Basic Grammar

Sentences and Commas

Key Terms and Abbreviations to Understanding Basic Sentences

• I.C.= INDEPENDENT CLAUSE•D.C.= DEPENDENT CLAUSE•C.C.=COORDINATE CONJUNCTION•S.C.=SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION•C.A.=CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

Simple Sentences

Simple Sentences

• “A simple sentence includes a single independent clause made up of a subject and a predicate [verb]” (H-96)

A SIMPLE Sentence (ALSO CALLED A PHRASE OR CLAUSE)

Subject (He, she, it)

Verb (action)

Object (receives the action)

S+V+O or John (S) studies (V) English (O).

Independent Clauses

•A simple phrase or clause (S+V+O) is also called an independent clause (I.C.)•S+V+O= I.C.•Example: Jose (S) rides (V) the bus (O).

Compound Sentences

Compound Sentences• “Writers often use

coordinating conjunctions…to join related independent clauses—groups of words that can stand alone as complete sentences—to create compound sentences” (290)

Coordinate Conjunctions

• “A dream, all a dream, that ends in nothing, and leaves the sleeper where he lay down, but I wish you to know that you inspired it,” from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities (1859)

•Coordinate conjunctions are used to “bring together…elements of equal importance to the meaning” of the sentence

Coordinate Conjunctions

•There are 7 coordinate conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so•An easy acronym: FANBOYS: F (for), A

(and), N (nor), B (but), O (or), Y (yet), and S (so)•Coordinate conjunctions combine 2 or

more independent clauses

Coordinate Conjunctions in Equiano

• “I was immediately handled and tossed up to see if if I was sound, by some of the crew; and I was now persuaded that I had got into a world of bad spirits, and that they were going to kill me,” from Olaudah Equiano’s The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano

Question: Can Coordinate Conjunctions Start a Sentence

The answer is probably more complicated than you might expect…

About This Our Textbooks are Somewhat Vague

• In The St. Martin’s Guide to Writing it states they, “bring together…elements [that] can be words, phrases, or clauses” (H-42)

• However, neither text provides an answer to this question

• An answer can be implied because in all the examples using coordinate conjunctions only one of them begins a sentence

According to Towson University, “No”

According to Estrella Mountain College, “No”

According to Pasadena City College, “No”

Yet the Oxford Dictionary Explains, “Yes”

Grammar Myths #2: Please, miss, can I start with a coordinate conjunction?

According to Capital Community College, “Yes”

According to the University of Wisconsin-Madison, “Yes”

This Advice from Illinois Valley Community College Seems about right…

So Should One Start a Sentence with a Coordinate Conjunction?

Academic/Formal Settings

•No (although sometimes it might be okay; ask first)

Creative Writing/Journalism

•Yes (sparingly)

Complex Sentences

Complex Sentences• “Writers create

complex sentences by combining independent clauses with a subordinating conjunction (such as although or because) or by linking two clauses with a relative pronoun (such as which or who)” (H-98)

W. H. Auden

Dependent Clauses

•“If equal affection cannot be, let the more loving one be me,” from W. H. Auden’s “The More Loving One”

• Typically, “the dependent clause explains or qualifies the independent clause,” as explained in the St. Martin’s Guide to Writing (H-5)• “The most important

information appears in an independent clause” (H-42)

Dependent Clauses

•A dependent clause (S.C.+S+V+O) is connected to an independent clause•By itself, a dependent clause is a

fragment or incomplete sentence•S.C.+S+V+O•Example: Since (S.C.) the library (S) was

(V) open (O)

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

• Subordinate conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, which add detail about independent clauses• Some useful subordinate conjunctions:

AFTER ALTHOUGH AS

BECAUSE BEFORE EVENTHOUGH

IF ONCE PROVIDED

SINCE THOUGH UNLESS

WHEREAS WHETHER WHILE

Compound-Complex Sentences

Compound-Complex Sentences

• “Clauses can also be combined to produce compound-complex sentences, compound sentences that contain dependent clauses” (H-98)

Compound-Complex Sentences• “The man who had had the

room before, after having slept the sleep of the just for hours on end, oblivious to the worries and unrest of the recent early morning, awoke when the day was well advanced and the sounds of the city completely invaded the air of the half-opened room,” from Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “Dialogue with the Mirror”

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

•Conjunctive adverbs extend sentences by drawing important conclusions• Some common conjunctive adverbs:

THUS HENCE HOWEVER

MOREOVER FURTHERMORE NEVERTHELESS

THEREFORE SIMILARLY FINALLY

Conjunctive Adverbs

Three Uses of Conjunctive Adverbs

• 1. To Introduce or Transition

• 2. To Pause

• 3. To Extend a Sentence

Examples• 1. Moreover, the research by

Williams proved otherwise.• Therefore, it is plausible to

conclude that…

• 2. Sam, however, could not swim.

• 3. Since the research concluded the initial findings were false, no credible organization should support this bill; moreover, if an organization supports this bill, the people should organize a protest to stop them.

SENTENCE TYPESSENTENCE TYPE EQUATION EXAMPLE

SIMPLE SENTENCE I.C. James researched civil rights.

COMPOUND SENTENCE I.C. + C.C. + I.C. James did award-winning research, so he received the Nobel Peace Prize.

COMPLEX SENTENCE D.C. + I.C. or I.C. + D.C. Since James had a lot of help, he thanked his colleagues in his speech.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX D.C. + I.C. + I.C. or I.C. + I.C. + D.C.

After James received the award, he got a position at U.C.L.A., and he decided to write another book.

SENTENCE TYPES CONTINUED

SENTENCE TYPE EQUATION EXAMPLE

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS D.C. + I.C. + I.C.; CA, I.C. As much as he tried to rebuild his report with his colleagues, they always felt he thought he was above them; thus, he decided to retire.

COMPLETE SENTENCES

•A complete sentence consists of a subject and a verb and usually an object•Complete: Billy (S) studied (V).•Complete: Billy (S) studied (V) literature (O).

FRAGMENTS OR INCOMPLETE SENTENCES

•An incomplete sentence either lacks a subject or verb, is a dependent clause, or begins with the wrong word like “which” or “especially” (which can be used correctly but is often mis-used)

RUN-ON SENTENCES

• A run-on sentence is a series of phrases or clauses without conjunctions• If you have more than one clause, always use

a conjunction• Run-on Sentence: George wrote late at night

sometimes he made mistakes.• Corrected: George wrote late at night.

Sometimes he made mistakes.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE: CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

•Use correlative conjunctions with paired items, comparisons, series, or lists• Example: Not only is the essay due

today, but also it cannot be made up.

Correlative Conjunctions

BOTH…AND NEITHER…NOR RATHER…THANEITHER…OR NOT ONLY…BUT

ALSO

Commas

Items in a Series• Subjects• 1. Uncle Bob, Aunt Lynn, and my cousins chewed a red apple.• Verbs• 2. Uncle Bob, Aunt Lynn, and my cousins chopped, chewed,

and pulverized the red apple.

Items in a Series• Objects• 3. Uncle Bob, Aunt Lynn, and my cousins chopped, chewed,

and utterly pulverized the candied apples, the juicy chocolate chip cookies, and the old fashioned vanilla bean ice cream.

Items in a Series from the Work of Ernest Hemingway

• “Robert Jordan saw his young, sun-and wind-darkened face, his close-set eyes, hawk nose and the over-long wedge-shaped chin,” (281) from Hemingway’s For Whom the Bell Tolls

Question: Can I Leave out the Last Comma when Listing Items?

Question: Can I Leave out the Last Comma when Listing Items?

Formal, Academic Settings

•Use a comma with “and” (unless instructed that it is okay to leave it out)

Creative, Online Settings

• Although it would never be wrong to include a comma with “and,” many writes today leave that last comma out

Sentence Openings

•Absolute Phrase•Prepositional Phrase•Gerund Phrase•Participial Phrase•Dependent Clause

ABSOLUTE PHRASES

•Absolute phrases typically consist of a noun or pronoun, a participle, and any related modifiers•Absolute phrases modify the whole

sentence•Example: The season nearly finished, Kobe

Bryant and Derek Fisher emerged as true leaders.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

•A prepositional phrase has a preposition, a noun or pronoun, and usually an adjective•Typically, prepositions indicate

location, time, proximity, or distance•Example: On the other side of town,

the man parked his car.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• In his work overall, Dr.

Seuss uses prepositional phrases to craft his rhymes and add detail

• The wonderful children’s tale Green Eggs and Ham by beloved Children’s Literature Author Dr. Seuss relies heavily upon parallelism and the repetition of prepositional phrases

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

• “I could not, would not, on a boat./I will not, will not, with a goat./I will not eat them in the rain./I will not eat them on a train./Not in the dark! Not in a tree! Not in a car! You let me be! I do not like them in a box./I do not like them with a fox,” from Dr. Seuss’ Green Eggs and Ham (1960)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• “I could not, would not,

on a boat./I will not, will not, with a goat./I will not eat them in the rain./I will not eat them on a train./Not in the dark! Not in a tree! Not in a car! You let me be! I do not like them in a box./I do not like them with a fox.”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• “Look what we

found/in the park/in the dark./We will take him home./We will call him Clark./He will live at our house./He will grow and grow,” from Dr. Seuss’ One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish (1960)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

• “Look what we found/in the park/in the dark./We will take him home./We will call him Clark./He will live at our house./He will grow and grow”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

• “Then I was deep within the woods/When, suddenly, I spied them./I saw a pair of pale green pants/With nobody inside them,” from Dr. Seuss’ “What Was I Scared of?”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

• “Then I was deep within the woods/When, suddenly, I spied them./I saw a pair of pale green pants/With nobody inside them”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• The title character

from Dr. Seuss’ The Cat in the Hat (1957) tells the kids, “Look at me now…with a cup and a cake/On the top of my hat!/I can hold up TWO books!/I can hold up the fish!/And a little toy ship!/And some milk on a dish!”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• “Look at me now…

with a cup and a cake/On the top of my hat!/I can hold up TWO books!/I can hold up the fish!/And a little toy ship!/And some milk on a dish!/And look!/I can hop up and down on the ball!”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• Contemplating the

difficulties of life in Oh, the Places You’ll Go (1990), Dr. Seuss uses prepositional phrases to offer encouragement: “on you will go/though the weather be foul./On you will go/though your enemies prowl./On you will go”

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES• “On you will go/though

the weather be foul./On you will go/though your enemies prowl./On you will go/though the Hakken-Kraks howl./Onward up many/a frightening creek,/though your arms may get sore and your sneakers may leak”

GERUND PHRASES

•A verbal ending in –ing that acts as a noun•These phrases function like nouns•Example: Writing essays the night before they are due is not a good strategy.

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

•Participial phrases also end in –ing, but they function as adjectives (not nouns, like gerund phrases)•Example: Working around the clock, the students finally finished their finals and research papers.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

•A dependent clause consists of a subordinate conjunction, subject, verb, and usually an object•However, a dependent clause is not a

complete sentence•A dependent clause begins with a

subordinate conjunction•Example: Since college is challenging, one

has to work extra hard.

Cumulative Adjectives• Rule: Cumulative Adjectives are adjectives that do not work

equally to modify another word. “If the adjectives closest to the noun cannot be logically rearranged…they are cumulative” (H-54)

• Examples:• They took a difficult final exam.• We are going to the old drive-in movie theater.

Coordinate Adjectives• Rule: Coordinate Adjectives are adjectives that work equally

to modify another word, and they are separated by a comma• Examples:• She played the beautiful, haunting melody.• I ate the hot, delicious vegetarian pizza.

“And” and “Order Tests• “And” Test: put the word “and” between the adjectives. If it

makes sense, it passes, indicating we need a comma.• Example: the hot and delicious pizza• “Order” Test: reverse the order of the adjectives. If it makes

sense, it passes both tests, confirming that we need a comma.• Example: delicious hot pizza

Exercises• On a hot day, we love to eat fresh cold sushi.• The cold December wind froze the kids.

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

•THE KEY RULE TO THIS WHOLE CONCEPT IS PRETTY STRAIGHT-FORWARD

• Use a comma before information that is additional, supplemental, non-defining, or non-essential (also known as non-restrictive)

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

• 1. Who• Rule: “Who” can introduce either a restrictive (provides essential

information) or non-restrictive clause (provides extra information and separated by commas)

• Example of a Non-Restrictive “Who” Clause: Wally Lamb, who wrote a novel recommended by Oprah’s Book Club, saw his book become a best seller.

• Example of a Restrictive “Who” Clause: Many people who watched Oprah have bought the books her book club recommended.

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

• 2. Which

• - Rule: “Which” usually introduces a non-restrictive clause• Example of a Non-Restrictive “Which” Clause:

Natural disasters, which can be terrifying, really appeal to movie audiences.

• 3. That• Rule: “That” always introduces a restrictive clause• Example of a Restrictive “That” Clause: They wanted to see the

movie that had the best special effects.

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

• “She was becoming herself and daily casting aside that fictitious self which we assume like a garment with which to appear before the world,” from Kate Chopin’s The Awakening

• For people use “who”• For things use

“which”• For groups and things

use “that”

Appositive Phrase• Rule: An appositive is a word or series of words used to

explain or identify a noun or pronoun.• Examples:• My uncle, a family doctor, had to sell his practice.• Maxine Waters, a California Congresswoman, makes her voice

heard at the national level.• Exception: California Congresswoman Maxine Waters makes

her voice heard. (NO COMMA)

Set off Quoted Elements• Rule: Generally, use a comma between your sentence and any

quote or evidence.• Example:• To conclude and summarize his argument, Singer calls for

Americans to donate, “whatever money you’re spending on luxuries” (“The Singer Solution to World Poverty”).

• Exception: if it is very long or very formal, use a colon (:) instead.

Titles, Dates, and Addresses• 1. Titles: Sanjay Gupta, M.D., is also the leading medical

correspondent for CNN.• 2. Dates: My wife and I had our first date on September 19,

2000, in Arcata, California.• 3. Addresses: Long Beach City is located at 4901 East Carson

Street, Long Beach, California 90808.

Commas to Avoid Confusion

Commas to Avoid Confusion• Rule: Use a comma to avoid confusion.• Examples:• Shelley having drowned Bryon presided over the funeral

ceremonies on the beach.• Shelley having drowned, Bryon presided over the funeral

ceremonies on the beach.• A woman without her man is nothing.• A woman, without her, man is nothing.• He was not killed mercifully.• He was not killed, mercifully.

Unnecessary Commas

Unnecessary Commas• 1. No comma is

required when items are paired with a coordinate conjunction like “salt and pepper” or “vanilla and chocolate”• 2. Commas that

unnecessarily separate the subject from the verb or the verb from the object

Unnecessary Commas• 3. When an adverbial

clause ends a sentence, do not use a comma like “I found the tables turned when she interrogated me about the reasons for my tattoo”

• Adverbial Clause: “a clause that nearly always modifies a verb, indicating time, place, condition, reason, cause, purpose, result, or another logical relationship” (H-56)

Unnecessary Commas• 4. Do not use

commas to set off a prepositional phrase that is in the middle or at the end of a sentence

Additional Grammatical Concepts

Semicolons• A semicolon (;) has 3

uses:1. To sort out a list that

uses commas2. To separate closely

related independent clauses

3. To add a conjunctive adverb (and a clause) to a complete sentence

Semicolons• Semicolon to Sort out

a List• The best NBA players

of 2000-2010 include Kobe Bryant, Los Angeles Lakers; LeBron James, Cleveland Cavaliers/Miami Heat; and Tim Duncan, San Antonio Spurs.

Semicolons

• Semicolon to Separate Independent Clauses• Cooking a complex

meal requires concentration; you might have 4 or 5 burners working simultaneously.

About Semicolons• Semicolons imply

meaning rather than bluntly state it

Semicolons• Semicolon with a

Conjunctive Adverb• Writing and ideas are

complicated, so we use evidence to prove and analysis to break concepts down; thereby, we make our arguments easier to understand and accept.

French Post-Structuralist Philosopher Michel Foucault

Numbers• Decimals: use numbers

(i.e. “0.89”)• 1-9: use numbers (i.e.

“9”)• 10-99: write them out

(i.e. “ninety-nine”)• 99 or above: use

numbers (i.e. “1,000”)• *However, other than for

decimals, it is also correct to write out all numbers

Numbers• Percent: use

numbers (unless it starts a sentence) • Time: Use numerals

with a.m. or p.m. or with exact times, like 6:16• Rule: Do not start a

sentence with a numeral (write it out)

References

• Brothers Grimm. The Collected Works.• Kirszner and Mandell. Foundations First. • Poe, Edgar Allan. Poe: Poetry and Tales. The

Library of America.• The Bedford Handbook.• “The Semicolon.” Capital Community College.

Web. 7.19.2015.• St. Martin’s Guide to Writing.