2-4oC, depending on the position and direction of light sources. The increase in temperature will additionally increase the dryness of air. Representatives of most bat species cannot adapt and therefore disappear from the cave.
Before the removal of vertical bars in its upper part, the gate grill at the entrance of Lazareva Pećina did not allow the passage of bats
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Use of artificial lighting in Bat Hall was stopped, so visitors cannot directly approach the colony. All this is a useful, but small and insufficient step toward proper management of protection and conservation of Lazareva Pećina and understanding the role of bats in this ecosystem as a key natural asset, upon which the other species depend, including some endemic ones.
There are several other caves of Serbia that used to be developed in a way that did not include a multidisciplinary approach or impact assessment of such development on bats and underground wildlife. However, they were not scientifically studied well enough to provide so many obvious proofs as Lazareva Pećina.
For more details on the impact of the development of underground roosts on bats, methodology of research and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see:
Mitchell-Jones, A. J., Bihari, Z., Masing, M. Rodrigues, L. (2007): Protecting and managing underground sites for bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 2 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 38 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseries_no2_english_3rd_edition.pdf>
Mosses, algae and fungi belonging to species not • characteristic for the natural cave environment develop on illuminated surfaces. The visitors are also inevitably bringing the microorganisms from the outside world, and many of these more or less succeed in adapting to underground life, causing changes in food chain and composition of the previously mostly isolated ecosystem.
Bat colonies are constantly disturbed and distracted, • and if proper avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures are not implemented, they disappear from the cave
Research methods
Roost inspection must be performed several times • during all seasonal aspects, both in winter and summer months.
Capturing bats at the entrance of the underground • roost from late August to early October will show which species visit the cave for swarming and mating.
After the removal of vertical bars in its upper part, the gate grill at the entrance of Lazareva Pećina allows passage of bats
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INSTALLATION OF GATES AND GRILLS AT ENTRANCES
According to the assessment
of impact of a cave adaptation
project for business, tourist or
other purposes, installation of
an appropriate gate or grill may
be recommended. Depending
on specific conditions, present
species and roost function,
it is necessary to determine
the optimal design, technical
specifications and materials for
fencing or gating.
Poorly designed gates may
significantly alter the airflow
or represent physical obstacles
for bats or other species using
a cave or a mine. Sometimes
they are poorly constructed, so
they are easily vandalized or
bypassed.
The properly designed gate is
efficient in control of human
approach and vandal-resistant,
and at the same time, it
provides free air circulation and
movement of bats.
As a rule, the distance between
the bars must allow bats to fly
freely in between (minimum of
35 cm between the horizontal
bars and 20 cm between the
vertical bars). If a cave is
inhabited by more than 50
individual bats, the distance
between the bars must be
increased by at least 5 cm,
to facilitate a simultaneous
passage of a larger number of
bats. Design of grills depends
on the size and shape of the
entrance.
��p. 85
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (preferably with the time expansion system), combined with visual detection in the vicinity of the cave, may be an efficient way to determine the presence of certain bat species difficult to notice during the roost inspection, and to indicate their presence in the cave as well.
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
Construction works must be performed exclusively • in the period when they will not cause a significant disturbance. They must be adapted to the specific seasonal dynamics of recorded bat species (for example, if bats are using the cave for hibernation, construction works must be performed in summer and vice versa).
Lighting system must be based on LED diodes or • similar light sources with low heat emanation, and the regime of lighting must not disturb the bats.
If swarming takes place in the cave in late summer • and autumn, the lights at the entrance must be turned off at night in the appropriate season.
A permanent or seasonal regime of restrictions • must be introduced in order to control the visitors’ access to the areas most important for bats and cave invertebrate fauna.
The gate must be designed in such a way to enable • unlimited access for the maximum possible number of bats known to live in the cave.
One safe way of monitoring bat colonies in passages • with restriction of approach is to install remote-controlled infrared cameras. Picture may be projected on a monitor outside of the cave. This may fulfill the curiosity of visitors and expose interesting data on reproduction biology of these species and their underground movements in all seasons of the year.
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After the dimensions and
proportions are measured, it is
necessary to construct the grills
in the workshop. In order to
set a proper gate it is generally
necessary to use a generator,
a powerful drill and a cutter,
fixing anchors, bolts, cement
or some kind of glue, as well as
all the relevant equipment and
consumables.
Rectangular or triangular grills
made of solid metal should be
used to close mineshafts.
If representatives of species
Miniopterus schreibersii are
present in large numbers,
closing the entrance with a grill
may lead to complete desertion
of the site.
The gate grill at the entrance of Hadži-Prodanova Pećina allows for free passage of bats in the upper area, while it prevents the uncontrolled approach of humans
Management of existing show caves
In Serbia, there are 15 caves adapted for tourism, and 11 of them are currently open for tourists. These are: Rajkova Pećina (municipality Majdanpek), Lazareva Pećina and Vernjikica (Bor), Dubočka Pećina, Ceremošnja and Ravništarka (Kučevo), Resavska Pećina (Despotovac), Risovača (Aranđelovac), Hadži-Prodanova Pećina (Ivanjica), Potpećka and Stopića Pećina (Užice). Following caves are partially adapted and/or used to be open for tourists in the past: Bogovinska Pećina (Boljevac), Prekonoška Pećina (Svrljig) and Petnica (Valjevo), while for Mermerna Pećina (Lipljan), situated on the territory of AP Kosovo and Metohija, the present situation is not known.
Of these caves, the most important bat roosts were recorded at Lazareva Pećina, Vernjikica and Hadži-Prodanova Pećina, with large bat colonies that may reach the number of several tens of thousands individuals!
As a rule, bats were not considered when plans of development and management of these and other caves were prepared (Paunović 2000). Only the implementation of strict and adequate management regimes would lead to the survival of bat colonies in caves open for visitors. The appropriate limitations of tourist visits during the periods when bat colonies are present in the caves, combined with active participation of cave guides, would help minimize the impact on bat populations.
It is necessary to perform an impact assessment of the current status for all the previously adapted show caves, and the management plans should take in considerations the results of impact assessment. The impact assessment of the current status should include the same elements as the assessment of the impact of new projects of show caves development of cave adaptation for business purposes.
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Examples of a poor design of gate grill
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
They are the same as in the new projects of adapting • the caves for tourist purposes, but they also include:
The assessment of the “permeability” of the existing • gate for bats, and if necessary, a new design should be suggested.
Change in lighting might be suggested if necessary. • Special attention should be paid to where the light beam is directed, and in periods of the year critical for bats, these light sources should be turned off.
Concerts, film shootings, celebrations and other mass • gatherings should be completely forbidden in the period when bats are present.
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Examples of a good design of gate grill
Cave use for business purposes
Turning caves into wine cellars or spaces for cheese maturation or mushroom farming, or any other uses of caves in business purposes, are not common in Serbia. Same as in projects of adapting the caves for tourist purposes, it is necessary to perform an impact assessment in order to precisely determine the possible adverse effects of these projects on bats, so the impact assessment must contain the same elements.
Expected impacts during the operation
In order to maintain constant temperature in caves used for mushroom farming or cheese maturation, the entrances are commonly closed with walls made of construction materials (concrete, bricks etc.) and/or metal plate doors. The soil near the entrance is often covered in concrete, and the natural formations within the cave are destroyed. Cables and lighting are installed within the walls. In most cases, a generator of electrical energy, situated at the entrance or close to it, is left working throughout the workdays. In such conditions, the existence of bat colonies in caves becomes problematic or impossible.
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
Construction and restoration activities may be performed • only during the periods when they pose no threat or disturbance to bats.
Impact assessment must explicitly state the size and • design of gate and ventilation vents, so bats would be able to freely pass through.
If the cave is the place of swarming, artificial lighting • and activities at the entrance must be forbidden during this period.
Generators of electric energy and other types of work • equipment are not allowed to produce noise above 45 Leq (dBA), while the exhaust fumes must not enter or lead to the cave.
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Restrictions during the reconstruction and
development of caves
During the process of preparing an impact assessment of
projects on underground roosts and deciding on approval these
studies, we suggest that the following list of prohibitions and restrictions, which are a
legal obligation as well, should be officially assigned for each underground locality, in order
to protect the underground environment and the bats
that live there. The following activities should be explicitly
forbidden:
Disturbing, poisoning, •killing, capturing, carrying
or restricting the movement of animals that permanently or temporarily inhabit caves during the certain stages of
their life cycle;
Destroying, damaging, •collecting or shifting nests
or dens of animals that permanently or temporarily
inhabit the caves;
Removing sediments, taking •out, shifting, destroying or
damaging paleontological or archaeological sites;
Using caves for disposal of •living or dead animals or their
body parts;
Lighting open flames (except •for acetylene, gas or gasoline
lamps);
Lighting fires or using flares •in the cave or at its entrance,
as it will blacken the walls;
Use of explosives during the •adaptation or repair works, or
for enlargement of the natural openings in walls, ceiling and
the floor of the cave;
Closing the abandoned mines
Most abandoned mines and geological and research mine galleries represent suitable roosts for bats. The galleries may be fully dry, with flooded entrances or completely flooded, so the elements of environment (temperature, humidity, airflow, etc.) are in most cases identical to those in natural caves. In most cases, bats use mine galleries for hibernation. Research results from other Balkan countries have shown that only 5% of abandoned galleries have not been inhabited by bats.
In most galleries, plans for closing generally include sealing the entrance by demolition or cementing. In some cases, the entrances may be flooded and embanked to prevent the children from entering the mines.
Research methods
Roost inspection, if safety conditions allow it, • must be performed several times each season, and particularly in winter.
Capturing bats at the entrance and its vicinity will • enable identification of general bat fauna in the vicinity of the gallery, and at the same time show if bats use the gallery for mating purposes (late August to early October) or during migration (April-May, September-October).
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (preferably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection in the vicinity of the gallery may indicate presence of bats in the cave as well.
WARNING!
Due to erosion and collapsing that may have happened after the abandonment, and the decay of pillars connecting the floor and the ceiling entering and working in many galleries and mines is very dangerous!
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Noise that exceeds 45 Leq •(dBA);
Causing vibrations; •
Flushing or storing objects, •substances and wastes,
except for those allowed by
management plan;
Construction works, except in •cases specifically outlined in
management plan;
Activities which destroy, •damage or cause removal
of historic paintings,
inscriptions, archeological
and other artifacts, which
are evidence of human
presence in the caves,
except when rescue
operations are underway
and there is no other way to
save human life;
Destroying, damaging •or removing elements of
geological structure of the
cave;
Covering over, blocking or •destroying the cave entrances;
Destroying, damaging •or removing items of
cave infrastructure,
except during repairs and
reconstruction proposed by
the development plan;
Taking out elements of cave •structure;
Marking the walls, ceilings or •floor with letters or symbols
(visibly or not), except for
mapping purposes.
Activities on cave development
must not compromise the
design requirements of the
entrance area.
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
If the field studies show that a gallery (or a complex • of galleries) meets the criteria of being an important underground bat roost, demolition or complete closing of the entrance must be strictly forbidden.
The design of entrance gate/grill, which is supposed • to protect the gallery, must allow for appropriate “permeability”, in accordance with the maximal number of bats recorded during the assessment survey. Most of the gate/grill should have horizontal instead of vertical bars, in order to prevent bats from colliding with the bars during swarming.
Removal of cave ornaments is forbidden by law (“Cave man”, Vernjikica Cave, Zlot, Eastern Serbia)
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Impact assessment is mandatory or may be required
for all projects of opening or expanding of quarries,
depending on the surface area.
CASE STUDY
In Serbia, a good example of an important bat roost
endangered by an active and expanding quarry is Hadži-
Prodanova Pećina near Ivanjica in western Serbia. A quarry with
very intensive exploitation and high frequency of explosions
is situated just outside the entrance of this protected cave.
The vegetation in the vicinity of the cave, which represents an important habitat for cave
bats, is greatly damaged by extension of the quarry. The
comparison of population numbers in 1994 and 2009 has
shown the same qualitative composition of species, but
abundance of certain species dropped by 30-80%!
Kamenolom kod Hadži-Prodanove pećine
OPENING AND EXPANDING OF QUARRIES
Opening new quarries or expanding the existing ones in limestone massifs will definitively have an impact on caves, rock crevices and other sites bats use as roosts. Such projects may even lead to direct death of individuals/colonies and loss of (potential) roosts, which may have a significant adverse effect on both local and migratory populations and species. Therefore, bats must be included in the impact assessment with this type of project.
The main goal of impact assessment and its part pertaining to bats should be to determine the possible presence of bat roosts at the project site or its immediate vicinity. Additionally, it is necessary to identify the species present at the site and its vicinity, whether it includes their presence in possible roosts, or their activity in the zone.
Research methods
Searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, •
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (advisably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, in order to determine the activity and identify the roosts of species that are inaccessible or poorly accessible for direct inspection when in the roosts.
Special attention should be paid to searching for the (potential) roosts and searching for and researching the landscape elements that are potential bat roosts (such as caves, niches, rock crevices etc.). Researchers must paid special attention to determine or asses if a location offers possibility for (mass) hibernation of species Nyctalus noctula and Pipistrellus nathusii i.e. their migratory populations.
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
The possible speleological objects present at the site and the protective zone around the entrance, particularly if there is a proven bat roost, must be exempted from the location in order to get an approval and permission to start the project. This should not be a problem for the investor, as this area is generally negligible in size in comparison with the total area the project is supposed to cover.
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Impact assessment is mandatory or may be required for projects of wind farms, depending on total power and number of wind generators.
WIND FARMS
The projects of wind farms are a relatively new initiative in Serbia, with the aim of obtaining energy from renewable sources, and are quickly gaining popularity. Presently, at least 5 of these projects are in preparation and impact assessment is currently being performed, and several more are planned. The Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia has prepared a special guidelines, which are now being distributed to potential developers and investors, introducing them to all steps and procedures required for realization of this type of projects, including the procedure of impact assessment. In all known cases, the decisions on determining the scope and content of the EIA study have included bats, as well as birds, as the subjects of the study. This indicates that the competent government authorities clearly recognize the potential impact of these projects on bats. It remains to be seen if this approach will continue to be applied in the decisions making on the environmental EIA study approval, checking the fulfillment of conditions set out in approval and later supervision over the fulfillment of conditions for each individual project.
Potential impacts on bats and their importance
This list shows that all landscape elements functional for bats may be threatened by this type of projects, and the importance of negative impact depends of specific features of each species and ecological functions of particular location for each species. The study therefore must present a complete answer to the question: which bat species use the project site, which functions does the site have for them, and in what way does the relative abundance and activity of species varies seasonally. The precise positions of roosts must be identified in the zones where they may be destroyed by the project in question or where they are situated in the immediate vicinity of wind turbines, because that may lead to a high mortality rate. In the case where the location of the project includes only the hunting areas, flight paths and/or migration routes of certain species while the roosts are situated in the zones where there is no a direct threat of mortality and/or loss of roosts, it is sufficient to identify the zones with roosts of the individual specimens present on the location, but it is not necessary to precisely determine the position of each roost.
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Table. Significance of expected impacts during the construction and due to siting
Impact/conflict Local populations Migratory populations
Loss of hunting areas
during and due to
construction of access
roads, foundations and
other infrastructure
Small to medium
impact, depending on
the site and species
present at that site
Small impact
Loss of roost sites
during and due to
construction of access
roads, foundations and
other infrastructure
High to very high
impact, depending on
the site and species
present at that site
High to very high
impact, e.g. loss of
mating roosts
Table. Significance of expected impacts during the operation
Impact/conflict Summer time During migration
Fatalities
(due to barotrauma,
collision with rotor
blades and other
infrastructure etc.)
Small to high impact,
depending on the
species
High to very high impact
Loss of hunting areas Small to high impact,
depending on species
Probably a minor
impact during spring, a
medium to high impact
in autumn
Loss or disturbance of
flight pathsMedium to high impact. Small impact.
Ultrasound emissionProbably a negligible
impact
Probably a negligible
impact
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For more details on impact of wind-generator fields on bats, methodology of research and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see:
Rodrigues, L., Bach, L., Dubourg-Savage, M.-J., Goodwin J., Harbusch C. (2008): Guidelines for consideration of bats in wind farm projects. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 3 (English version). UNEP/EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 51 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseries_no3_english.pdf>
Research methods
Necessary methods for field research:
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, preferably using walking transects, as that is the most efficient way of gathering the most complete sets of data on presence of species and their habitat and landscape use at the site;
Searching for and inspecting roosts and colonies.•
Other recommended methods are:
Capturing, especially in the areas of hunting areas and • flight paths, with the goal of precise identification of species that can not be fully identified through ultrasound signals, provided that the ecological characteristics of the location allow for efficient use of this method;
Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems • (bat-boxes)
If possible, (provided there are sufficient financial means and enough time) the following can also be used:
radio-telemetry tracking and/or marking with the aim • of collecting as precise and detailed information on hunting areas and flight paths as possible, particularly for the most important species from the aspect of protection and conservation.
Modern techniques of Doppler radar and thermal • (infrared) cameras.
Research should last at least for one whole year (the period when bats are active) and include all seasons, and its intensity and dynamics should depend on conditions at the particular locality.
It is advisable to combine the audio-detection (whether by a hand-held detector or automatic systems) with collecting data on environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation and wind speed, so that they may be correlated with data on bat activity.
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LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION
(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10)
Protection of ecosystems
Article 17
Conservation of ecosystems
(forest, high-mountains, water
and wetland, vulnerable,
agro- and other ecosystems)
is performed through the
protection of their natural
composition, structure,
function, range and balance,
through appropriate measures
and activities aimed at their
conservation, enhancement and
sustainable use.
Protection of forest, wetland and water ecosystems
and habitats within the agroecosystems
Article 18
Conservation of biological
diversity of forest ecosystems
is performed in order to
enhance the generally useful
functions of forests, according
to Law.
Forest management must
be based on principles of
sustainable development and
conservation of biological
diversity, preservation of
natural composition, structure
and function of forest
ecosystems, according to the
conditions of environmental
conservation that are the
integral part of forest base.
��p. 95
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
The basic goal of these measures should be prevention of a high mortality rate in bats during the operation of wind farms. Another goal is to prevent the disruptions of flight paths (circadian, local) that connect the roosts to hunting areas, as well as the (seasonal) migration routes that connect summer and winter roosts/habitats, which could lead to significant threats to the influenced populations and species. The most adequate solution in each particular case will primarily depend on the ecological characteristics of the species the measures are intended for and on the characteristics of the terrain and the particular project.
Project activities in areas important for bats should • be performed exclusively by day, as noise and lighting during the night may significantly disturb their life activities.
During the project activities, any removal of tree • and shrub vegetation not in direct function with project realization should be avoided, except when it is included in the measures leading to the decrease in mortality rates in bats.
Decrease of impact by appropriate layout of wind • turbines and setting up the safety zones. Careful planning of wind turbine layout may significantly contribute to the decrease in direct mortality rate. The greatest mortality rates are expected in zones where bat activity is focused – flight paths, hunting areas, immediate vicinity of large colony roosts and migration routes, particularly for higher risk species, due to their specific ecology. The wind turbines that would be placed in zones of important flight paths would be a bigger problem as, besides the risks of high mortality rates, they could also present a barrier to daily movements from roosts to hunting areas. In Serbia, the traditional migration routes of birds, and as far as it’s known of bats as well, are situated along the valleys of
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In order to enrich the biological
and landscape diversity, the
forest management strives
to preserve forest glades
(meadows, pastures etc.)
and forest edges as much as
possible.
Actions, activities and work
threatening hydrological
phenomena or survival and
conservation of biological
diversity are forbidden in water
and wetland ecosystems.
The amount of water in water
and wetland ecosystems that
is considered necessary for
preservation of hydrological
phenomena and survival
of biological diversity is
determined by the ministry in
charge of agriculture, forestry
and water industry activities, in
accordance with the decision of
the Ministry.
Conservation of biological and
landscape diversity of habitats
within the agroecosystems and
other non-autonomous and
semi-autonomous ecosystems
is performed primarily through
conservation and protection
of ecotone habitats, hedges,
cairns, individual trees,
groups of trees, ponds and
meadow belts, as well as other
ecosystems with preserved or
partly altered forest, shrub,
meadow or marsh vegetation.
During the increase in size of
plots of agricultural land, it
is necessary to consider the
conservation of existing and
the creation of new ecotone
habitats, in order to provide
biological and landscape
diversity of the ecosystem
the rivers Tisa, Danube, Sava and Velika Morava. On the local level, every well-defined mountain pass or saddle is certainly, and every linear landscape element potentially, a place where migratory and non-migratory movements are concentrated. The research must be detailed enough to gather sufficient information for making proper decisions on wind turbine layout, in order to provide undisturbed activities and minimal mortality rates for present species. Zones with the greatest concentrations of bat activities and their functions for recorded bats should be presented on a map, and wind farms should not be built within a certain safe distance from these zones.
Curtailment or decreasing of blades speed at low • wind speeds. Most bat deaths happen at low wind speeds of up to 5-6 m/s, as bat activity decreases drastically when the wind gets stronger. The very large pool of newest research data on American wind farms show that stopping the blades (curtailment) or drastically decreasing their speed by changing the angles of the blades until the moment when wind reaches the critical speed, have led to drastic decrease in bat mortality (60-90%), with negligible losses in production of electric energy on the annual level. Therefore, especially in projects with predicted high risk of bat mortality, and depending on the individual wind turbine type used, some of these methods should be applied in order to decrease the risk of mortality.
Reduce the surface area of the bats’ prey habitat • in the vicinity of turbines. The immediate vicinity of wind farms and roads, disturbed by construction and activities of the project, may include places with significant concentration of insect prey. The increase in the amount of prey may then attract bats and increase the risk of mortality. Measures should be suggested in order to decrease the attractiveness of immediate vicinity of wind turbines for insects and consequentially bats, during both the construction and the operation of the wind farm.
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POST-CONSTRUCTION MONITORING
As a minimum, the
post-construction monitoring
should determine:
The accuracy of the •assessment of mortality rate
in EIA study.
Relative mortality rates when •compared to other similar
projects.
How appropriate were the •implemented avoidance,
mitigation and compensation
measures.
Is it necessary to implement •additional avoidance,
mitigation and compensation
measures?
Are the implemented •measures of compensation
appropriate and are
additional ones necessary?
The period of post-construction
should be long enough to
determine if the assessment
of impact on bats was precise
enough and if operation
of wind farm has caused
any unpredicted adverse
effect, particularly a high
mortality rate which would
require additional avoidance,
mitigation and compensation
measures.
��p. 97
Avoid lighting that attracts insects and bats. • Different species of bats react to artificial light in different ways, but knowledge on this phenomenon is still insufficient. It is certain that the lights that are constantly turned on repel certain bat species. On the other hand, such light attracts nocturnal insects, which in turn attract those bat species that are adapted to hunting around the artificial lights, increasing the risk of high mortality rates. Therefore, it is suggested that lights installed on the wind turbines should be switched on and off, and the period the lights are on should be at the minimum proposed by safety regulations. The recommended light sources are those that do not attract insects or attract them in small numbers, and the best types have switches and sensors that turn off the lights when they are not necessary. Light sources should be directed so that the lit area outside of the project activity zone is kept to the minimum.
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At project sites where available
information is insufficient
(which will always be the case
in Serbia, at least in the initial
phase of using wind energy),
it would be necessary to
perform systematic monitoring
of mortality rate for at least
two years, using some of
the standard techniques of
fatality count (search for
carcasses). That is the only
way to precisely determine the
mortality rate, taking seasonal
variability into account. For
comparison, assessments of
risks and mortality rates must
be quantified in a uniform way,
expressed as the number of
fatalities per megawatt (MW) of
installed capacity per year.
The field research pertaining to
bat mortality may be performed
simultaneously with the similar
bird monitoring as they use the
same methodology.
Decommission – removal of non-operational wind • turbines or wind farms. Individual wind turbines or whole wind farms should be removed when they permanently stop working, as that eliminates the risk of mortality and permanent disruption of landscape functionality for bats. All studies of impact assessment must list this measure for preventing further impact after the project decommission, and the authorities should demand that the plan for decommission and removal should be included in the project. The plan should include all details on how the wind turbines and additional structures will be dismantled and removed, including the removal of foundations (up to one meter below the surface), additional roads, unnecessary fences and additional structures. The decommission plan should also include documentation that shows financial ability to fulfill the demands of decommission and restoration.
Compensation measures
In contrast to impact on habitat, where loss of one hectare of land at the project site may be compensated by protection or restoration of appropriate number of hectares of habitat outside of the site, there is no simple measure to compensate for fatalities..
Some possible means of compensation known to contribute to conservation and enhancement of bat populations, and which may form a part of compensation program include:
Protection of appropriate habitats and their functional • elements outside of the project location, above all roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes.
Improvement and/or renewal of appropriate habitats • and their functional elements outside of the project site, above all roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes..
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Environmental impact assessment mandatory
or may be required for all projects of road construction,
reconstruction and/or expanding, depending on the
number of road lanes.
For more details on impacts of road construction and
road traffic on bats, research methodology and measures
of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see:
Limpens H. J. G. A., Twisk P., Veenbas, G. (2005): Bats and Road Construction. Brochure
about bats and the ways in which practical measures can be taken to observe the legal
duty of car for bats in planning, constructing, re-constructing
and managing roads. Rijkswaterstaat, Dienst
Weg-en Waterbouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands.,
24 pp. <http://english.verkeerenwaterstaat.nl/
kennisplein/2/7/273409/Bats%20and%20road%20
construction.pdf>
Highways Agency (2006): Best practice in enhancement
of highway design for bats - Literature review report.
Halcrow Group Limited, Exeter, UK. 83 pp. <http://
www.highways.gov.uk/knowledge_compendium/
assets/documents/Portfolio/Best%20Practice%20in%20
Enhancement%20of%20Highway%20Design%20for%20
Bats%20-%20775.pdf>
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Planning of road infrastructure must be viewed from a broader perspective, as it may have multifold impacts on bats living in the vicinity of a proposed construction project. The road might break the continuity of habitat, or even completely destroy the habitat or its functional elements for the populations of bats (roosts, flight paths, hunting areas and migration routes) at the site or in the region. Construction of road infrastructure is also an expensive and complex process, which includes several stages of research, projecting ideas, technical projecting, commissioning, construction and maintenance.
The impact assessment must include the impact of road construction project (including all the project alternatives) on:
all bat roosts existing along and in vicinity of the • planned road;
flight paths that will be potentially interrupted by the planned • road, including the flight paths of those populations that do not roost in immediate vicinity of the planned road;
hunting areas of each recorded bat species on the • planned road and in its vicinity;
migration routes that will potentially be interrupted or • disrupted by the planned road and those in the vicinity.
Figure 1 (explained in text)
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Rulebook on special technical-technological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication by wild animals(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 72/10)
Article 3:
The ecological corridors are determined according to the analysis of ecological conditions and threats to the area, composition of natural vegetation and movements of wild animals, particularly in the reproductive period, which is determined within the procedure of assessing the conditions of nature conservation, or environmental impact assessment, and is an integral part of the document of environmental impact assessment, as regulated in special legislations.
Research methods
Field research must include at least one whole season and the whole area that may be affected by the road construction project, including all the project alternatives. The most adequate combination of methods and appropriate intensity of research depend on the ecological characteristics of the area that may be affected by the project, as well as on the composition of potentially present species and their ecological functions in that area (ANNEXES IV-VII).
Necessary methods for field research are:
Searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, •
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (with the time expansion system), in combination with visual detection, preferably using walking transects.
Additional recommended methods include:
Capturing, especially in the hunting areas and along • the flight paths, with the goal of precise identification of species that may not be reliably identified by using ultrasound signals alone, and
Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems • (bat-boxes).
Where it is possible, it is also advisable to use:
radio-telemetry tracking in order to collect as precise and • detailed information as possible on the hunting areas and flight paths, particularly for the most important species from the aspect of conservation and protection.
Figure 2. Green bridge (explained in text)
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LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION(Službeni glasnik RS,
No. 36/09, 88/10)
Measures of protection for migratory species
Article 80:
Public roads and other types of traffic lines, telecommunication
and electric energy systems, hydro-construction and other
objects where construction cuts through the usual corridors
of circadian and seasonal migrations of wild animals,
causes fragmentation of habitats or otherwise disrupts
their normal life cycle, have to be constructed in such a way to
diminish the negative effects, with use of special construction
and technical-technological solutions in objects and their
vicinity, during both the construction and exploitation
activities.
Special technical-technological solutions that enable
uninterrupted and safe communication of wild animal
populations (ecological bridges, overpasses and underpasses, tunnels, underground tubes,
ditches, safeguarding and directing objects, fish paths and
elevators etc.) as well as the protection measures and way of maintenance of technical-
technological solutions are prescribed by the Minister, with
the agreement of Ministry in charge of traffic, mining and energy, agriculture, forestry
and water industry.
Figure 3 (explained in text)
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
The ultimate goal should be to prevent any disruptions and breaks in (circadian, local) flight paths connecting the roosts with the hunting areas and (seasonal) migration routes connecting summer and winter habitats/roosts, as that would have a very significant adverse effect to the affected populations and species. Another goal is to evade high bat casualty rates during the construction, operation and maintenance of roads. The choice of the most adequate measures in each particular case will depend primarily on the specific ecological features of species enabled by these measures and on the characteristics of site.
Road construction activities in places important for • bats should be exclusively performed by daylight, as noise and artificial lights may significantly disturb their activities;
Whenever possible, the existing flight paths and migration • routes, as well as landscape elements that define them, should be preserved, and special measures should be taken in places where the road interrupts them in order to enable safe “transit” of bats – for example specific hop-over vegetation formations (Figures 3, 4), green viaducts (Figure 2), appropriate passes below the road (Figure 5) or bridge (Figure 6) etc.
Figure 4 (explained in text)1
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Figure 5 (explained in text)
Figure 6 (explained in text)
Figure 7 (explained in text)
Figure 8 (explained in text)
When it is not possible to preserve the safety of the • existing flight paths and migration routes for bats, and/or it is not possible to provide safe “crossing” for bats at the places where the road interrupts these corridors, it is necessary to develop a system of measures (Figure 1), which must include the following:
discouraging bats from crossing the road at the 1. unsafe places – for example by bright light, removal of vegetation etc.;
redirection of flight paths toward the closest safe 2. crossing – for example by reshaping the linear landscape elements;
enabling an appropriate safe crossing at the closest 3. possible location – for example by specific hop- -over vegetation formations (Figures 3, 4), green viaducts (Figure 2), appropriate passes below the road (Figure 5) or bridge (Figure 6) etc.
Avoid any removal of trees and shrub vegetation that • is not in direct function of project realization, except when it is proposed by the measures in function of decreasing the possibility of bat fatalities;
Artificial lights should be projected in such a way to disrupt • the life activities of bats as little as possible (Figure 7), except when it is proposed by the measures in function of decreasing the possibility of bat fatalities;
Protective walls that prevent the spreading of noise • should be erected wherever needed, and at the same time they will prevent the occurrence of animal casualties on the road (including bats);
If forest vegetation including some more important • hunting areas and/or a number of roosts of dendrophilous species must be removed during the realization of the project, this must be compensated by appropriate measures – for example forming new appropriate forest stands in safe zones, making appropriate replacements for lost roosts (Figure 8) etc.
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Impact assessment is compulsory or may be required for all projects of constructing
dams and other objects with the purpose of storing or
accumulation of water.
CASE STUDYĐerdap reservoir (lake)
It was formed after a dam was built on river Danube for needs of hydroelectric plant “Đerdap
1”, which started to work in 1970. The large water mass
of the newly formed Đerdap Lake has flooded several
human settlements, important geological and archaeological
sites, as well as gorge and riverbank habitats and roosts of
bats. The detailed overview on changes in mammalian fauna was provided by Mirić (1981) in a study where according to
the collected data he concluded that the appearance of hydro-
accumulation will not have a more significant impact on
mammalian fauna. The bat fauna around Đerdap Lake
is presently rich and diverse, and most important roosts
and habitats, as well as larger forest complexes, are presently included within the boundaries
of National Park “Đerdap”, representing an effort for their
protection and conservation.
CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIR FACILITIES
Construction of reservoirs has a great industrial importance, as they serve to provide water for various purposes, and sometimes play a crucial role in areas where water sources are insufficient or entirely non-existent. The construction of dams causes large-scale changes in nature, from climatic factors to wildlife, and for most elements of flora and fauna, these changes are fatal.
As construction of reservoirs may directly lead to bat fatalities and threaten all aspects of their lives, the study on impact assessment should include impacts of dam construction projects and formation of reservoirs on:
all bat roosts present in the zone suggested for submersion • and its vicinity;
flight paths that will be disrupted or severed by the • reservoir, including the flight paths of those populations that roost away from the immediate vicinity of the planned reservoir;
hunting areas of each recorded bat species in the zone • suggested for submersion;
migration routes that will be potentially disrupted • or severed by the reservoir, as well as those in the vicinity.
Research methods
Field studies must include at least one whole season and the whole area that may be affected by the project; and particularly the zone suggested for submersion. The most adequate combination of methods and intensity of research will depend on the ecological characteristics of the area that may be affected by the project and on the potentially present species and their ecological functions in that area (ANNEXES IV-VII).
Necessary methods for field research include:
searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies;•
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CASE STUDY
Reservoir at Drina River – Perućac LakeAccumulation lake Perućac was formed at river Drina, in the border area between Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, in 1966, after the construction and start of activities of hydroelectric plant “Bajina Bašta”. After the raise of water level, the gorge of river Drina above the hydroelectric plant was flooded. It used to be, and still is, a landscape with high biodiversity levels and part of range of many strictly protected and rare species. In spite of the significant change of microclimatic conditions, many animals, including the bats, have managed to find alternative habitats. However, several dozen well-known speleological objects that used to be important bat roosts have disappeared below the water mass of the lake. Same as in the case of Đerdap Lake, a protected natural asset was established in vicinity of Perućac Lake – National Park “Tara”, significantly compensating the negative consequences of nature modification.
ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (with the time expansion system), combined with visual detection, with best results provided by walking transects;
capture, particularly in hunting areas, flight paths and • at roost entrances, with the goal of precise identification of species that may not be reliably identified based on ultrasound signals alone.
If possible, it is advisable to also use:
ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems • (bat-boxes);
radio-telemetry tracking with the goal of collecting as precise • and detailed information on hunting areas and flight paths as possible, particularly for species most important from the point of view of conservation and protection.
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
If the zone proposed for submersion includes important bat roosts, it is imperative to avoid the high mortality rate within the roosts, which would certainly happen if the submersion were to occur during the period of hibernation and reproduction. Therefore the period of activities at the site should be carefully scheduled, and the submersion process should be limited to the period when the roosts do not contain more important colonies (particularly hibernation and nursery ones).
Loss of habitats, flight paths and hunting areas caused by formation of reservoirs (submersion) is almost impossible to mitigate, and certainly not completely avoid. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for measures of compensation that will make up for the lost ecological function and loss of habitat in the immediate vicinity. The most efficient way to implement the compensation measures is to establish legal protection and active measures of improving the conditions of ecosystems in immediate vicinity.
If the study of impact assessment shows that the zone of a planned reservoir covers some very important flight paths, hunting areas, migration routes, and particularly roosts, this project should not be approved.
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Conservation, protection, planning, planting and
utilization of forests and management of forests and forest areas are included in the Serbian Law on Forests
(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 30/10). Planning in forestry
is performed through a hierarchical system of
programs and plans. The strategic environmental impact
assessment was proposed for programs and plans at the
highest level, adopted for a period of 10 years:
Programs of forestry •development – strategic planning documents on
national and regional level;
Development plans – plan •documents for forest areas
and national parks.
Environmental impact assessment may be required for all projects that include activities in forest habitats
leading to changes to another type of land exploitation. Many
forest habitats, complexes and fragments already
have the status of legally protected natural assets, and
the environmental impact assessment may also be required
for all projects realized within the protected natural asset.
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Out of 29 species of bats recorded in Serbia, about a half live in forests. These species fulfill all or most of their needs within the forest habitats. These forest bats feed on moths, caterpillars, mosquitoes, beetles and dozens of other types of flying and crawling insects, many of them classified as harmful to forests. Bats catch their prey in the air or collect it from leaves, ground or tree bark.
As bats are present in all forest ecosystems in Serbia, and many bat species completely or mostly depend on forests for fulfillment of their needs, it is necessary to include bats in all (strategic) impact assessments pertaining to forests.
Research methods
There are numerous problems specific to studying bats in the forests. Field research on forest bats is usually longer, with higher intensity and covering a greater area than the research on bats in other habitat types, such as caves or urban areas. The greater intensity demands the larger research team and a greater number of work nights during all seasons. The complete list of species living in forests and understanding of their habitats and landscape use may be determined only after several years of systematic research combining several different methods. It is also important to know that certain forest areas (young forest for example) may not be permanently inhabited by bats, but several species may use them as hunting areas or temporary roosts, while in some forests population density of bats is often very low.
Capturing with mist- nets and/or traps. • This is the main research technique in forest habitats. The most efficient way is placement of nets above rivers, streams, ponds, forest glades, forest paths, and especially at the entrances of caves and rock outcrops if they exist. Such placement of nets increases the possibility of recording a greater number of species. Probability of capture also increases with the increase of the total length of nets used, which should be greater than 50 m for efficient capture in forest habitats. The advantage
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LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION(Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10)
Protection of ecosystemsArticle 17
Conservation of ecosystems (forest, high-mountains, water and wetland, vulnerable, agro- and other ecosystems) is performed through the protection of their natural composition, structure, function, range and balance, through appropriate measures and activities aimed at their conservation, enhancement and
sustainable use.
Protection of forest, wetland and water ecosystems and habitats within the agroecosystems
Article 18, Lines 1 - 3
Conservation of biological diversity of forest ecosystems is performed in order to enhance the generally useful functions of forests, according to Law.
Forest management must be based on principles of sustainable development and conservation of biological diversity, preservation of natural composition, structure and function of forest ecosystems, according to the conditions of environmental conservation that are the integral part of forest base.
In order to enrich the biological and landscape diversity, the forest management strives to preserve forest glades (meadows, pastures etc.) and forest edges as much as possible.
For more details on bats and forest management, please see:
Meschede, A. (Serbian edition by Karapandža, B., Paunović, M.) (2004): Slepi miševi naših šuma - Informacije i preporuke za upravljače šumama. Društvo za očuvanje divljih životinja »Mustela«, Beograd, 20pp.
of this method is that it provides the most precise identification of species, while the disadvantage is that certain forest species are difficult to catch using any techniques due to specific features of their ecology and behavior – they have a very low population density, they are very cautious and successfully avoid nets, they fly from tree hollows straight up and almost never come closer to the ground etc.
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector • (with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection; preferably walking transects. This method provides efficient recording of bats flying over or hunting, and determines the positions of their flight paths and hunting areas. It should be noted that the spatial range of the detector is smaller in forests than in other types of habitat, due to the increased absorption of ultrasound signals in closed-type habitats and the lower energy of ultrasound signals of most forest-dwelling bat species. Therefore, this method is particularly suitable for young forests or parts with lower vegetation, in gallery forests, as well as in the parts with more open vegetation stands – at the forest glades, along the roads and paths, rivers and streams, and forest edges.
Radio-telemetry tracking.• This may be the most precise method to show the feeding areas of bats, the flight paths they use to reach the hunting areas and the precise locations of roosts, but it demands a time-expensive, high intensity research, as well as expensive equipment.
Recommendation of measures for improving forests as bat habitats
Modern concepts of forest management include a number of measures with the aim of conservation of rich diversity, including the bat fauna. Roosts and food are the essential resources. These two basic resources can be improved by taking targeted forestry measures. The following suggestions are not intended to be implemented within the same forest stand, but rather represent a list of all possible actions to be taken depending on the site conditions, the practicability, and the spectrum of bat species.
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Aims of bat conservation Recommendations for forest management
Initializing a two-level roost-site network aiming at a permanent and long-term roost supply of 25 to 30 tree holes per hectare of old stand, equalling 7 to 10 roost trees per hectare
level 1: • securing a network of trees that already show holes due to rotting or made by woodpeckers, cracks in the trunk, or loose bark. Distances between hole hot spots should not exceed 1,000 m
level 2: • developing a network of successors for trees of level 1. If possible, chosen trees should already show signs of holes or ecological qualities like a fungus infestation
mark and protect known roost trees (summer and •winter roosts)
Promotion of feeding habitats for species that forage in open air space (e.g. Leisler’s bat)
clearings or clearcuts no larger than 0.5 - 1 ha through •natural processes or measures of restocking
harvesting trees in clusters •
establishing ponds (200 m • 2 minimum)
Promotion of hunting habitats for species that feed in dense vegeta-tion (e.g. Bechstein’s bat, Natterer’s bat, brown long-eared bat)
increase of the substratum and intermediate layer up •to 20 - 30 % coverage
partial thinning of the canopy to increase light •intensity and thus promote undergrowth (density of canopy about 80 %)
toleration of succession areas •
Support of a canopy with high food production (e.g. for Bechstein’s bat, whiskered and Brandt’s bat) support of canopy gaps as a source for food production for all bat species
introducing deciduous tree species suitable for the •site, e.g. oak, beech, hornbeam (species with high insect abundance)
no harvesting of old trees (especially oak) and •enhancement of the amount of light incident on such trees and their surroundings to increase insect abundance
Free airspace about 1 m above the ground and open forest floor (important for the greater mouse-eared bat)
creation of areas free of undergrowth by promoting •one-layered ”hall-like” stands
development of dense canopy to decrease light •intensity, by promotion of medium-sized trunks (40 - 50 cm diameter at breast height), by increasing the age of trees (targeted thinning) which in turn increases space between trees
Structures and sources of food in general (particularly for Nathusius’ pipistrelles, common pipistrelle, whiskered and Brandt’s bat, but also for all other species)
”designing” inner forest margins along waysides, e.g •
development of outer margins of forests (minimum 30 •m in depth) by ”natural development” as links between forest and open cultivated landscape, continued by hedges, tree lines, ditches etc.
establishing ponds (100 - 200 m • 2 minimum) and forest meadows
re-establishing wet forest parts by closing drainages •and/or diverting waters; restoration of riparian forests and old river beds
no use of pesticides, especially insecticides in case of •pest infestation, but reliance on preventive steps
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Projects of urban development and other projects of construction or restoration of infrastructure within the human settlements belong to the group of projects for which environmental impact assessment may be required.
For more details on impact of renovation of immobile cultural assets on bats, research methodology and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see:
Marnell, F., Presetnik P. (2010): Protection of overground roosts for bats (particularly roosts in buildings of cultural heritage importance). EUROBATS Publication Series No. 4 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 57 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseries_no4_english_2nd_edition.pdf>
Entrance of typical roost site of Kuhl’s pipistrelle in Belgrade
URBAN DEVELOPMENT
At least seven bat species (Pipistrellus kuhlii, Nyctalus noctula, Hypsugo savii, Eptesicus serotinus, Pipistrellus nathusii, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pygmaeus) are regular inhabitants of human settlements in Serbia. Residential and business buildings, city greenery, industrial zones, road infrastructure and other elements of urban landscape provide a large number of suitable habitat functions, particularly roosts, which bats have learned to use permanently or seasonally. The size of bat colonies in settlements and human-made objects usually varies from several individuals to several hundred individuals, and in certain cases even several thousand individuals, depending on the ecology of species and the conditions in the particular roost. Bats may find suitable roosts in attics and roof constructions, in basements and other underground spaces, crevice-like spaces in construction and/or facades of buildings, ventilation ducts, chimneys, hollows in bridge constructions, and generally in any barely accessible or rarely used or abandoned space in man-made constructions, as well as in the city trees. Some species may use only one or two roosts during the year, while others may use 40-70 different roosts in a single summer, changing them every couple of days.
Poorly maintained buildings in the old part of Belgrade provide an abundance of roosts for Kuhl’s pipistrelle
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CASE STUDY
Mixed nursery colonies of bats in Vršac in southern Banat
Vršac is situated in southern
Banat and it is one of rare
towns in Serbia where larger
bat colonies were recorded
in an urban environment.
Within the joined activity of
Naturalist Society “Gea” from
Vršac, Wildlife Conservation
Society “Mustela” and
Natural History Museum from
Belgrade on studying bats of
southern Banat, presence of
mixed nursery colonies was
determined in attics of several
buildings.
A mixed colony of greater
mouse-eared bats Myotis myotis
and greater horseshoe bats
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum,
composed of over 200 adult
females of both species, was
recorded in the attic of the
Orthodox Church in June
2003. This church underwent
restoration in 2009 and further
fate of this colony is unknown.
A mixed colony of greater
horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and Geoffroy’s
bats Myotis emarginatus was
recorded in July 2004 in the
attic of Technical High School
“Nikola Tesla”. There were
about 300 adult individuals,
predominantly females. This
colony exists to this day in
same numbers.
A large mixed colony of greater
horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and Geoffroy’s
bats Myotis emarginatus was
recorded in the attic of Carpet
and Floor Tiles shop Sintelon
in 2002. Among approximately
2000 specimens, Geoffroy’s
bats were dominant in 2:1 ratio.
This colony exists to this days in
same numbers.
Urban development projects with potentially greatest adverse effect on bats are those that include complete demolition of objects or their parts, as well as the restoration projects.
The most critical period for performing any projects in human settlements, especially demolition and/or restoration, is the time when bats give birth and nurse their young (May-July) or hibernate (November-February). Demolition of spaces or buildings inhabited by bats in these periods, besides the disturbance and loss of roosts, may also lead to fatalities, sometimes even of a very large number of individuals. During the period of birth and nursing, the young bats are almost completely helpless and, besides the direct fatal injury, they may also be abandoned by their mothers due to constant disturbance. During the hibernation period, all bats may be exposed to direct fatal injuries, but fatalities may also result from exhaustion and stress caused by disturbance and forceful awakening, or due to exposure to extreme winter climatic conditions caused by roost destruction.
Parts of populations of certain migratory species coming from northern parts of Europe hibernate in our Serbia (some of them may be very numerous, such as Nyctalus noctula), so there is also a significant risk of transboundary impact.
In conclusion, for the projects including demolition and/or restoration on greater scale, it is possible to estimate whether they might have an important impact on bats. Therefore, in these projects it is necessary to require an environmental impact assessment, which would have to include bats.
Impact assessment of such projects may be performed very quickly and efficiently – the field research in certain cases may be completed in just a few work nights during the period of bat activity.
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CASE STUDY
Bats of Belgrade
As a metropolis and the capital city of Serbia, Belgrade is full of bats. Citizens of Belgrade find it difficult to believe that their city offers shelter to hundreds of thousands of bats throughout the year and particularly in winter. So far, there are 15 recorded species of bats finding adequate habitats, hunting areas and numerous roosts in Belgrade. Until recently, the condition of facades and windows in buildings in older parts of Belgrade enabled comfortable roosting of bats, and citizens contacted the Natural History Museum and Society “Mustela” for help at the rate of about eight calls per year (Paunović et al. 2000). In last several years, the restoration of old facades has significantly increased, and the calls by citizens of Belgrade became even more common, so in the period from June to October there are on average 6 calls per month. This phenomenon might be a result of several facts, and the greatest probability is that all of them have a cumulative effect:
Restoration of buildings is •more common than it used to be, so bats are experiencing a shortage of roosts in Belgrade.
Number of bats in Belgrade is •increasing.
After more than ten years of •education, citizens of Belgrade now know where to look for the solution of their problems with bats, which has greatly increased the number of calls.
The most numerous species throughout the year is Kuhl’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhlii. First records in Serbia were actually from Belgrade in 1994 (Paunović et Marinković 1995). Since then, Kuhl’s pipistrelle has completely conquered Belgrade and almost all towns and settlements in Serbia. During the colder period of the year, Belgrade is a big wintering area for common noctules Nyctalus noctula that use anthropogenous roosts and tree hollows. In recent times there is another species conquering Belgrade – records of Savi’s pipistrelle Hypsugo savii are increasing throughout the city area.
Research methodsa
searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, •
ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector • (advisably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, in order to identify roosts of species that are inaccessible or hardly accessible for direct inspection when in the roosts
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
Whenever possible it is necessary to precisely prescribe • the schedule of when the activities at the site of bat roosts or it their vicinity start and end, limiting them to a period when the colony is absent;
Only in cases when it is not possible to prescribe time • limitations as a period when the colony is absent, a person with special permit should remove the bats from the locations planned for destruction/renovation;
It is necessary to provide preventive presence of an • experienced bat expert at the site immediately before the start of the activities.
At the top floor of this skyscraper in Zemun, there is a hibernation colony of noctule bat. The roost is in the crevice space between the concrete elements
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Environmental impact assessment may be required
for all projects in the protected vicinity of an immobile cultural
asset (cultural heritage buildings).
Detail of Smederevo Fortress
RESTORATION OF PROTECTEDCULTURAL HERITAGE BUILDINGS
Certain bat species (Rhinolophus hipposideros, Rh. ferrumequinum, Myotis emarginatus, M. myotis, Pipistrellus spp., Hypsugo savii etc.) may be found in basements and underground tunnels, attics and roof constructions, hollows and crevices in walls and in many other places in old buildings. Many local bat populations have a long tradition of using the same roosts, as they are often attracted to the special microclimate maintained in historical buildings over a long period of time.
Therefore, during the projects of restoration and/or change in use of buildings designated as protected immobile cultural assets, it is necessary to consider the high probability of the presence of bats, and require environmental impact assessment, which will obligatorily include bats.
Study on impact assessment should include a list of species with proven or possible presence at the site, as well as a precise map of site with marked bat roosts and estimates of number of individuals using each roost.
The most critical periods for performing these projects are the time of birth and nursing the young (May-July) and the period of hibernation (November-February). In the period of birth and nursing, the young bats are almost completely helpless and, besides the possible direct fatal injuries, they may also be abandoned by their mothers due to constant disturbance. During the hibernation period, all bats may be exposed to direct fatal injuries, but fatalities may also result from exhaustion and stress caused by disturbance. Reconstruction or demolition of certain parts of the complexes of immobile cultural assets containing bat colonies in these periods of year may lead not only to disturbance and loss of roosts, but also to direct fatalities, sometimes even of a very large number of individuals, and even to disappearance of local populations.
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CASE STUDIES
The Petrovaradin Fortress
Sixty years ago, the multi-branched system of underground tunnels under the Petrovaradin fortress was one of the most important and largest artificial underground habitats in Vojvodina. Bats used to be recorded throughout the year, while the greatest valuable data was collected during the winter months. Although certain parts of the fortress were used for various purposes throughout the years, it still supports an abundant bat fauna. This is mostly a due to the fact that the fortress had been used for military purposes for a very long time, which provided relatively constant conditions and prevention of access for a large number of people and vandals.
St. Mark’s Church in Belgrade
During the 1950s, the crypts of this church housed a large summer colony of greater mouse-eared bats Myotis myotis. According to data stored in the databank of the Mammal Collection of Natural History Museum, this colony already ceased to exist in the 1960s. Although there are no reliable data, if is assumed that disappearance of this colony is a consequence of restoration of their roost.
Research methods
searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, •
ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector • (advisably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, in order to identify roosts of species that are inaccessible or hardly accessible for direct inspection when in the roosts.
It is possible to discover bat guano on a single visit to each attic, basement, tunnel or other potential bat roost within the complex of immobile cultural asset. Information provided by the employees is a valuable additional source of data on the presence of bats. Ultrasound audio-detection may indicate presence of roosts of species otherwise difficult to identify.
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For more details on impact of renovation of immobile
cultural assets on bats, research methodology and
measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation,
please see:
Marnell, F., Presetnik, P. (2010): Protection of
overground roosts for bats (particularly roosts in
buildings of cultural heritage importance). EUROBATS Publication Series No. 4
(English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 57 pp. <http://www.
eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/
pubseries_no4_english_2nd_edition.pdf>
Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures
It is necessary to precisely prescribe the schedule • of when the activities at the site of bat roosts or it their vicinity start and end, limiting the activities to a period when the colony is absent, or if it is permanently present, to the period when disturbance has the lowest adverse effect;
If bats are permanently present at the roost, activities • should be limited to the period when the disturbance would lead to least adverse effect, and the roosts must be adequately protected from disturbance (noise, light, passing-by…).
The wooden construction elements should be protected • with chemical compounds non-toxic to bats, and if they are applied within the bat roost it must be done in the period when bats are absent.
The openings used by bats to enter the roost should • remain unaltered whenever possible.
Whenever possible the vegetation in vicinity of the • roost should be preserved, particularly in the immediate vicinity of the entrance to the roost.
Placement of any type of artificial lighting should be • avoided in the vicinity of the roost, particularly in the immediate vicinity of the entrance.
If there is a bat colony, the inspection shall check and • regularly supervise the fulfillment of conditions as set out in the decision on EIA study approval.
Detail of Kalemegdan Fortress in Belgrade
ANNEXES
114
ANNEXES
ANNEX I. Species preference of habitat types (probability of the presence of species in habitat types)
Species
Habitat types
Fore
st
Sh
rub
lan
d
Gra
ssla
nd
Wetl
an
ds
(in
lan
d)
Ro
cky
Are
as
Cav
es a
nd
Subt
erra
nean
Art
ific
ial
Rhinolophus blasii 2 1 2 1 2
Rhinolophus euryale 2 1 2 1
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum 1 1 9 2 3 1
Rhinolophus hipposideros 1 1 2 3 1 2
Rhinolophus mehelyi 2 1 9 1
Barbastella barbastellus 1 2 2 1
Eptesicus serotinus 1 1 3 1 2 1
Myotis alcathoe 2 1 1 9 2
Myotis bechsteinii 1 2 1 3 2
Myotis blythii 1 9 2 2 3 1 2
Myotis brandtii 1 2 2
Myotis capaccinii 2 1 2 1 3
Myotis dasycneme 1 3 9
Myotis daubentonii 2 2 1 3 3
Myotis emarginatus 2 1 3 1 2
Myotis myotis 1 1 9 2 1 2
Myotis mystacinus 1 1 2 2 2
Myotis nattereri 1 2 3 2 1 3
Nyctalus leisleri 1 2 1 1
Nyctalus noctula 1 2 3 1 3 1
Hypsugo savii 2 1 2 1 1 1
Pipistrellus kuhlii 9 9 1
Pipistrellus nathusii 1 2 1 2
Pipistrellus pipistrellus 1 2 2 3 1 1
Pipistrellus pygmaeus 9 9 2 1
Plecotus auritus 1 2 1 2 2
Plecotus austriacus 9 1 2 2 2
Vespertilio murinus 2 1 1
Miniopterus schreibersii 2 1 2 2 1 2
115
ANNEXES
Legend
1 primary habitat (very high probability)
2 secondary habitat (possible)
3 unsuitable habitat (unlikely)
9 possibly suitable habitat (possibly very high probability)
ANNEX II. Significance of habitat types for life functions of bats in Serbia
Life functions
Habitat types
Fore
st
Sh
rub
lan
d
Gra
ssla
nd
Wetl
an
ds
(in
lan
d)
Ro
cky A
rea
s
Ca
ves
an
d
Su
bte
rra
nea
n
Art
ific
ial
Roosts xxx 0 0 xxx xx xxx xxx
Hunting areas xxx xxx xx xxx xx 0 xxx
Flight paths xxx xxx xx xxx 0 0 xxx
Migration routes xxx x ? xxx ? 0 x
Legend
x small significance
xx moderate significance
xxx high significance
0 no significance
? possibly significant, but no sufficient data
116
ANNEXES
ANNEX III. Possibility of adverse effects of certain activities on bats
Activities
Life functions
Dir
ect
fata
liti
esRoosts
Hu
nti
ng
are
as
Fli
gh
t p
ath
s
Mig
rati
on
ro
ute
s
Tre
es
Art
ific
ial
ove
rgro
un
d
Un
derg
rou
nd
Removal of trees xxx x x xxx xxx x-xx �
Management of banks xxx x x xxx xxx xxx �
Construction of
reservoirsxxx xxx xxx xxx/+* xx x �
Complete or partial
disruption of linear
landscape elements
x-xxx 0 0 xxx xxx xxx �
Renovation and/
or reconstruction of
infrastructure
0 xxx xxx xxxx-
xxx*x-xx* �
Artificial lighting x-xxx* 0-xxx* xxx xxx/+* 0-xxx* 0-xxx* 0
Surface ore
exploitation
xx-
xxxx-xx xxx x-xxx x-xxx x �
Inadequate protection
and development of
underground objects
0 0 xxx 0 0 0 �
Operation of wind
farms0 + 0 xxx/+* x-xx x-xx �
Road traffic x 0 0-x x-xxx* x-xxx* 0 �
Legend
x small possibility of adverse effect
xx probable adverse effect
xxx highly probable adverse effect
0 no adverse effect possible
+ possible positive effect
� possible direct fatalities
* depending on the ecology of particular species (see Annexes I and IX)
117
ANNEXES
ANNEX IV. Usefulness of methods in identification of functions of habitats for bats, and identification of bat presence (regardless of the species identification)
Methods
Life functions
Pre
sen
ce o
f in
div
idu
als
Roosts
Hu
nti
ng
are
as
Fli
gh
t p
ath
s
Mig
rati
on
ro
ute
s
Tre
es
Art
ific
ial
ove
rgro
un
d
Un
derg
rou
nd
Ultrasound audio-detection
with a hand-held detectorxxx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Ultrasound audio-detection
with automatic systemsa0 0 0 xx xx xx xx
Roost inspection xxx xxx xxx xxx
Capture xxx* xxx xxx ? ? x ?
Analysis of the dead bats
remains0 0 0 0 0 0 xx
Light-tags xxx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx
Radio-telemetry tracking xxx xxx xxx xx xx x
Molecular-genetic methods 0 0 0 0 0 0 xxx
Legend
x identification difficult
xx identification possible in certain circumstances
xxx identification easy in most cases
0 identification not possible
? depending on the habitat type – difficult in open habitats and easy in more closed habitats
* only funnel traps may produce any useful result
Recommendation for use (efficiency)
recommended (very efficient)
advisable in certain situations, but not necessary (moderately efficient)
not recommended (inefficient for this purpose or too expensive)
?depending on the type of habitat – recommended in habitats with marsh, shrub and/or woody vegetation and at roost entrances.
118
ANNEXES
ANNEX V. Usefulness of methods of identification of bat species
Species
Methods
Ult
raso
un
d
au
dio
-dete
ctio
n
wit
h a
ha
nd
-h
eld
dete
cto
r#
Ult
raso
un
d
au
dio
-dete
ctio
n
wit
h a
uto
ma
tic
syst
em
s##
Ro
ost
in
spect
ion
Ca
ptu
re
An
alys
is o
f th
e d
ead
bat
rem
ain
s
Lig
ht-
tag
s
Ra
dio
-tel
emet
ry
tra
ckin
g
Mo
lecu
lar-
gen
eti
c m
eth
od
s
Rh. blasii xx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Rh. euryale xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Rh. ferrumequinum xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Rh. hipposideros xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Rh. mehelyi xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
B. barbastellus xxx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
E. serotinus xxx xxx x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. alcathoe x/xx*** 0/xx*** x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. bechsteinii xx x xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. blythii x/xxx*** 0/xx*** xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. brandtii x/xx*** 0/xx*** x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. capaccinii xx/xxx*** 0/xx*** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. dasycneme xxx xx x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. daubentonii xx/xxx*** 0/xx*** x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. emarginatus xx x x-xxx* xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. myotis x/xxx*** 0/xx*** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. mystacinus x/xx*** 0/xx*** x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. nattereri xx x xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
N. leisleri xxx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
N. noctula xxx xxx x-xxx** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
H. savii xxx xxx x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
P. kuhlii xxx xx/xxx*** xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
P. nathusii xxx xx/xxx*** x-xxx** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
P. pipistrellus xxx xxx xx-xxx** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
P. pygmaeus xxx xxx x-xx** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
P. auritus x/xxx*** 0/xx*** xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
P. austriacus x/xxx*** 0/xx*** xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
V. murinus xxx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
M. schreibersii xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
119
ANNEXES
# for the detector with the time expansion and heterodyning systems, used
together with visual detection by using a hand-held reflector lamp and later
computer analysis of recordings (for possibilities of other detector systems, see
the chapter on methods and table on p. 77)
## for the detector with the frequency division system, with computer analysis
of recordings
Legend
x identification difficult
xx identification possible in certain circumstances
xxx identification easy in most cases
0 identification not possible
* depending on season – difficult in winter, easy in summer
** depending on habitat type – easy to possible in mating roosts, difficult to
possible in other types
*** possibility of precise species identification / possibility of identification to
the level of the group of species
Recommendation for use (efficiency)
recommended (very efficient)
advisable in certain situations, but not necessary (moderately efficient)
not recommended (inefficient for this purpose or too expensive)
** depending on roost type – recommended only for mating roosts
120
ANNEXES
ANNEX VI. Usefulness of methods in various habitat types
Methods
Habitat types
Fore
st
Sh
rub
lan
d
Gra
ssla
nd
Wetl
an
ds
(in
lan
d)
Ro
cky
Are
as
Ca
ves
an
d
Subt
erra
nean
Art
ific
ial
Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector
xx xx xxx xx xxx x xxx
Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems
x x xx xx xx x xx
Roost inspection xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Capture xxx xxx x xxx xx xxx x-xxx*
Analysis of the dead bat remains
x x x x x xx x
Light-tags xx xx xxx xx xx xxx xx-xxx*
Radio-telemetry tracking
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Molecular-genetic methods
xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Legend
Level of information that method may provide in certain habitat conditions
x fragmentary
xx sufficient
xxx complete
* depending on the type of habitat – fragmentary to sufficient in closed-type
habitats, complete in open-type habitats
Recommendation for use (efficiency)
recommended (very efficient)
advisable in certain situations, but not necessary (moderately efficient)
not recommended (inefficient in certain habitat type or too expensive)
** depending on the type of habitat – fragmentary to sufficient in closed-type habitats and complete in open-type habitat
121
ANNEXES
ANNEX VII. Usefulness of methods in different months of the year
MethodsMonth
j f m a m j j a s o n d
Ultrasound
audio-detection
with a hand-
held detector
Ultrasound
audio-detection
with automatic
systems
Roost inspection
Capture
Analysis of
the dead bat
remains
Light-tags
Radio-telemetry
tracking* *
Molecular-
genetic methods** ** ** ** **
Legend
Recommendation for use (efficiency)
recommended (very efficient)
* capturing not allowed, but it is possible to monitor already marked individuals
** capturing not allowed, but guano or remains of dead individuals may be used
advisable in certain situations but not necessary (moderately efficient)
not recommended, as bats are not active in this period
not allowed due to a very negative impact of disturbance
122
ANNEXES
ANNEX VIII. Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia
Species
Dis
trib
uti
on
Ha
bit
at
vale
nce
Ab
un
da
nce
Rhinolophus blasii 1 2 2
Rhinolophus euryale 2 2 2
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum 2 2 2
Rhinolophus hipposideros 2 2 1
Rhinolophus mehelyi 1 2 1
Barbastella barbastellus 2 1 1
Eptesicus serotinus 2 2 2
Myotis alcathoe 2 ? 1
Myotis bechsteinii 2 1 1
Myotis blythii 2 2 2
Myotis brandtii 2 ? 1
Myotis capaccinii 2 2 2
Myotis dasycneme 1 1 1
Myotis daubentonii 2 2 2
Myotis emarginatus 2 2 2
Myotis myotis 2 2 2
Myotis mystacinus 2 2 2
Myotis nattereri 2 2 1
Nyctalus leisleri 2 2 1
Nyctalus noctula 2 2 2
Hypsugo savii 2 1 2
Pipistrellus kuhlii 2 1 2
Pipistrellus nathusii 2 1 2
Pipistrellus pipistrellus 2 2 2
Pipistrellus pygmaeus 1 ? 2
Plecotus auritus 2 2 1
Plecotus austriacus 2 2 1
Vespertilio murinus 2 2 2
Miniopterus schreibersii 2 2 2
Legend
Distribution
1 narrow
2 wide
Habitat valence
1 narrow
2 wide
? no sufficient data
Abundance
1 everywhere low
2 somewhere high
123
ANNEXES
AN
NE
X I
X. E
colo
gica
l cha
ract
eris
tics
of b
at s
pec
ies
in S
erb
ia a
nd re
com
men
ded
rese
arch
met
hods
Spec
ies
Dis
trib
utio
nR
oost
sH
abit
ats
Res
earc
h m
eth
ods
Rhin
olop
hus
blas
ii
On
ly i
n k
ars
t a
rea
s a
t 1
3 l
oca
liti
es
in E
ast
ern
S
erb
ia a
nd
1 l
oca
lity
in
W
est
ern
Serb
ia
On
ly i
n c
ave
sE
xcl
usi
vely
th
e h
illy
k
ars
t a
rea
s w
ith
tre
es
an
d s
hru
bs
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s,
an
aly
sis
of
ow
l p
ell
ets
, u
ltra
sou
nd
dete
cto
rs,
rad
io-t
ele
metr
y
Rhin
olop
hus
eury
ale
In S
erb
ia s
ou
thern
fr
om
riv
ers
Sa
va a
nd
D
an
ub
e,
mo
stly
in
ka
rst
are
as,
at
58
lo
cali
ties
Mo
stly
in
ca
ves
or
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
tu
nn
els
, a
ba
nd
on
ed
m
ines
Mo
stly
ka
rst
are
as
wit
h
trees
an
d s
hru
bs
nea
r w
ate
r
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s a
nd
tu
nn
els
, a
na
lysi
s o
f o
wl
pell
ets
, u
ltra
sou
nd
d
ete
cto
rs,
rad
io-
tele
metr
y
Rhin
olop
hus
ferr
umeq
uinu
m
All
ove
r S
erb
ia.
Th
ere
are
15
4 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Mo
stly
in
ca
ves
or
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
tu
nn
els
, a
ba
nd
on
ed
m
ines,
in
att
ics
of
bu
ild
ing
s in
Vo
jvo
din
a
Mo
stly
ka
rst
are
as
wit
h m
osa
ics
of
trees,
sh
rub
s a
nd
op
en
sp
ace
s
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s,
att
ics
an
d o
ther
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s, u
ltra
sou
nd
d
ete
cto
rs,
cap
turi
ng
in
n
ets
, m
ark
ing
Rhin
olop
hus
hipp
osid
eros
In S
erb
ia e
xce
pt
Vo
jvo
din
a p
rovi
nce
, ri
ver
vall
eys
an
d
low
lan
ds.
Th
ere
are
10
7
kn
ow
n l
oca
liti
es.
Mo
stly
in
ca
ves
or
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
tu
nn
els
, a
ba
nd
on
ed
m
ines,
in
att
ics
of
bu
ild
ing
s
Ka
rst
are
as
wit
h
mo
saic
s o
f tr
ees,
sh
rub
s a
nd
op
en
sp
ace
s
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s,
cap
turi
ng
in
nets
, a
na
lysi
s o
f o
wl
pell
ets
, m
ark
ing
Rhin
olop
hus
meh
elyi
On
ly a
t tw
o l
oca
liti
es
in
Ea
stern
Serb
iaO
nly
in
ca
ves
Excl
usi
vely
th
e h
illy
k
ars
t a
rea
s w
ith
tre
es
an
d s
hru
bs
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s,
ult
raso
un
d d
ete
cto
rs
124
ANNEXES
Spec
ies
Dis
trib
utio
nR
oost
sH
abit
ats
Res
earc
h m
eth
ods
Barb
aste
lla
barb
aste
llus
In w
ho
le S
erb
ia,
bu
t it
is
very
un
com
mo
n
an
d s
carc
e.
Th
ere
are
7
kn
ow
n l
oca
liti
es
Ho
llo
ws,
cre
vice
s a
nd
u
nd
er
the b
ark
of
old
tr
ees,
ca
ves
Hu
mid
bro
ad
lea
f a
nd
m
ixed
fo
rest
s fr
om
lo
wla
nd
s to
hig
h h
ills
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
, in
spect
ion
of
cave
en
tra
nce
s, n
ich
es
an
d
ga
lle
ries
in f
ore
sts
Epte
sicu
s se
rotin
usIn
wh
ole
co
un
try.
Th
ere
a
re 4
5 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Ro
cks,
ma
nm
ad
e
stru
ctu
res,
tre
e h
oll
ow
s a
nd
cre
vice
s
Ro
cky r
eg
ion
s a
nd
fo
rest
s, a
lso
co
mm
on
ly
in h
um
an
sett
lem
en
ts
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
a
t ca
ve e
ntr
an
ces,
in
spect
ion
of
resi
den
tia
l b
uil
din
gs,
a
nd
an
aly
sis
of
ow
l p
ell
ets
Myo
tis
alca
thoe
On
ly 3
kn
ow
n l
oca
liti
es
in h
illy
are
as
of
West
ern
an
d E
ast
ern
S
erb
ia
Un
kn
ow
n,
pro
ba
bly
tr
ee h
oll
ow
s a
t w
ate
rsid
e
Mo
stly
ka
rst
are
as
wit
h
trees
an
d s
hru
bs
nea
r w
ate
r
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
, m
ole
cula
r m
eth
od
s
Myo
tis
bech
stei
nii
All
ove
r S
erb
ia
wh
ere
ver
there
are
so
me f
ore
sts.
Th
ere
are
1
7 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Nu
rsery
co
lon
ies
in
tre
e h
oll
ow
s, a
nd
sin
gle
in
div
idu
als
in
tre
e
crevi
ces,
ca
ves
an
d
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s (o
ld f
ort
ress
es)
Sp
aci
ou
s d
eci
du
ou
s a
nd
m
ixed
fo
rest
s, f
rom
70
to
15
00
m i
n m
ou
nta
ins
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
in
fo
rest
s a
nd
ab
ove
ri
vers
, ra
dio
-tele
metr
y,
ba
t h
ou
ses
Myo
tis
blyt
hii
All
ove
r S
erb
ia,
mo
stly
in
ka
rst
reg
ion
s. T
here
a
re 3
9 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
On
ly i
n c
ave
s, m
ine
ga
lleri
es,
ra
rely
in
a
rtif
icia
l st
ruct
ure
s
Ka
rst
reg
ion
s w
ith
fo
rest
s o
r o
pen
ha
bit
ats
Insp
ect
ion
s o
f ca
ves,
g
all
eri
es,
bu
nkers
, b
ase
men
ts;
an
aly
sis
of
ow
l p
ell
ets
; ca
ptu
rin
g
in n
ets
, ra
dio
-tele
metr
y
125
ANNEXES
Spec
ies
Dis
trib
utio
nR
oost
sH
abit
ats
Res
earc
h m
eth
ods
Myo
tis
bran
dtii
Th
ere
are
5 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
in k
ars
t a
rea
s o
f E
ast
ern
an
d W
est
ern
S
erb
ia
Tre
e h
oll
ow
s a
nd
cr
evi
ces
Mix
ed
fo
rest
s a
t fo
oth
ills
an
d m
idd
le
belt
of
mo
un
tain
s
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
a
t ca
ve e
ntr
an
ces;
m
ole
cula
r m
eth
od
s
Myo
tis
capa
ccin
ii
Th
ere
are
35
kn
ow
n
loca
liti
es
in k
ars
t a
rea
s o
f E
ast
ern
an
d W
est
ern
S
erb
ia
On
ly i
n c
ave
s
Typ
ica
l fo
r k
ars
t re
gio
ns
wit
h c
ave
s a
t h
ills
an
d m
ou
nta
in
foo
thil
ls,
alw
ays
nea
r w
ate
r
Insp
ect
ion
s o
f ca
ves,
ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
, m
ark
ing
Myo
tis
dasy
cnem
e
In V
ojv
od
ina
an
d
ea
stern
Serb
ia.
Th
ere
a
re 3
kn
ow
n l
oca
liti
es
Insu
ffic
ien
tly k
no
wn
. P
rob
ab
ly t
ree h
oll
ow
s,
ba
sem
en
ts a
nd
a
rtif
icia
l u
nd
erg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s a
lon
g l
arg
e
rive
rs
Belt
s o
f d
eci
du
ou
s fo
rest
s a
lon
g l
arg
e
rive
rs.
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
ab
ove
ri
vers
an
d w
etl
an
ds,
d
ete
cto
rs,
ba
t h
ou
ses
Myo
tis
daub
ento
nii
In w
ho
le c
ou
ntr
y i
n
wetl
an
d h
ab
ita
ts a
nd
a
lon
g w
ate
r b
od
ies.
R
eco
rded
at
31
lo
cali
ties
Mo
stly
tre
e h
oll
ow
s,
som
eti
mes
un
der
rive
r b
rid
ges,
in
div
idu
all
y
in c
ave
s a
nd
art
ific
ial
un
derg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s
Deci
du
ou
s fo
rest
s w
ith
ri
vers
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
ab
ove
ri
vers
an
d w
etl
an
ds,
d
ete
cto
rs,
ma
rkin
g
Myo
tis
emar
gina
tus
Wid
ely
dis
trib
ute
d,
bu
t o
nly
sp
ora
dic
all
y i
n
larg
er
nu
mb
ers
. T
here
a
re 2
6 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Ho
use
att
ics,
ch
urc
hes,
d
ry c
ave
s, a
rtif
icia
l u
nd
erg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s
Typ
ica
l fo
r k
ars
t a
nd
ro
cky r
eg
ion
s a
t m
ou
nta
in f
oo
thil
ls,
cove
red
in
lo
w
veg
eta
tio
n,
as
well
as
for
fore
st-s
tep
pe a
rea
s
Insp
ect
ion
of
dry
ca
ves
an
d g
all
eri
es,
ma
rkin
g,
rad
io-t
ele
metr
y,
cap
turi
ng
wit
h h
arp
tr
ap
s
126
ANNEXES
Spec
ies
Dis
trib
utio
nR
oost
sH
abit
ats
Res
earc
h m
eth
ods
Myo
tis
myo
tis
All
ove
r S
erb
ia.
Th
ere
a
re 4
5 r
eco
rded
lo
cali
ties
Mo
stly
ca
ves
bu
t a
lso
a
rtif
icia
l u
nd
erg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s (b
ase
men
ts,
tun
nels
). A
lso
in
ch
urc
h
tow
ers
an
d a
ttic
s o
f b
uil
din
gs
Reg
ion
s w
ith
fo
rest
s a
nd
op
en
are
as
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s,
ga
lle
ries,
ba
sem
en
ts;
an
aly
sis
of
ow
l p
ell
ets
; ca
ptu
rin
g i
n
nets
, m
ark
ing
, ra
dio
-te
lem
etr
y
Myo
tis
mys
taci
nus
In w
ho
le c
ou
ntr
y i
n
ap
pro
pri
ate
ha
bit
ats
. It
wa
s re
cord
ed
at
19
lo
cali
ties
At
sum
mer
pro
ba
bly
in
tr
ee c
revi
ces,
at
win
ter
in t
rees
an
d c
ave
s
Fri
ng
es
of
bro
ad
lea
f a
nd
mix
ed
fo
rest
s a
t fo
oth
ills
an
d l
ow
er
mo
un
tain
zo
nes,
mo
stly
n
ea
r w
ate
r
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
at
cave
en
tra
nce
s a
nd
a
t fo
rest
cle
ari
ng
s;
mo
lecu
lar
meth
od
s fo
r p
reci
se i
den
tifi
cati
on
Myo
tis
natt
erer
i
In w
ho
le c
ou
ntr
y i
n
ap
pro
pri
ate
ha
bit
ats
. It
wa
s re
cord
ed
at
12
lo
cali
ties
Tre
e h
oll
ow
s a
nd
cr
evi
ces,
occ
asi
on
all
y
cave
s a
nd
oth
er
un
derg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s.
Mo
stly
as
sin
gle
in
div
idu
als
Hu
mid
bro
ad
lea
f a
nd
m
ixed
fo
rest
s a
t h
ills
a
nd
mo
un
tain
s
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
at
cave
en
tra
nce
s a
nd
at
fore
st c
lea
rin
gs;
ra
dio
-te
lem
etr
y
Nyc
talu
s le
isle
riIn
wh
ole
co
un
try.
Th
ere
a
re 8
kn
ow
n l
oca
liti
es
Tre
e h
oll
ow
s a
nd
cr
evi
ces,
ra
rely
ro
ost
s in
bu
ild
ing
s
Bro
ad
lea
f fo
rest
s a
t fo
oth
ills
, ra
rely
in
h
um
an
sett
lem
en
ts
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
in
fo
rest
s a
nd
ab
ove
ri
vers
, a
na
lysi
s o
f o
wl
pell
ets
, b
at
ho
use
s
Nyc
talu
s no
ctul
a
In w
ho
le c
ou
ntr
y. I
t w
as
reco
rded
at
10
1
loca
liti
es
Tre
e h
oll
ow
s, w
ind
ow
s in
bu
ild
ing
s, p
lace
s o
f co
nn
ect
ion
betw
een
p
illa
rs i
n r
esi
den
tia
l a
nd
in
du
stri
al
bu
ild
ing
s a
nd
bri
dg
es,
ca
ves
Sett
lem
en
ts,
bro
ad
lea
f a
nd
mix
ed
fo
rest
s n
ea
r ro
cks,
riv
ers
, w
etl
an
d
ha
bit
ats
Insp
ect
ion
of
resi
den
tia
l b
uil
din
gs,
an
aly
sis
of
ow
l p
ell
ets
, ca
ptu
rin
g
in n
ets
in
fo
rest
s a
nd
a
t fo
rest
en
tra
nce
s;
dete
cto
rs a
nd
eve
nin
g
ob
serv
ati
on
s; b
at
ho
use
s
127
ANNEXES
Spec
ies
Dis
trib
utio
nR
oost
sH
abit
ats
Res
earc
h m
eth
ods
Hyp
sugo
sa
vii
Ka
rst
are
as
of
Ea
stern
a
nd
West
ern
Serb
ia,
Belg
rad
e a
nd
its
clo
se
vici
nit
y. S
o f
ar
there
a
re 1
8 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Ro
ck c
revi
ces,
na
rro
w
spa
ces
in r
esi
den
tia
l b
uil
din
gs,
bri
dg
es
Ro
cky r
eg
ion
s,
sett
lem
en
ts
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
in
ro
cky r
eg
ion
s,
dete
cto
rs a
nd
eve
nin
g
ob
serv
ati
on
s
Pipi
stre
llus
kuhl
ii
In w
ho
le c
ou
ntr
y i
n
ap
pro
pri
ate
ha
bit
ats
. It
w
as
reco
rded
in
at
lea
st
40
lo
cali
ties
Resi
den
tia
l a
nd
in
du
stri
al
bu
ild
ing
s
Hu
ma
n s
ett
lem
en
ts,
reso
rts;
ra
rely
ou
tsid
e
of
urb
an
ized
are
as
Dete
cto
rs a
nd
eve
nin
g
ob
serv
ati
on
s a
rou
nd
th
e b
uil
din
gs
in
sett
lem
en
ts,
an
aly
sis
of
ow
l p
ell
ets
Pipi
stre
llus
nath
usii
In w
ho
le S
erb
ia.
Th
ere
a
re 2
0 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Tre
e h
oll
ow
s,
resi
den
tia
l b
uil
din
gs,
ro
ck c
revi
ces
Fore
st r
eg
ion
s w
ith
ro
cks,
riv
er
vall
eys,
se
ttle
men
ts,
pa
rks
Dete
cto
rs a
nd
eve
nin
g
ob
serv
ati
on
s a
rou
nd
th
e r
ock
y o
utc
rop
s,
cap
turi
ng
in
nets
at
fore
st g
lad
es
Pipi
stre
llus
pipi
stre
llus
In w
ho
le c
ou
ntr
y. T
here
a
re 5
3 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Ro
ck c
revi
ces,
un
der
roo
fs a
nd
in
wa
ll
con
stru
ctio
ns
in
bu
ild
ing
s, i
n t
rees,
ca
ves
Hu
ma
n s
ett
lem
en
ts,
fore
sted
reg
ion
s,
go
rges
Dete
cto
rs a
nd
eve
nin
g
ob
serv
ati
on
s a
rou
nd
th
e b
uil
din
gs
in
sett
lem
en
ts,
cap
turi
ng
in
nets
at
fore
st g
lad
es,
in
go
rges
an
d a
t ca
ve
en
tra
nce
s, d
ete
cto
rs
Pipi
stre
llus
pygm
aeus
It i
s k
no
wn
fro
m
Vo
jvo
din
a a
nd
vic
init
y
of
Belg
rad
e f
rom
16
lo
cali
ties
Ro
ck c
revi
ces,
un
der
roo
fs a
nd
in
wa
ll
con
stru
ctio
ns
in
bu
ild
ing
s, i
n t
rees
Hu
ma
n s
ett
lem
en
ts,
fore
sted
reg
ion
s,
orc
ha
rds
Dete
cto
rs a
nd
eve
nin
g
ob
serv
ati
on
s a
rou
nd
th
e b
uil
din
gs
in
sett
lem
en
ts,
cap
turi
ng
in
nets
at
fore
st g
lad
es
128
ANNEXES
Spec
ies
Dis
trib
utio
nR
oost
sH
abit
ats
Res
earc
h m
eth
ods
Plec
otus
au
ritu
s
In w
ho
le S
erb
ia,
bu
t re
lati
vely
sca
rce.
Th
ere
a
re 1
9 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Ho
llo
ws,
cra
cks
an
d
un
der
the b
ark
of
old
tr
ees,
na
tura
l a
nd
a
rtif
icia
l u
nd
erg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s, a
ba
nd
on
ed
b
uil
din
gs
Bro
ad
lea
f a
nd
mix
ed
fo
rest
s fr
om
lo
wla
nd
s to
hig
h m
ou
nta
ins
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
, in
spect
ion
of
cave
s,
ga
lle
ries,
ba
sem
en
ts,
att
ics,
ch
urc
h t
ow
ers
Plec
otus
au
stri
acus
In w
ho
le S
erb
ia,
bu
t re
lati
vely
sca
rce.
Th
ere
a
re 4
6 k
no
wn
lo
cali
ties
Ca
ves
an
d m
ine
ga
lleri
es,
in
ho
llo
ws
an
d u
nd
er
ba
rk o
f o
ld
tre
es,
bu
ild
ing
s
Bro
ad
lea
f a
nd
mix
ed
fo
rest
s, c
om
mo
nly
in
ci
ties
an
d v
illa
ges
Ca
ptu
rin
g i
n n
ets
an
d
insp
ect
ion
of
cave
en
tra
nce
s, o
verh
an
gs
an
d g
all
eri
es
Vesp
ertil
io
mur
inus
In w
ho
le S
erb
ia,
mo
stly
a
s si
ng
le i
nd
ivid
ua
ls.
So
fa
r th
ere
are
22
kn
ow
n
loca
liti
es,
mo
stly
in
B
elg
rad
e a
nd
its
vic
init
y
Resi
den
tia
l b
uil
din
gs,
ro
ck c
revi
ces,
ra
rely
at
cave
en
tra
nce
s
At
win
ter
in
sett
lem
en
ts,
at
sum
mer
in g
org
es,
eve
n a
t h
igh
m
ou
nta
ins
Insp
ect
ion
of
bu
ild
ing
s,
cap
turi
ng
in
nets
in
g
org
es
an
d a
t m
ou
nta
in
rid
ges,
dete
cto
rs i
n
hu
ma
n s
ett
lem
en
ts i
n
au
tum
n a
nd
sp
rin
g
Min
iopt
erus
sc
hrei
bers
ii
In w
ho
le S
erb
ia,
mo
stly
in
med
ium
-siz
ed
an
d
larg
e c
olo
nie
s. S
o f
ar
there
are
50
kn
ow
n
loca
liti
es
Un
derg
rou
nd
ro
ost
s –
ca
ves,
tu
nn
els
un
der
old
fo
rtre
sses.
Fo
rms
colo
nie
s
Ka
rst
reg
ion
s, r
iver
vall
eys
wit
h c
ave
s, i
n
hil
ls a
nd
mo
un
tain
s u
p
to 1
50
0 m
ab
ove
sea
le
vel
Insp
ect
ion
of
cave
s,
ga
lle
ries
an
d o
ld
fort
ress
es
129
ANNEXES
ANNEX X. List of bat species in Serbia with their status in international and national legislation and global and national IUCN status
Vrsta
Ber
n c
on
v.
(An
nex
)
Bo
nn
co
nv.
(An
nex)
Ha
bit
ats
Dir
.
(An
nex)
EU
RO
BA
TS
Serb
ian
La
w
Glo
ba
l
IUC
N
Na
tio
na
l
IUC
N
Rhinolophus blasii II II II, IV + + LC NT
Rhinolophus euryale II II II, IV + + NT NT
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum II II II, IV + + LC LC
Rhinolophus hipposideros II II II, IV + + LC NT
Rhinolophus mehelyi II II II, IV + + VU EN
Barbastella barbastellus II II II, IV + + NT VU
Eptesicus serotinus II II IV + + LC LC
Myotis alcathoe II II IV + DD DD
Myotis bechsteinii II II II, IV + + NT NT
Myotis blythii II II II, IV + + LC LC
Myotis brandtii II II IV + + LC DD
Myotis capaccinii II II II, IV + + VU LC
Myotis dasycneme II II II, IV + + NT DD
Myotis daubentonii II II IV + + LC LC
Myotis emarginatus II II II, IV + + LC VU
Myotis myotis II II II, IV + + LC LC
Myotis mystacinus II II IV + + LC LC
Myotis nattereri II II IV + + LC NT
Nyctalus leisleri II II IV + + LC LC
Nyctalus noctula II II IV + + LC LC
Hypsugo savii II II IV + + LC DD
Pipistrellus kuhlii II II IV + + LC LC
Pipistrellus nathusii II II IV + + LC LC
Pipistrellus pipistrellus III II IV + + LC LC
Pipistrellus pygmaeus II II IV + + LC DD
Plecotus auritus II II IV + + LC NT
Plecotus austriacus II II IV + + LC LC
Vespertilio murinus II II IV + + LC LC
Miniopterus schreibersii II II II, IV + + NT LC
130
ANNEXES
ANNEX XI. Glossary of bat expert terms and expressions
HabitatLiving space of a bat, characterized by specific physical and
biotic features.
RoostLiving space of a bat within a habitat, providing shelter,
hiding and survival of adverse conditions, as well as rest and
reproduction.
Flight pathGenerally a narrow space, corridor, more commonly used by a
bat in order to travel between habitats and/or roosts and/or
hunting areas than other parts of habitat.
Hunting area
Space within a habitat that is optimal for foraging = hunting
for pray, which in case of European bats includes crepuscular
and nocturnal insects.
Transitory roost and/or habitat
Short-time habitat and/or roost used by bats during the spring
and/or autumn migration, as well as during the nocturnal or
circadian activity.
Linear landscape element
Any element within the landscape that is linear in shape. It
may be natural – tree alley, overgrown hedge, bushes along
the road, overgrown bank; or artificial – telephone line,
electric power line, road etc. They are usually important as
flight paths and hunting areas.
Colony
Group of animals (bats) which are genetically or socially
connected and depending on each other, living in one or
several roosts. A colony of forest species in a tree hollow
may include 15-50 individuals, while cave species may form
colonies of several tens of thousands of individuals. The
colonies may be composed of a single species (monotypic
colonies) or of several species (mixed colonies).
MicroclimateClimatic conditions in a habitat or narrow locality that have
significant, almost crucial, importance for presence of bats
and other stenobiont creatures.
MigrationSimilar to situation in birds and other animals, seasonal
movement of populations or their parts in order to survive
adverse climatic and trophic conditions.
131
ANNEXES
Troglodytes
Organisms spending their whole lives under the surface
of earth, in this case in underground shelter. Bats are not
troglodytes, as they spend one part of their circadian activity
outside of roosts, above the surface of earth.
TorporA (generally short-term) condition where physiological activity
of an animal is reduced and life functions slowed down in
order to preserve energy and warmth.
HibernationA condition of decreased physiological activities during the
winter period, in order to survive unsuitable climatic and
trophic conditions in a habitat.
Swarming
A condition of increased flying activity within the roost
(mostly underground) or at its entrance, in order to find a
mating partner. It usually happens from mid August to mid
October.
Green viaduct
A viaduct above the road or railway track with high frequency
of traffic, planted with vegetation and with the purpose
of providing safe transit to animals when their habitat is
cut through; it is an artificial corridor that connects the
disconnected habitat.
Owl pellet
An oval or globular grey object, up to 5 cm in size, composed
of hair, bones and feathers, which are the undigested parts
of owls’ prey. Owls regurgitate pellets through their mouths.
Analysis of pellet contents may be used to identify prey
species consumed by owls.
132
ANNEXES
AN
NE
X X
II. I
nstit
utio
ns a
nd a
utho
ritie
s re
spon
sibl
e fo
r nat
ure
and
bat c
onse
rvat
ion
and
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
ass
essm
ent i
n Se
rbia
Inst
itu
tion
/ass
etA
dd
ress
Te
lep
hon
eE
-mai
lW
eb a
dd
ress
Bat
pro
tect
ion
an
d c
onse
rvat
ion
an
d e
nvi
ron
men
tal i
mp
act
asse
ssm
ent
Min
istr
y o
f E
nvi
ron
men
t, M
inin
g
an
d S
pa
tia
l P
lan
nin
g
of
the R
ep
ub
lic
of
Serb
ia
11
07
0 N
ovi
Beo
gra
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Om
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info
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Inst
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ia,
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Ag
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ANNEXES
ANNEX XIII. Selected bibliography
BIOLOGY, CONSERVATION AND METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH ON BATS
Battersby, J. (comp.) (2010): Guidelines for Surveillance and Monitoring of European Bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 5. UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 95 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseries no5 english.pdf>
Dietz, C., von Helversen, O., Nill, D. (2009): Bats of Britain, Europe and Northwest Africa. A & C Black Publishers Ltd., London, 400pp.
Hutson, A. M., Micklenburgh, S. P., Racey, P. A. (comp.) (2001): Microchiropteran Bats: Global Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Chiroptera Specialist Group, X + 258 pp, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
Mitchell-Jones, A. J. (2004): Bat mitigation guidelines. English Nature, London. <http://www.english-nature.org.uk/pubs/publication/PDF/Batmitigationguide2.pdf>.
Mitchell-Jones, A.J., McLeish, A. P. (eds). 2004. 3rd Edition Bat Workers’ Manual. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK, 178 pp. <http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-2861#download>
IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AND PLANS ON BATS
Arnett E. B., Huso, M. M. P., Schirmacher, M., Hayes, J. P. (2010): Altering turbine speed reduces bat mortality at wind-energy facilities. Front Ecol Environ 2011, 9(4): 209–214 <http://www.batsandwind.org/pdf/Arnett%20et%20al.%202011.pdf>
Baerwald E, Edworthy, J., Holder, M., Barclay, R. (2009) A large-scale mitigation experiment to reduce bat fatalities at wind energy facilities. Journal of Wildlife Management 73(7): 1077-1081.
Entwistle, A. C., Harris, S., Hutson, A. M., Racey, P. A., Walsh, A., Gibson, S. D., Hepburn, I., Jacklyn Johnston, J. (2001): Habitat management for bats: A guide for land managers, land owners and their advisors. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK, 49 pp. <http://www.jncc.gov.uk/pdf/Habitat Management for bats.pdf>
European Commission (2010): EU Guidance on wind energy development in accordance with the EU nature legislation. 116 pp. <http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/management/docs/Wind farms.pdf>
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Harbusch, C., Bach, L. (2005): Environmental Assessment Studies on wind turbines and bat populations - a step towards best practice guidelines. Bat News (BCT) 78: 4-5 <http://www.bach-freilandforschung.de/download/Harbusch Bach 2005.pdf>
Highways Agency (2006): Best practice in enhancement of highway design for bats - Literature review report. Halcrow Group Limited, Exeter, UK. 83 pp. <http://www.highways.gov.uk/knowledge compendium/assets/documents/Portfolio/Best%20Practice%20in%20Enhancement%20of%20Highway%20Design%20for%20Bats%20-%20775.pdf>
Kunz, T H., Arnett, E. B., Cooper, B. M., Erickson, W. P., Larkin, R. P., Mabee, T., Morrison, M L., Strickland, M. D., Szewczak, J. M. (2007): Assessing Impacts of Wind-Energy Development on Nocturnally Active Birds and Bats: A Guidance Document. The Journal of Wildlife Management 71(8): 2449-2486. <http://www.wind-watch.org/documents/wp-content/uploads/wild-71-08-45.pdf>
Limpens H. J. G. A., Twisk P., Veenbas, G. (2005): Bats and Road Construction. Brochure about bats and the ways in which practical measures can be taken to observe the legal duty of car for bats in planning, constructing, re-constructing and managing roads. Rijkswaterstaat, Dienst Weg-en Waterbouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands., 24 pp. <http://english.verkeerenwaterstaat.nl/kennisplein/2/7/273409/Bats%20and%20road%20construction.pdf>
Marnell, F., Presetnik P. (2010): Protection of overground roosts for bats (particularly roosts in buildings of cultural heritage importance). EUROBATS Publication Series No. 4 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 57 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseries no4 english 2nd edition.pdf>
Meschede, A. (srpsko izdanje preveli i uredili Karapandža, B., Paunović, M.) (2004): Slepi miševi naših šuma - Informacije i preporuke za upravljače šumama. Društvo za očuvanje divljih životinja »Mustela«, Beograd, 20pp.
Mitchell-Jones, A. J., Bihari, Z., Masing, M. & Rodrigues, L. (2007): Protecting and managing underground sites for bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 2 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 38 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseriesno2 english 3rd edition.pdf>
Rodrigues, L., Bach, L., Dubourg-Savage, M.-J., Goodwin J., Harbusch C. (2008): Guidelines for consideration of bats in wind farm projects. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 3 (English version). UNEP/EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 51 pp. <http://www.eurobats.org/publications/publication%20series/pubseries no3 english.pdf>
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BATS OF SERBIA
Karapandža, B., Paunović, M. (2009): National Report on the Implementation of the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe 2008 - Serbia. Manuscript, Inf.EUROBATS.AC14.18, UNEP/EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn. <http://www.eurobats.org/documents/pdf/National Reports/nat rep Ser 2009.pdf>.
Marković, Z., Paunović, M., Puzović, S. (1995): Fosilna i recentna fauna sisara kao kriterijum za vrednovanje i zaštitu speleoloških objekata. XI kongres speleologa Jugoslavije, knjiga abstrakata, 16, Petnica-Valjevo.
Marković, Z., Paunović, M., Vasić, V. (1996): An Analysis of Fossil and Subfossil Remains of Bats from Lazareva pećina Cave (Eastern Serbia). VI European Bat Research Symposium, Book of Abstracts, Veldhoven.
Mirić, Đ. (1956): O potrebi zaštite slepih miševa. Zaštita prirode, 7: 17-22, Beograd.
Mirić, Đ. (1980/81): Fledermausschutz in Jugoslawien. Myotis, 18-19: 27-35, Bonn.
Mirić, Đ. (1982): Fauna ljiljaka i stanje njene zaštite. V Savetovanje o nacionalnim i regionalnim parkovima Jugoslavije, zbornik radova, 133-134, Beograd.
Mirić, Đ., Paunović, M. (1994). Distribution and Status of Bats in Serbia and Montenegro (Yugoslavia). Symposium on Current Problems of Bat Protection in Central and Eastern Europe, Abstracts, Bonn.
Pančić, J. (1869). Građa za faunu Kneževine Srbije. Glasnik Srpskog učenog društva, 26: 62-103, Beograd.
Paunović, M. (1995-1998): Predlog srpske nomenklature evropskih slepih miševa Chiroptera Blumenbach, 1779 (Mammalia). Glasn. Prir. muz., B 49-50: 237-243, Beograd.
Paunović, M. (1997): Istorijat, rezultati i problemi markiranja slepih miševa u SR Jugoslaviji. V naučno-stručni skup o prirodnim vrednostima i zašt. živ. sred., zbornik radova, 360 -365, Donji Milanovac.
Paunović, M. (2000). Posledice antropogenih zahvata na prirodne vrednosti Lazareve pećine – analiza i predlozi za njihovo očuvanje. VIII Naučno-stručni skup o prirodnim vrednostima i zaštiti životne sredine, Zbornik radova, 391-398, Soko Banja.
Paunović, M. (2001): Zoogeografska i ekološka analiza faune potkovičara Rhinolophidae (Chiroptera, Mammalia) u Srbiji. Biološki fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, magistarski rad, 1-153, Beograd.
Paunović, M. (2004). Pećina Vernjikica – značajno zimsko sklonište slepih miševa (Mammalia, Chiroptera) u Srbiji. Zbornik radova Odbora za kras i speleologiju, 8 (2): 105-118, SANU, Beograd.
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Paunović, M., Horvat, A. (1994): Caves Important for the Cave-dwelling Bats of Serbia. 5th International Congress of Hellenic Speleological Society, Book of Abstracts, Athens.
Paunović, M., Karapandža, B. (2003): Slepi miševi – leteće noćobdije. Društvo za očuvanje divljih životinja »Mustela«, Beograd, 36pp.
Paunović, M., Karapandža, B. (2005). Serbia and Montenegro. In: Bat Migrations in Europe – A Review of Banding Data and Literature; Hutterer, R., Ivanova, T., Meyer-Cords, Ch., Rodrigues, L. (eds.), Naturshutz und Biologishe Vielfalt, 28: 53-54, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn.
Paunović, M., Karapandža, B., Stamenković, S., Milenković, M. (2004): Diversity of bats in Serbia. A study bases of national action plan for conservation. Manuscript, Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection of Republic of Serbia - Directorate of Environmental Protection, Belgrade.
Paunović, M., Kataranovski, D., Jovanović, T. (2000). Fauna slepih miševa (Chiroptera, Mammalia) urbane sredine, sa posebnim osvrtom na grad Beograd. IV Beogradska konferencija o suzbijanju štetnih artropoda i glodara, zbornik radova, 241-254, Beograd.
Paunović, M., Marinković, S. (1998): Kuhl’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl, 1817 (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) - A New Species in the Mammal Fauna of Serbia, with Data on its Balkan Distribution Range, Status and Ecology. Zbornik o fauni Srbije, SANU, 5, Beograd.
Savić, I. R., Paunović, M., Milenković, M., Stamenković, S. (1995). Diverzitet faune sisara (Mammalia) Jugoslavije, sa pregledom vrsta od međunarodnog značaja. in: Stevanović, V., Vasić, V. (eds.): Biodiverzitet Jugoslavije sa pregledom vrsta od međunarodnog značaja. Biološki fakultet i Ecolibri, Beograd.
Vranješ, N., Paunović, M., Karapandža, B., Stankov, S., Lalošević, D. (2010a): Besnilo slepih miševa u Evropi. Med. Data Rev. 2010, 2(4): 325-332. Beograd. <http://www.md-medicaldata.com/files/md-08-325-332 besnilo slepih mi.pdf>
Vranješ, N., Paunović, M., Milićević, V., Stankov, S. Karapandža, B., Ungurović, U., Lalošević, D. (2010b): Passive And Active Surveillance Of Lyssaviruses In Bats In Serbia. 2nd International Berlin Bat Meeting: Bat Biology and Infectious Diseases, 94, Leibnitz Institute for Zoo and Wildilfe Research (IZW), Berlin.
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PAUNOVIĆ, Milan, 1966- Bats and Environmental Impact Assessment :methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmentalimpact assessment : #a #manual for environmental expert and consultancies, planning authorities and developers / [Milan Paunović, Branko Karapandža, Sabina Ivanović ; translation Željko Stanimirović ; photos Branko Karapandža ... et al.]. - Belgrade : #Wildlife Conservation Society #Mustela, 2011(Belgrade : Lithoart studio). - 141 str. : ilustr. ; 24 cm
Izv. stv. nasl: Slepi miševi i procena uticaja na životnu sredinu. - „This manual isprepared within the project Bats and environmental impact assessment: tools for implementation of the European habitats directive and the Euorbats agreement in Serbia ...” --> prelim. str. - Podaci o autorima preuzeti iz kolofona. - Tiraž 500. -Bibliografija: str. 138-141.
ISBN 978-86-914719-1-01. Karapandža, Branko, 1976- [аутор] [фотограф] 2. Ivanović, Sabina, 1965- [аутор]a) Слепи мишеви - Заштита - Приручници b) Животна средина - Заштита - ПриручнициCOBISS.SR-ID 184544012
Development and printing of this manual was financed by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation
What is the purpose of the manual?
To provide comprehensive synthesis of up-to-date knowledge on bats in Serbia and present an adequate methodology for their study in relation to EIA
To help the conservation of bat populations in an intensively changing environment, particularly in zones with direct conflicts of interest between bat conservation and planning/development
To help the experts involved in environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment, in order for their studies/reports to include applicable measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of negative impacts of projects/plans
To help Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning, as well as other responsible authorities, during evaluation of submitted studies/reports as they relate to bats
To introduce the investors and developers to the needs and proper way of identifying and applying of solutions for reducing negative impact on bats in the conflict zones;
To facilitate the implementation of numerous legal acts related to conservation of protected species.