BASIC MILITARY REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 8

GENERAL TERMS

• Lengthwise direction on a ship is fore and aft;• Crosswise is athwartships. The front of the ship

is the bow; the rearmost is the stern. To move forward toward the bow is to go forward; to move toward the stern is to go aft.

• Anything that is more toward the bow than another object is forward of it, and anything that is more toward the stern is aft (behind) the other object.

• The floors of a ship are called decks. They divide the ship into layers and provide additional hull strength and protection for internal spaces.

• The undersurface of each deck forms the overhead (never the ceiling) of the compartment below. Compartments are the rooms of a ship. Some compartments are referred to as rooms, such as the wardroom, stateroom, and engine room.

• Access through bulkheads is provided by doors and through decks by hatches. Watertight (WT) doors, as the term implies, form a watertight seal when properly closed.

• Main control is the station where the engineer officer controls the engineering functions of a ship.

• Main control is normally located below the main deck in boiler or machinery spaces.

• You never go downstairs in a ship; you always go• below. To go up is to go topside. However, if you climb• the mast, stacks, rigging, or any other area above the• highest solid structure, you go aloft. The bridge is• topside and usually forward. It contains control and• visual communication stations. Human beings live in a• ship or on board a ship. Inanimate objects, stores, and• equipment are aboard a ship. Similarly, you board a• ship or go on board. Stores, ammunition, and so on are• taken aboard and struck below.

SHIPS CATEGORIES

• Ships of the U.S. Navy are divided into four categories:

• • Combatant ships

• • Auxiliary ships

• • Combatant craft

• • Support craft

Combatant Ships

• Depending on size and type, combatant ships may have missions other than simply “slugging it out” with an enemy ship.

• Combatant ships are of two types—warships and other combatants.

• WARSHIPS.—Most warships are built primarily to attack an enemy with gunfire, missiles, or other weapons. The following types of ships are included in the warship category:

• • Aircraft carriers• • Battleships• • Cruisers• • Destroyers• • Frigates• • Submarines

• Aircraft Carriers.—There are three types of aircraft carriers—

• 1. Multipurpose aircraft carriers (CVs)

• 2. Multipurpose aircraft carriers (nuclear

• propulsion) (CVNs)

• 3. Training carriers

• Battleships.—The battleships have been• decommissioned. However, they could be

reactivated.• Battleships were given state names. However,

since there is little likelihood of our building any more battleships, state names are being

• given to cruisers like the USS South Carolina (CGN 37) and to submarines (SSBNs) like the USS Ohio (SSBN 726) and USS Michigan (SSBN 727).

Cruisers

• Cruisers are medium-sized, general-utility ships. They have a large cruising range and are capable of high speeds (over 30 knots).

• They serve as protective screens against surface and air attacks and also provide gunfire support for land operations.

• The two basic types of cruisers are the guided-missile cruiser (CG) and guided-missile cruiser (nuclear propulsion) (CGN).

Frigates

• The classification “frigate” designates ships used for open-ocean escort and patrol.

• Frigates resemble destroyers in appearance, but they are slower, have only a single screw, and carry less armament.

Submarines

The Navy deploys two classes of submarines attack submarines (SSNs) and ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs).

The mission of nuclear attack submarines (SSNs) is to locate and destroy enemy ships and submarines. They also act as scouts, deliver supplies and personnel to locations in enemy territory, and perform rescue missions.

Fixed-Wing Aircraft Nomenclature

• A fixed-wing aircraft may be divided into three basic parts—fuselage, wings, and empennage (tail).

• FUSELAGE.—The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft, containing the cockpit and, if there is one, the cabin.

• WINGS.—Wings are the primary lifting devices of an aircraft, although some lift is derived from the fuselage and tail. Located on the trailing (rear) edge of the wings are flaps that may be used to give extra lift on takeoff or to slow the aircraft in flight or landings.

• EMPENNAGE.—The empennage consists of the stabilizing fins mounted on the tail section of the fuselage.

• These include the vertical stabilizer on which is generally mounted the rudder that is used to control yaw, or direction of the nose about the vertical axis; and the horizontal stabilizer, on the trailing edge of which are the elevators that determine the pitch (climb or dive).

BASIC MILITARY REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 9

CUSTOMS AND COURTESIES

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• Chapter 9 covers customs and courtesies, such as hand salutes, passing honors, gun salutes and colors.

• • A custom is a way of acting that has continued consistently over such a long period of time that it has become like law.

• • Many of the US Navy customs came from the British Navy.

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• Hand Salutes• • The Most common form of a salute is a hand salute. • • Left handed saluting in the Navy is permitted if your

right hand/arm is injured. • • Carry all objects in your left hand. • • Start you hand salute approx. six paces from an officer.

Hold your salute until your salute is returned or until you are about six paces past the officer. Always accompany your salute with a respectful greeting, ie “Good Morning Commander Brockway”, or “Good Afternoon, Ma’am.”

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• • Enlisted personnel salute all officers. Officers salute their seniors. Everyone salutes the National Ensign.

• • You do not have to salute when uncovered inside, when part of a work detail, when under actual or simulated battle conditions, or when guarding prisoners.

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• Honors • • Honors are salutes rendered to individuals of

merit, to high ranking individuals, to ships, and to nations.

• • Types of honors:Passing Honors-ship to shipShip Honors- to officials or officers as they board and depart a Navy ship.Gun Salutes- are rendered to high-ranking individuals, to nations, and to celebrate national holidays.

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• Passing Honors• • Passing honors are rendered when ships or

boats pass close aboard. Close Aboard is600 Yards for ships400 Yards for boats

• • Signals for actions for passing honors are as follows:-One blast: attention to starboard-Two blasts: attention to port

• -One blast: hand salute-Two blasts: end salute-Three blasts: carry on

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• Gun Salutes• • Gun salutes are used to honor individuals, nations, and

certain national holidays. • • Gun salutes always consist of odd numbers, ranging

from 5 for vice consul to 21 for President & for rules of a foreign nation. The gun is normally fired at 5 second intervals.

• • Gun salutes also mark special holidays:President’s DayMemorial DayIndependence Day

• • A standard 21 Gun Salute is fired at one minute intervals.

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES

• Colors• • The Navy hoists the flag at 0800 and

lowers at sunset. This is known as morning and evening colors. All Navy shore commands and ships not underway performs the ceremony of colors every day.

• Remember that the ensign is raised smartly but lowered ceremoniously

CUSTOMS & COURTESIES• Military Etiquette• • Aboard the ship the CO is addressed as captain regardless of rank • • Juniors always enter a car first (seated leftmost) and exit last. When

walking, Juniors always walk on left side of Seniors. • • The basic rule of etiquette for entering airplanes, boats, and vehicles is

Seniors in last and out first. In general, Seniors on a boat take the seats farthest aft.

• •Boarding a Vessel: When boarding a ship in which the National Ensign is flying you should:1. Stop on reaching the upper platform.2. Face the national ensign and salute3. Salute the OOD

• • As you salute, you say to the OOD, “I request permission to come aboard”. When you leave a ship the order is reversed. First you salute the OOD and say, “I request permission to leave the ship, Sir/Ma’am”. After receiving permission you face and salute the national ensign.

CHAPTER 10UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS

• Chapter 10 - Uniforms and Formations• This chapter covers uniform, awards, hash

marks, rank insignia, grooming standards, and formations.

• • The purpose of the uniform policy is to ensure naval personnel have attractive, distinctive, and practical uniforms.

• • The US Navy Uniform Regulations NAVPERS 15665 provides the basic naval uniform policy.

UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS

• Uniforms and Formations • • Neckerchief is 36 inches square and

made of black silk or acetate. It is tied in a square knot.

• • Government-issue dress blue jumpers and trousers are made of wool serge.

• • The dress white jumpers and trousers are made of a polyester material called certified Navy twill.

UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS

• • Military uniform articles that can be worn with civilian clothing:• raincoat (without insignia)• belts (with civilian buckles)• knit watch cap• command/Navy ball cap (w/o insignia)• gloves• handbag • blue/khaki windbreaker • shoes • sweater (cardigan/blue)• socks/hosiery• V-neck sweater• underwear

UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS• Rates/Insignias• • Rating is the job or occupation i.e BM, IT, DC, OS • • Rate is the paygrade of the person i.e. 3rd class, 2nd class • • Rank is used to identify officer's pay grade. • • Service stripes (hash marks): One stripe for each full four years of

duty in any of the armed forces, in any combination, ie., 2 years Army and two years Navy count as four years for one stripe. With 12 years of good conduct, scarlet service stripes are worn on blue uniforms, blue hash marks on white uniforms

• • Ribbons are worn ¼ inch above the left breast pocket. Each row may have no more than 3 ribbons. Persons possessing 4 or more ribbons can wear a minimum of 3 of the most senior ribbons.

UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS

• Grooming Standards • Male Standards• • Hair may not be any longer the 4 inches and must be

groomed so that it does not touch the ears or collar. Hair above the neck and ears will be tapered to ¾ inches

• • While in uniform men may wear one wristwatch, bracelet, one ring (per hand), one necklace or choker (may not be exposed). Men may not wear earrings while in uniform or in civilian clothes while on a military installation or while attending a military function.

• • Fingernails may not extend past the meat (end) of the fingers.

UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS• Female Standards• • Hairstyles must be neat and present a groomed appearance. Braided hairstyles

must be conservative and conform to the guidelines stated in NAVPERS 15665. Some guidelines include:Pony tails, pigtails, protruding braids are not authorized.Multiple braids are authorized when uniform in dimension and small in diameter (approx. ¼ in.)

• • Hair Length: when in uniform, the hair may touch but not fall below a horizontal line level with the lower edge of the back of the collar. With jumper uniforms, hair may extend a maximum of 1 ½ inch below the top of the jumper collar. No portion of the bulk of the hair as measured from the scalp will not exceed approx. 2 inches.

• • Barrettes/Combs/Clips can only be a maximum of two (small). Must be similar to hair color.

• • Fingernails- (female) may not exceed ¼ inch from the tip of finger. • • Earrings – (female) One pair may be worn while in uniform and must be 6 mm silver

for E-6 and below, E-7 and above wear gold. • • Necklace may wear one necklace or choker but it cannot be visible. • • The heels on women's shoes will be no higher than 2 5/8 inches nor less than

5/8 inch.

UNIFORMS & FORMATIONS• Drills and Formation• • Distance: A space of 40 inches between the chest of one person to the

back of the person ahead of them. • • Pace: The length of a full step (30 inches for men and 24 inches for

women) • • At Ease: You can relax but keep your right foot in place. Do not talk. • • Rest: You can relax, keep right foot in place, and you may talk. This is the

only command that allows you to talk. • • Fall Out: This is not a dismissal. Upon this command you can leave your

position in ranks, but must stay near your position to resume ranks. • • About Face is a two count movement. • • To Close Ranks: On command the front ranks stand fast. The 2nd ranks

move up one pace. The 3rd rank moves two paces, the 4th rank moves three paces.

• • Dismissed: This command is used to secure a formation.

CHAPTER 11SMALL ARMS

• Strictly defined, the term small arm means any firearm of .60-caliber, 15-mm, or smaller bore.

• However, the term is generally considered to mean a weapon intended to be fired from the hand or shoulder, such as a rifle or a pistol.

Precautions• You should observe the following general precautions when

handling any type of firearm:• 1. Treat every weapon with respect. Consider it loaded.• 2. Never point a weapon at anything or anyone you do not intend to

shoot.• 3. Always make sure that the bore is clear and that all oil and

grease have been removed from the barrel and chamber before firing.

• 4. Use only the proper size of ammunition.• 5. Unload firearms before transporting them to and from a shooting

area.• 6. Always carry the firearm so as to control the direction of the

muzzle. Keep the muzzle pointed in a safe direction until ready to fire.

Precautions, cont’d• 7. Keep the safety on until you are ready to shoot.• 8. Never shoot until you have positively identified the target.• 9. Unload unattended weapons. At home, store firearms (with

trigger locks installed) and ammunition out of the reach of children.• 10. Do not climb trees or fences with a loaded• firearm.• 11. Do not pull a firearm toward you by the muzzle.• 12. Avoid shooting a rifle over a hard, flat surface or body of water

because of possible erratic and lengthy bullet ricochets.• 13. Like oil and water, firearms and alcohol do not mix. Do not drink

alcoholic beverages or partake of any narcotic or drug before or during shooting activities.

• 14. Know your weapon—its shooting characteristics, its safeties, and its loading and unloading procedures.

• 15. Never indulge in horseplay when carrying a firearm.

• The 7.62-mm M14 (fig. 11-2) rifle is a lightweight, air-cooled, gas-operated, magazine-fed shoulder weapon.

• The overall length of the rifle (with a flash suppressor) is 41.31 inches. The weapon has a muzzle velocity of 2,800 feet per second and a maximum range of 4,075 yards.

• The steps you take when field-stripping and cleaning the M16A1 and M16A2 weapons are basically the same. However, there are some major differences between the two weapons. These differences include the barrel, sights, selector assembly, ammunition, and hand guards of the two rifles.

• The rifle is clear only when the following conditions exist:

• No case or round is in the chamber.

• The magazine is out.

• The bolt carrier is to the rear.

• The selector lever is on the SAFE position.

THE 9MM SERVICE PISTOL

• In 1985, the armed forces selected a 9mm pistol to replace the .45-caliber pistol. The pistol selected is a single- or double-action semiautomatic hand weapon.

• As soon as the pistol is fired, either in single or double action, the slide automatically comes back and cocks the hammer. To fire the pistol again, all you have to do is pull the trigger.

• The 9mm pistol has a large magazine capacity—it can hold 15 rounds in the magazine. Slots in the magazine help the user know the number of rounds that remain.

Administration organization chain of command

• The survivability of a ship depends on the level of preparedness of its personnel. The condition of the equipment, shipboard systems, and the amount of training are factors that affect the ship’s survivability.

• Ship’s bills, records and schedules for maintenance, written doctrine, and procedures relating to damage control are all part of the administrative organization of damage control.

• The CO must ensure that the ship’s officers and crew are trained and continually exercised in all aspects of survivability.

• The executive officer (XO) keeps the command informed of the ship’s survivability readiness. The XO is the senior person assigned to the damage control training team (DCTT).

• The DCTT is responsible for all shipboard drills and exercises in the area of damage control.

Gas Free Engineer

• The gas free engineer (chief petty officer or above) decides when it’s safe for personnel to enter closed or poorly ventilated spaces. The GFE makes sure that all necessary measures have been taken to eliminate the risk of fire, explosion, exposure to toxic substances, suffocation, or asphyxiation.

DAMAGE CONTROL STATION

• The primary purpose of damage control central (DCC) is to collect and compare reports from various repair stations to determine the ship’s condition and the corrective action to be taken. DCC is the nerve center and directing force of the entire damage control organization.

Repair Locker Location/Function

• Repair 1 Main deck repair• Repair 2 Forward repair• Repair 3 After repair• Repair 4 Amidships repair• Repair 5 Propulsion repair• Repair 6 Ordnance• Repair 7 Gallery deck and island structure• Repair 8 Electronic casualty

Chapter 13 - CBR Defense

• The primary purpose of biological and chemical attacks is the mass casualties of personnel, livestock, or crops.

• • US national policy prohibits our being the first nation to use chemical agents against an attacking nation.

• • The US will not use biological agents under any circumstances.

• • Chemical Warfare (CW) agents can kill or disable personnel by affecting the blood, nerves, eyes, skin, lungs, or stomach.

• • Biological warfare (BW) operation agents include microorganisms, fungi, toxins, and microtoxins to cause diseases that will kill or produce other casualties.

CBR Defense

• • To be most effective, biological weapons are normally delivered by aerosol.

• • Chemical agents can be placed in projectiles or missiles.

• • Nuclear weapons can be launched in almost any manner by land, sea, or air units.

• • Broadly speaking, there are two types of antipersonnel agents: casualty and incapacitating.

• • Sarin and VX are types of nerve agents. • • Some of the symptoms of nerve poisoning are:

stomach cramps, sudden headache, nausea, wheezing, and convulsions.

CLASSES OF FIRE

• Fires are divided into four classifications:

CBR Defense

• • Incapacitating CW agents temporarily disable personnel but do not create permanent injury.

• • (2-PAM CI) atropine and pralidoxime chloride are self injections used as the antidote for a nerve agent.

• • Blister agents act on the eyes, mucous membranes, lungs, and skin.

• • Blister agents include mustard vapors and mustard liquids.

• • Muster agents burn and blister the skin, especially moist areas such as the neck, genitals, groin, armpits, bends of knees and elbows. Muster agents also damage the respiratory tract when inhaled.

CBR Defense

• • Personnel who are suspected of contamination from muster agents in the eyes must seek overhead shelter and flush their eyes with potable (drinkable) water.

• • Blood agents inhibit the action of an enzyme responsible for transferring oxygen from the blood to the cells of the body.

• • High concentrations of blood agents cause labored breathing within a few seconds, violent convulsions, followed by cessation (stoppage) of breathing.

• • Choking agents in low concentration effect the respiratory system to the point that the lungs fill with fluid.

CBR Defense• • Riot control agents (RCAs) are classified as either tear agents or

vomiting agents. • • RCAs cause temporary misery and harassment. • • Biological warfare(BW) is the intentional use of living organisms,

toxins, and microtoxins to disable or destroy people and domestic animals, damage crops, or deteriorate supplies.

• • Animals, insects, and rodents can be used as carriers to spread BW agents.

• • Some BW agents include anthrax, typhoid fever, cholera, plague, tularemia, botulinum toxin, and influenza.

• • Early stages of biological disease include the general symptoms of fever, malaise, and inflammation.

CBR Defense

• • Nuclear warfare: There are four types of nuclear blast. • • High altitude blast takes place above 100,000 feet. • • Air blast is when the fireball is below 100,000 feet but

doesn’t touch the earth’s surface. • • Surface Blast is when the fireball touches the earth’s

surface. • • Subsurface (underwater) burst: A fireball is formed

(smaller fireball than a surface blast), and this explosion creates a large bubble (cavity) that rises to the surface where it expels steam, gas, and debris into the air.

CBR Defense• • There are two types of nuclear radiation: initial and residual. • • Nuclear weapons produce explosions of great force. Their effects

are divided into three categories:- Blast waves or shockwaves- incendiary- radiation

• • The intense flash of light from a nuclear blast can cause flash blindness. Normally this is only temporary, usually the eyes can recover in about 15 minutes in daytime and 45 minutes at night.

• • Nuclear radiation hazards consist of four types.- Alfa: little skin-penetrating power.- Beta: can present a hazard if the particles enter the skin.- Gamma: Rays are pure energy, very difficult to stop. They can easily penetrate the body.- Neutrons: have the greatest penetrating power.

CBR Defense

• • Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) can cause considerable damage to tactical systems, including electrical and electronic systems, sonar, radar, and communications.

• • Transient Radiation effects on electronics (TREE) occurs in electronics systems as a result of exposure to gamma or neutron radiation.

• • Survey teams go through the ship to determine the extent and location of any contamination after a CW, BW, or nuclear attack. A survey team consists of a minimum of three people: a monitor, a recorder, and a messenger. The monitor is in charge of the party.

CBR Defense

• • CBR contamination markers is a standard system and is used to mark areas contaminated by CW, BW, or nuclear agents. Look at figure 13-16 page 13-15. This page shows CBR contamination markers. The markers are triangular in shape. They re 11 ½ inches with 8 inch sides. Each type of contamination is readily identified by the color of the marker. Also, they are labeled:GAS-Yellow-Red LettersBIO-Blue-Red LettersATOM-White-Black Letters

• • Dose rate is expressed in roentgens (gamma ray measurement only)

CBR Defense

• • The MCU-2/P Protective Mask is the most important piece of protective equipment against a CBR attack.

• • The mask serves two functions:

• 1. It filters the air, removing particles of dust that could be contaminated.2. It purifies the air of many poisonous gases.

CBR Defense• • The mask can be worn over approved mask-compatible glasses. • • Basically, any clothing or coverall that covers the body can provide

a degree of protection from CBR contaminants. • • Chemical-protective over garment (CPO suit) consists of two

pieces, a smock and trousers. • • The CPO suit has a shelf life of 5 years if left unopened. • • Once removed from its protective envelope, it has a shelf life of 14

days in a nonchemical environment. • • Once exposed to chemical contamination, the CPO suit provides 6

hours of continuous protection, after which it should be discarded.

CBR Defense

• • Wet-weather clothing is often described as impermeable or rubberized clothing.

• • Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) is a means of established levels of readiness. MOPP is a flexible system of protection against chemical agents and is used in chemical warfare defense to help accomplish a mission.

• • There are four levels of MOPP, from Level 1, the least protection to Level 4, the most protection.

CBR Defense

• - MOPP Level-1: protective equipment and medical supply items are issued. Set readiness Condition III and material condition Yoke, if not already set.

• - MOPP Level- 2: Protective mask and carrier are worn on the person. Set Zebra (modified)

• - MOPP Level- 3: Install new filter canisters on protective masks. Don CPO suits, set GQ, set zebra. Activate countermeasures, wash down system intermittently.

• - MOPP Level- 4: Don mask, protective gloves, set CIRCLE WILLIAM, activate countermeasures, wash down system .

CBR Defense

• • Decontamination teams usually consist of six people. The monitor will be in charge.

• • To decontaminate means eliminating the sources of infection. The most effective way is to use a chemical disinfectant.

• • M291 Decontamination Kit is used to decontaminate skin and selected personnel equipment contaminated with chemical agents. The kit contains six sealed foil packets, enough for three complete skin applications.

• • The disadvantage an enemy has when using BW agents is that BW agents degrade rapidly when exposed to the environment conditions such as ultraviolet light, radiation, heat, dryness, or humidity.

CBR Defense

• • Never eat food, drink, or smoke after a CBR attack.

• • Weapons of mass destruction are weapons that can destroy large areas or kill and disable large segments of the population.

GENERAL FIRST-AID RULES

• 1. Keep the victim lying down; head level with the body, until you have found out what kind of injury has occurred and how serious it is. However, if the victim shows one of the following difficulties, follow the rule given for that specific problem:

• a. Vomiting or bleeding about the mouth and semi consciousness: If the victim is in danger of sucking in blood, vomited matter, or water, place the victim on his or her side or back with the head turned to one side and lower than the feet.

GENERAL FIRST-AID RULES

• b. Shortness of breath: If the victim has a chest• injury or breathing difficulties, place the victim• in a sitting or semi-sitting position.• c. Shock: If the victim is in shock, place the• victim on his or her back with the head slightly• lower than the feet.

• 2. Move the victim no more than is absolutely necessary. To determine the extent of the victim’s injuries, carefully rip or cut the clothing along the seams. Removal of clothing in the normal way may make injuries worse, especially if fracture injuries are involved. Shoes may also be cut off to avoid causing pain or increasing an injury. When the clothing is removed, make sure the victim does not become chilled.

• 3. Keep the victim reassured and as comfortable as possible. If possible, don’t let the victim see his or her injuries. The victim can endure pain and discomfort better if he or she is confident of your abilities.

• 4. Don’t touch open wounds or burns with fingers or other objects except when sterile compresses or bandages aren’t available and it’s absolutely necessary to stop severe bleeding.

• 5. Don’t try to give an unconscious person any solid or liquid substance by mouth. The person may vomit and get some of the material into the lungs when he or she breathes, causing choking and possibly death.

• 6. If a bone is broken or you suspect that one is broken, don’t move the victim until you have immobilized the injured part. That may prove lifesaving in cases of severe bone fractures or spinal cord injuries, for the jagged bone may sever nerves and blood vessels, damage tissues, and increase shock. Of course, threat of fire, necessity to abandon ship, or other similar situations may require that you move the victim.

• But always keep in mind the principle that moving the victim could do further damage; always weigh the risk of moving the victim against other factors.

• 7. When transporting an injured person, always see that the litter is carried feet forward no matter what the injuries are. Carrying the litter this way lets the rear bearer observe the victim for any respiratory obstruction or stoppage of breathing.

• 8. Keep the injured person comfortably warm—warm enough to maintain normal body temperature.

• Very serious and mutilating injuries may require heroic first-aid measures on your part. However, the greater the number of injuries, the more judgment and self-control you must exhibit to prevent yourself and well-intentioned bystanders from trying to do too much.

HEMORRHAGE AND METHODS OFCONTROLLING BLEEDING

• Blood is circulated throughout the body by three different kinds of blood vessels.

• 1. Arteries, which are large vessels that carry the blood away from the heart;

• 2. Veins, which are large vessels that carry the blood back to the heart;

• 3. Capillaries, which form a connecting network of smaller vessels between the arteries and the veins.

• Hemorrhage (escape of blood) occurs whenever there is a break in the wall of one or more blood vessels.

• Bleeding severe enough to endanger life seldom occurs except when arteries or veins are cut.

• The average adult body contains about 5 quarts (4.75 liters) of blood. One pint of blood can usually be lost without harmful effect—in fact, that’s the amount usually given by blood donors. However, the loss of 2 pints (0.95 liter) will usually cause shock, and shock becomes greater as the amount of blood loss increases.

• (Shock will be discussed later in this chapter.) If half the blood in the body is lost, death almost always results.

• The only way to stop serious bleeding is by the application of pressure. In practically all cases, bleeding can be stopped if pressure is applied directly to the wound. If direct pressure doesn’t stop the bleeding, pressure should be applied at the appropriate pressure point.

• In those very rare cases where bleeding is so severe that it cannot be controlled by either of these methods, pressure can be applied by a tight constricting band.

• CAUTION

• Never put on a constricting band unless the hemorrhage is so severe that it cannot be controlled in any other way. Once a constricting band has been applied, it should be released only by medical personnel.

SHOCK

• If you’ve ever hit your finger with a hammer and felt—in addition to the pain—weak, dizzy, and nauseous, then you have experienced a mild form of shock. In this case, the symptoms appeared immediately after the injury, but they may not show up for several hours.

• Shock is a condition in which blood circulation is seriously disturbed. Crushed or fractured bones, burns, prolonged bleeding, and asphyxia all cause shock. Shock may be slight or it may be severe enough to cause death. Because all traumatic injuries result in some form of shock, you should learn its symptoms.

SHOCK

• The symptoms of a person suffering from shock are• caused, directly or indirectly, by the disturbance of the• circulation of the blood. Symptoms of shock include the• following:• • The pulse is weak and rapid.• • Breathing is likely to be shallow, rapid, and irregular,

because the poor circulation of the blood affects the breathing center in the brain. • The temperature near the surface of the body is lowered because of the poor blood flow; so the face,

• arms, and legs feel cold to the touch.• • Sweating is likely to be very noticeable.

SHOCK

• A person in shock is usually very pale, but, in• some cases, the skin may have a bluish or reddish color.• In the case of victims with dark skin, you may have to• rely primarily on the color of the mucous membranes on• the inside of the mouth or under the eyelid or under the• nail bed. A person in or going into shock has a bluish• color to these membranes instead of a healthy pink.