Basic Scientific Writing in Basic Scientific Writing in EnglishEnglish

Lecture 8Lecture 8

Professor Ralph KirbyProfessor Ralph Kirby

Faculty of Life SciencesFaculty of Life Sciences

Extension 7323Extension 7323

Room B322Room B322

Subject verb agreement Subject verb agreement and collective nounsand collective nouns

The problem is that in English, The problem is that in English, there needs to be agreement there needs to be agreement

between the noun count and the between the noun count and the verbverb

This is not complex for simple nounsThis is not complex for simple nouns

It is more complex for collective nounsIt is more complex for collective nouns

Is also more complex for listsIs also more complex for lists

Collective NounsCollective NounsMost nouns in English take a singular or plural Most nouns in English take a singular or plural formform– ManMan MenMen– HandHand HandsHands

However, collective nouns take only the singular However, collective nouns take only the singular (Usually!)(Usually!)– Data (This does have a singular – Data (This does have a singular – datumdatum))– However, the meaning and use of the word has changedHowever, the meaning and use of the word has changed

DatumDatum and and datadata. Singular and plural of information points. Singular and plural of information pointsData. Collective nouns for group of results.Data. Collective nouns for group of results.Which is correctWhich is correct

– Which is correctWhich is correctThe data was collectedThe data was collectedThe data were correctedThe data were correctedBoth are but I prefer the former because of the change in Both are but I prefer the former because of the change in meaningmeaningIf you want to avoid the problem, use the word resultsIf you want to avoid the problem, use the word results

Collective NounsCollective NounsWhich is correctWhich is correct– A herd of 35 animals was examinedA herd of 35 animals was examined– A herd of 35 animals were examinedA herd of 35 animals were examined

Avoid problemAvoid problem– Thirty five animals were examinedThirty five animals were examined

Correct contextual useCorrect contextual use– A pair of animals was housed in a cageA pair of animals was housed in a cage– A pair of animals were studiedA pair of animals were studied– The number of persons studied was 35The number of persons studied was 35– A number of persons were studiedA number of persons were studied

Multiple subjectsMultiple subjects

Neither the cats nor the dog was in the Neither the cats nor the dog was in the cagecage– Correct but reads poorlyCorrect but reads poorly

Neither the dog nor the cats were in the Neither the dog nor the cats were in the cagecage– Correct and reads wellCorrect and reads well

Neither the cats nor the dog were in the Neither the cats nor the dog were in the cagecage– Wrong because with neither/nor the verb Wrong because with neither/nor the verb

should take the number of the closest nounshould take the number of the closest noun

Conventions in papersConventions in papersWhen numbers should be given as When numbers should be given as

numeralsnumerals– All numbers above 10All numbers above 10

35 animals35 animals– All numbers preceding a unit of measureAll numbers preceding a unit of measure

10 cm10 cm– Decimals, fractions including a whole numberDecimals, fractions including a whole number

7.38 mm, 4 ½ hours7.38 mm, 4 ½ hours– Statistical or mathematical functionsStatistical or mathematical functions

3.5 times, multiplied by 5, 23.5 times, multiplied by 5, 2ndnd quartile quartile– Numbers that are exact quantitiesNumbers that are exact quantities

IQ of 125, $25IQ of 125, $25– Numbers below ten group with numbers above tenNumbers below ten group with numbers above ten

4 of 16 individuals4 of 16 individuals– Numbers that indicate part of a seriesNumbers that indicate part of a series

Figure 6, Chapter 3Figure 6, Chapter 3

Conventions in papersConventions in papers When numbers should be written in full When numbers should be written in full

– Numbers that are not precise measurementsNumbers that are not precise measurements– A three-way interaction, repeated four timesA three-way interaction, repeated four times

– Numbers below ten groups with other numbers below tenNumbers below ten groups with other numbers below ten– Four out of six experimentsFour out of six experiments

– Any number that begins a sentenceAny number that begins a sentence– Five patients diedFive patients died

– Reword to avoid if possibleReword to avoid if possible

– If used a lot in a paragraph or section, write all out.If used a lot in a paragraph or section, write all out.

– Fractions without a whole numberFractions without a whole number– Reduced by halfReduced by half

– Zero and one in most places when not with another Zero and one in most places when not with another numbernumber

– And one plate was positiveAnd one plate was positive

– The measurement remained close to zeroThe measurement remained close to zero

AbbreviationsAbbreviations

Acronyms are not abbreviationsAcronyms are not abbreviations

Acronyms are not abbreviationsAcronyms are not abbreviations

They are pronounced as a wordThey are pronounced as a word– EEnzyme nzyme LLinked inked IImmunoadmmunoadSSorbant orbant AAssayssay

ELISAELISA

– RARAdio dio DDetection etection AAnd nd RRangingangingRADARRADAR

– NNational ational SSpace and pace and AAeronautical eronautical AAdministrationdministration

NASANASA

Abbreviations are only used in text Abbreviations are only used in text usually and if used in conversation, usually and if used in conversation,

they are spelt out or said in fullthey are spelt out or said in fullDNADNA– Spelt outSpelt out

RNARNA– Spelt outSpelt out

PhD or Ph.DPhD or Ph.D– Spelt outSpelt out– I prefer Ph.DI prefer Ph.D

MSc or M.Sc or MSMSc or M.Sc or MS– Spelt outSpelt out– I prefer M.ScI prefer M.Sc

Avg.Avg.– Said in fullSaid in full

sp. gr.sp. gr.– Said in FullSaid in Full

Abbreviations in the abstractAbbreviations in the abstract

You should avoid the use of abbreviations or You should avoid the use of abbreviations or acronyms in the abstract, if at all possible, acronyms in the abstract, if at all possible, except for generally accepted ones like DNA or except for generally accepted ones like DNA or ELISAELISAIf you need to use an abbreviation in the If you need to use an abbreviation in the abstract, write it in full the first time with the abstract, write it in full the first time with the abbreviation in brackets afterwards. Then use abbreviation in brackets afterwards. Then use the abbreviationthe abbreviation– Department of Energy (DOE)Department of Energy (DOE)

Only do this in the abstract if you use the term Only do this in the abstract if you use the term more than twice and it is longmore than twice and it is long– The aim is to save words because there is a word The aim is to save words because there is a word

limit in the abstractlimit in the abstract

Abbreviations in the main textAbbreviations in the main text

Here the function is to increase readability and Here the function is to increase readability and to avoid repeating the same long phase again to avoid repeating the same long phase again and again.and again.Choose what you intend to abbreviate carefully Choose what you intend to abbreviate carefully based on thisbased on thisPlace the abbreviation in brackets after the first Place the abbreviation in brackets after the first mention of the term to be shortenedmention of the term to be shortenedAfter that, After that, always use the abbreviationalways use the abbreviationBe careful of what the abbreviation sounds or Be careful of what the abbreviation sounds or looks likelooks like

Functional User Capacity (FUC)Functional User Capacity (FUC)Sensor Navigation Orthogonal Tracer (SNOT)Sensor Navigation Orthogonal Tracer (SNOT)

Abbreviations and words in Abbreviations and words in “foreign” languages“foreign” languages

Historically in English, it was considered Historically in English, it was considered intellectual that you used Latin, Greek and intellectual that you used Latin, Greek and French words and phrases for specific French words and phrases for specific purposes.purposes.Some of these words have been Some of these words have been assimilated directly into Englishassimilated directly into EnglishSome are still be assimilatedSome are still be assimilatedSome are not assimilated at allSome are not assimilated at allSome are just obscureSome are just obscure

Foreign words and abbreviations Foreign words and abbreviations assimilated into Englishassimilated into English

I prefer the first plural in all cases. All no italics except as belowI prefer the first plural in all cases. All no italics except as belowAnalysisAnalysis– PluralPlural AnalysesAnalyses

FormulaFormula– Plural:Plural: formulae or formulasformulae or formulas

MemorandumMemorandum– Plural:Plural: memoranda or memorandumsmemoranda or memorandums

SerumSerum– Plural:Plural: sera or serumssera or serums

IndexIndex– Plural:Plural: indices or Indexesindices or Indexes

AppendixAppendix– Plural:Plural: appendices or appendixesappendices or appendixes

egeg– No plural. From Latin. No italics in US journalsNo plural. From Latin. No italics in US journals

ieie– No plural. From Latin. No italics in US journalsNo plural. From Latin. No italics in US journals

a prioria priori– No plural. Latin. No italics in US journalsNo plural. Latin. No italics in US journals

Foreign words and abbreviations Foreign words and abbreviations becoming assimilated into Englishbecoming assimilated into Englishsine qua nonsine qua noncoup de gracecoup de graceper seper secoup d’etatcoup d’etat– PluralPlural coups d’etatcoups d’etat

i.e.i.e.– id estid est:: that isthat is

cf.cf.– conferconfer:: comparecompare

e.g.e.g.– exempli gratiaexempli gratia:: for examplefor example

et al.et al.– et aliiet alii:: and othersand others– Note that there is no full stop after et. It is not abbreviatedNote that there is no full stop after et. It is not abbreviated

BacillusBacillus– Plural bacillae. No italics as an accepted scientific termPlural bacillae. No italics as an accepted scientific term

MitochondrionMitochondrion– Plural mitochondria. No italics as an accepted scientific termPlural mitochondria. No italics as an accepted scientific term

Obscure AbbreviationsObscure Abbreviations

op. cit.op. cit.– in the work citedin the work cited

loc. cit.loc. cit.– in the place citedin the place cited

ibid.ibid.– in the same workin the same work

viz.viz.– namelynamely

circacirca– aboutabout

etc.etc.– and so forthand so forth

11stst three are still used a great deal in footnotes in legal journals to three are still used a great deal in footnotes in legal journals to shorten the quotation of casesshorten the quotation of casesviz.viz. and and circacirca should never be used should never be usedetc. etc. should really not be used because it does not add anything to should really not be used because it does not add anything to what you say. Is commonly not italicised, but avoid.what you say. Is commonly not italicised, but avoid.

Other rulesOther rules

Be consistentBe consistentSee what the journal normally uses and stick to itSee what the journal normally uses and stick to itDo use approved abbreviations, but check the journals Do use approved abbreviations, but check the journals instructions to authorsinstructions to authorsDo not overuse abbreviations, remember why you are Do not overuse abbreviations, remember why you are using themusing themDo not use an abbreviation in the title except something Do not use an abbreviation in the title except something like DNA or ELISAlike DNA or ELISATry not to begin a sentence with an abbreviation if at all Try not to begin a sentence with an abbreviation if at all possiblepossibleRemember to give a generic name in full first, then only Remember to give a generic name in full first, then only abbreviated the genusabbreviated the genus– Escherichia coliEscherichia coli then then E. coli E. coli not not E. c.E. c.

Plural of abbreviationsPlural of abbreviations

Page and species have special plural formsPage and species have special plural forms– SpeciesSpecies

sp. – singularsp. – singular spp. - pluralspp. - plural– PagePage

p. – singularp. – singular pp. - pluralpp. - plural

An apostrophe indicates the possessive, be An apostrophe indicates the possessive, be careful when using with abbreviationscareful when using with abbreviations– ““the DNAs were . . .” not “the DNA’s were . . .”the DNAs were . . .” not “the DNA’s were . . .”– except for “the DNA’s properties . . .”except for “the DNA’s properties . . .”

Units of measureUnits of measure– Do not pluralizeDo not pluralize

1 ml; 100 ml; 1 l; 100 l.1 ml; 100 ml; 1 l; 100 l.

Final CommentsFinal CommentsAvoid abbreviations for subdivisions of countriesAvoid abbreviations for subdivisions of countries– Calif. or CA; Mich. or MI; Lond.; H. K.Calif. or CA; Mich. or MI; Lond.; H. K.– Many people outside the country don’t know themMany people outside the country don’t know them

For countries except for the United States of America and the For countries except for the United States of America and the United Kingdom, do not abbreviated (exception, USSR, which United Kingdom, do not abbreviated (exception, USSR, which does not exist anymore). Not even the European Union (E.U.)does not exist anymore). Not even the European Union (E.U.)– United States of AmericaUnited States of America

U.S.A. or USA. or U.S. or USU.S.A. or USA. or U.S. or USI prefer 1I prefer 1stst but be consistent but be consistent

– United KingdomUnited KingdomU.K. or UKU.K. or UKI prefer 1I prefer 1st st but be consistentbut be consistentThis is the correct term for the whole area in Europe controlled from This is the correct term for the whole area in Europe controlled from Parliament in LondonParliament in LondonDo not use England, Britain Great Britain, British Isles. These have specific Do not use England, Britain Great Britain, British Isles. These have specific and somewhat obscure meaningsand somewhat obscure meaningsIf you mean Scotland or Wales, be specific and be careful not to call it If you mean Scotland or Wales, be specific and be careful not to call it EnglandEnglandIreland is a place, not a country. It is made up of Eire or the Republic of Ireland is a place, not a country. It is made up of Eire or the Republic of Ireland (Use the former) and Northern Ireland or Ulster (Use the former)Ireland (Use the former) and Northern Ireland or Ulster (Use the former)

Placing of some Latin wordsPlacing of some Latin words

in vivo in vivo (in a living system)(in a living system)– in vivo in vivo assayassay– assay assay in vivoin vivo More correctMore correct

in vitroin vitro (in a test tube or artificial system) (in a test tube or artificial system)– in vitro in vitro experimentexperiment– experiment experiment in vitroin vitro More correctMore correct