basic genetics for mrcp
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Basic Genetics for MRCP part 1 all you are looking forTRANSCRIPT
1
MOLECULAR CELL
BIOLOGY & GENETIC
DISORDERS
THE CELL
• Highly organized structure consist of various
organelles held by the cytoskeleton w’ radiates from
nuclear membrane to cell plasma membrane
• The plasma cell membrane is bilayer of phospholipids�
� Polar hydrophilic head e.g. phosphatidyl choline �
form bilayers (as complete circular structures) �
effective barrier impermeable to most H2O-
soluble molecules
� Non-polar (insoluble) lipid hydrophobic tail
(commonly 2 long-chain FA)
١٩/١٠/٢٠١٣السبت
� ��﷽
The Cell Membrane
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CELL DYNAMICS • Old cellular ptn mopped up by small cofactor molecule
(ubiquitin) �
� Small 8.5 kDa regulating ptn
� Present universally in all living cells
� Interacts e’ these worn ptn via their exposed
hydrophobic residues
� A complex containing >5 ubiquitin molecules is
rapidly degraded by large proteolytic multienzyme
‘26S proteosome’
� Plays role in regulation of receptor tyrosine kinase
in cell cycle & repair of DNA damage
• Failure to remove worn proteins � chronic debilitating
disorders e.g. Alzheimer & frontotemporal dementias
(accumulation of ubiquinated ptn w’ are resistant to
ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis)
• Resistant ubiquinated proteins � inclusion bodies
found in myositis & myopathies � causes �
� Point mutation in target ptn itself e.g. mutant p53
in cancer
� External factor altering normal ptn conformation
� proteolytic-resistant shape e.g. CJD
✰ Free radicals
• It is any atom or molecule w’ contains 1 or more
unpaired electrons � more reactive than the native
species
• It is implicated in large number of human diseases
• When free radical reacts e’ non-radical � chain
reaction � direct tissue damage by membrane lipid
peroxidation
• The major free radical species produced in human
body �
1) Hydroxyl radical (OH)
� The most reactive but others can generate
more reactive species as breakdown products
� Can cause genetic mutations by attacking
purines & pyrimidines
2) Superoxide radical (O2-)
� Superoxide dismutases (SOD) convert
superoxide to hydrogen peroxide (protective
antioxidant mechanism)
� Pt e’ dominant familial forms of amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis (MND) � mutations in gene for
Cu–Zn SOD-1 catalases
� Glutathione peroxidases � enzymes remove
hydrogen peroxide & generated by SOD in cell
cytosol & mitochondria
3) Nitric oxide (NO)
• Alpha-tocopherol, urate, ascorbate & glutathione
remove free radicals by reacting directly & non-
catalytically � ↓ α-tocopherol ( ↓ vitamin E) �
neurodegeneration
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• The principal dietary antioxidants are vitamin E,
vitamin C, β-carotene & flavanoids
✰ Heat shock proteins
• The heat shock response is response to tissue stress
(heat, cytotoxic chemicals & free radicals) mediated
by activation of specific genes � specific heat shock
proteins (HSPs)
• Functions of HSPs �
� Transport of ptn in & out of specific cell organelles
� Degradation of ptn (often by ubiquitination
pathways)
• The unifying feature that activate HSPs �
accumulation of damaged IC ptn
• HSPs are expressed in a wide range of human cancers
& implicated in tumour cell proliferation,
differentiation, invasion, metastasis, cell death &
immune response
PHAGOCYTOSIS, PINOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS ✰ Phagocytosis
• Specialized cells e.g. macrophages & neutrophils
• Lysosomes rapidly fuse e’ phagosomes � equally rapid
digestion of contents & recycling
• Only triggered when specific cell surface receptors
(macrophage Fc receptor) � occupied by their ligand
✰ Pinocytosis
• Much smaller-scale model of phagocytosis
• Continually occurring in all cells
• In contrast to phagocytosis � receptors for smaller
molecular complexes e.g. LDL � surface clumping &
internal accumulation of a protein called clathrin
• Clathrin-coated pits pinch inwards as clathrin-coated
vesicles
• Clathrin prevents fusion of lysosomes (removal �
lysosomal fusion & degradation)
✰ Exocytosis
• Maintenance of clathrin coat � transcellular transit
of contents & their exocytosis at another side of
plasma membrane i.e. apical to basal transcytosis
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• Some of these vesicles rapidly fuse e’ plasma
membrane & exocytose their contents
• Other vesicles do not immediately fuse e’ plasma
membrane
• The clathrin-coated vesicles � have additional lipid
bilayer embedded proteins called v-SNAREs (signal &
response elements) � interact e’ target organelle
membrane proteins called t-SNAREs � vesicle fusion
is therefore specific in the correct place & in the
correct time e.g. neuronal transmitter vesicles
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT & ION CHANNELS • Plasma membrane is freely permeable to �
� Gases e.g. O2, CO2 and N2
� Small uncharged molecules e.g. H2O (not H+ & OH−)
& urea
� Larger hydrophobic lipid-soluble molecules e.g.
steroids
• Large uncharged molecules (G, aa & nucleotides) and
small charged ions (K, Na, Ca, Cl, Mg & HCO3) cannot
pass unless via specific transport ptn embedded in
plasma membrane
• 2 Structural types of transport molecules/complex �
1) Channel proteins �
� Open a channel in the lipid membrane
� Allow specific solute to pass through
2) Carrier proteins
� Slower in action
� Shuttling the solute across
� Facilitating diffusion down a gradient across the
membrane OR actively pumping solutes against
the gradient using ATP as energy
RECEPTORS • Membrane surface receptors pass their EC signal
across plasma membrane to cytoplasmic 2ry signalling
molecules
• Membrane-bound receptors is subclassified according
to mechanism by which they activate signalling
molecules �
� Ion channel linked
� G-protein linked
� Enzyme linked
• Structure of plasma membrane receptors �
� Serpentine � 7 transmembrane domains e.g. LH
receptor
� Transmembrane with large EC & IC domains e.g.
EGF receptor
� Transmembrane with large EC domain only e.g.
macrophage scavenging receptors
� Entirely linked to outer membrane leaflet by lipid
moiety known as GPI anchor (glycan phosphatidyl
inositol) e.g. T cell receptor
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• Function of membrane receptors is to initiate 2ry
message � activation of specific enzyme or DNA-
binding protein. This may involve �
✰ G-protein-linked receptors
• Once activated by ligand � binds trimeric complex (α,
β, γ) � anchored to inner surface of plasma membrane
• The complex is GTP-binding protein or G-protein then
interacts e’ enzyme complexes anchored to inner
leaflet of the membrane
• These complexes � 1 or all 3 of 2ry messengers �
� cyclic AMP (cAMP) � Ca2+ ions
� Inositol trisphosphate / diacylglycerol (IP3/DAG)
✰ Enzyme-linked surface receptors
• These receptors usually have single transmembrane
spanning region & cytoplasmic domain e’ intrinsic
enzyme activity OR bind & activate other membrane
bound or cytoplasmic enzyme complexes
• 4 classes of enzymes have been designated �
1) Guanylyl cyclase-linked receptors
� e.g. ANP receptor w’ produce cGMP
� In turn activates cGMP-dependent kinase (G-
kinase) � binds to & phosphorylates serine &
threonine residues of specific 2ry messengers
2) Tyrosine kinase receptors
� e.g. PDGF receptor
� Specifically phosphorylate kinases on small set
of IC signalling proteins OR associate e’ ptn e’
tyrosine kinase activity
3) Tyrosine phosphatase receptors
� e.g. CD45
� Remove phosphates from tyrosine residues of
specific IC signalling proteins
4) Serine/threonine kinase receptors
� e.g. TGF-β receptor
� Phosphorylate specific serine & threonine
residues of IC signalling proteins
• Many IC receptors that bind lipid-soluble ligands e.g.
steroid hormones (Pg, cortisol), T3/T4 � often change
shape in response to binding their ligands � enter the
nucleus & interact directly e’ specific DNA sequences
• The fluid component inside the cell membrane
• It contains many specialized organelles
✰ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Consists of interconnecting tubules or flattened sacs
(cisternae) of lipid bilayer membrane
Cytoplasm
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• It may contain ribosomes on the surface (rough
endoplasmic reticulum ‘RER’) & when absent (smooth
endoplasmic reticulum ‘SER’)
• ER is involved in processing of ptn � ribosomes
translate mRNA to 1ry sequence of aa of ptn peptide
chain
• This chain is synthesized in the ER where it is folded
& modified into mature peptides
• ER is the major site of drug metabolism
✰ Golgi apparatus
• Consist of flattened cisternae similar to ER
• Characterized as stack of cisternae from w’ vesicles
bud off from the thickened ends
• The 1ry processed peptides of ER are exported to
Golgi apparatus for maturation into functional ptn e.g.
glycosylation of ptn to be excreted before packaging
into secretory granules & cellular vesicles that bud off
the ends
✰ Lysosomes
• Dense cellular vesicles contain acidic digestive
enzymes
• Fuse e’ phagocytotic vesicles from outer cell
membrane � digest contents into small biomolecules
� capable of cross lysosomal lipid bilayer to cytoplasm
• Lysosomal enzymes can be released outside cell by
fusion of the lysosome e’ plasma membrane
• Lysosomal action is crucial to function of macrophages
& PMNs in killing & digesting infective agents, tissue
remodelling during development & osteoclast
remodelling of bone
✰ Peroxisomes
• Dense cellular vesicles � contain enzymes catalyse the
breakdown of H2O2
• They are involved in metabolism of bile & FA
• Primarily concerned e’ detoxification e.g. d-amino acid
oxidase & H2O2 catalase
• The inability to function � rare metabolic disorders
e.g. Zellweger’s syndrome & rhizomelic dwarfism
✰ Mitochondria
• The powerhouse of the cell
• Each mitochondrion has 2 lipid bilayer membranes
• The outer membrane
� It contain many gated receptors � import raw
materials like pyruvate & ADP � oxaloacetate &
ATP
� Proteins of Bcl-2/Bax family are incorporated in
the outer membrane � can release mitochondrial
enzymes that trigger apoptosis
• The inner membrane
� Highly infolded to form cristae to↑its effective
surface area
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� Contains transmembrane enzyme complexes of
electron transport chain � generate H+ ion
gradient � drives adjacent transmembrane ATPase
complex to form ATP from ADP & Pi
• The inner matrix
� It possesses several copies of its own DNA in
circular genome
� It contains enzymes of Krebs cycle that generate
substrates of both electron transport chain
(FADH2 & NADH) & central metabolism e.g.
succinyl CoA, α-oxoglutarate, oxaloacetate
• 2ry messengers are molecules that transduce a signal
from a bound receptor to its site of action
• There are essentially 4 mechanisms by which 2ry
messengers act (cross talk & rarely activated alone) �
� cAMP � IP3/DAG
� Ca2+ ions � Protein phosphorylation
✰ cAMP, IP3/DAG & Ca2+ ions
• Generation of cAMP by G-protein-linked receptors �
↑ cellular cAMP � bind & activate specific cAMP
binding proteins � dimerize & enter nucleus �
interact e’ set DNA sequences (cAMP response
elements)
� Cofactors in cAMP response element binding
proteins (CREB) are co-activated & interact e’
phosphorylation pathway
• Other G-protein complexes � activate inner
membrane bound phospholipase complexes � cleave
membrane phospholipid-polyphosphoinositide (PIP2) �
1) Inositol trisphosphate (IP3) � H2O soluble
molecule � floats in cytoplasm � interacts e’ gated
ion channels in ER (or sarcoplasmic reticulum in
muscle cells) � rapid release of Ca2+
2) Diacylglycerol (DAG) � lipid soluble that remains at
membrane � activates a serine/threonine kinase
protein kinase C
• The cellular calcium-binding proteins & ion pumps �
rapidly remove Ca2+ from cytoplasm back into storage
compartment e.g. ER
• Free Ca2+ interacts e’ target proteins in cytoplasm �
phosphorylation / dephosphorylation cascade �
activated DNAbinding proteins entering nucleus
✰ Protein phosphorylation
• The principal route for ptn phosphorylation cascades
is from dimerization of surface ptn kinase receptors
• Tyrosine kinase receptors phosphorylate each other
when ligand binding brings IC receptor components
into close proximity
Secondary Messenger
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• Inner membrane & cytoplasmic targets of these
activated receptor complexes are ras, ptn kinase C &
ultimately MAP (mitogen activated ptn) kinase, Janus-
Stat pathways or phosphorylation of IκB � release its
DNA-binding protein, nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB)
• IC signalling proteins usually contain conserved non-
catalytic regions called SH2 & SH3 (SRC homology
regions 2 & 3) � SH2 region binds to phosphorylated
tyrosine & SH3 domain is implicated in recruitment of
intermediates that activate ras proteins
• Like G-proteins � ras (& its homologous family
members rho / rac) � switch between inactive GDP-
binding state & active GTP-binding state
• NFκB � conformational change & enter nucleus �
initiates transcription of specific genes
• Lipid-soluble ligands e.g. steroids � not need 2ry
messengers � cytoplasmic receptors once activated �
enter nucleus as DBP � alter gene expression directly
• Complex network of structural ptns w’ regulates �
� Shape of the cell
� Cell ability to traffic internal cell organelles &
move in response to external stimuli
• The major components �
1) Microtubules
� Made of 2 ptn subunits � α & β tubulin (50 kDa)
� Continuously change length � ‘highway’
transporting organelles through cytoplasm
� 2 motor microtubule associated ptns (dynein &
kinesin) � antegrade & retrograde movement
(dynein also � beating of cilia)
� During interphase � microtubules rearranged
by microtubule organizing centre (MTOC) w’
consists of centrosomes containing tubulin &
provide structure on w’ daughter Chr can
separate
The Cytoskeleton
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� Another ptn involved in binding of organelles to
microtubules � cytoplasmic linker protein
(CLIP)
� Drugs disrupt microtubule assembly (colchicine
& vinblastine) � affect positioning & organelles
morphology
� Anticancer drug paclitaxel � causes cell death
by binding to microtubules & stabilizing them �
organelles cannot move � mitotic spindles not
formed
2) Intermediate filaments
� Form network around nucleus & extend to cell
periphery
� They make cell-to-cell contacts e’ adjacent cells
via desmosomes
� They make contact e’ basement matrix via
hemidesmosomes
� Function � structural integrity (prominent in
cellular tissues under stress)
� Intermediate filament fibre ptns are specific to
embryonic lineage of the cell e.g. keratin
intermediate fibres only found in epithelial cells
3) Microfilaments
� Muscle cells contain �
o Actin � highly ordered structure of actin
(globular ptn, 42–44 kDa)
o Myosin filaments � form contractile system
� These filaments also present in nonmuscle cells
as truncated myosins (e.g. myosin 1), in cytosol
(forming contractile actomyosin gel) & beneath
plasma membrane
� Cell movement is mediated by anchorage of
actin filaments to plasma membrane at adherent
junctions between cells � non stressed
coordination of contraction between adjacent
cells of tissue (similarly, vertical contraction of
tissues is anchored across cell membrane to
basement matrix at focal adhesion junctions
where actin fibres converge)
� Actinbinding ptns e.g. fimbria � modulate
behaviour of microfilaments & their effects are
often Ca dependent
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� Actin-associated ptns can be tissue type
specific e.g. � actin-binding troponin is complex
of 3 subunits & 2 of these have isomers w’ are
only found in cardiac muscle
• Alterations in cell’s actin architecture are controlled
by activation of small ras-like GTP-binding proteins
rho & rac � involved in rearrangement of cell during
division � dysfunctions of these ptns are associated e’
malignancy
• EC domains form junctions between cells to form
tissues
• Types of junction between cells �
1) Tight junctions (zonula occludens)
� Situated at ends of margins adjacent to
epithelial cells e.g. intestinal & renal cells
� Form barrier to movement of ions & solutes
across the epithelium (may be variably leaky to
certain solutes)
� The ptns responsible for intercellular tight
junction closure (claudins) � selective
expression e’in tissue & regulate w’ ions pass
� Mutations of claudin-16 (expressed in thick
ascending loop of Henle where Mg is
reabsorbed) � abnormal Mg reabsorption of
Gitelman’s syndrome
2) Adherent junctions (zonula adherens)
� Continuous on basal side of cells
� Contain cadherins
� The major site of attachment of IC
microfilaments
� Intermediate filaments attach to desmosomes
� areas of thickened membranes of 2 adjacent
cells
� Hemidesmosomes attach cells to basal lamina &
also connected to intermediate filaments
� Transmembrane integrins link EC matrix to
microfilaments at focal areas where cells also
attach to their basal laminae
� In blistering skin disorders auto-Ab � damage
by attacking tight junction desmosomal proteins
e.g. desmoglein-3 in pemphigus vulgaris &
desmoglein-1 in pemphigus foliaceus
3) Gap junctions
� Allow substances to pass directly between cells
e’out entering ECF
� Ptn channels (connexins) are lined up between 2
adjacent cells & allow solutes passage up to MW
1000 kDa e.g. aa, sugars, ions, messengers
� Channels diameter is regulated by IC Ca2+, pH &
voltage
Intercellular Connections
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� Connexins � 6 subunits surrounding channel &
their isoforms in tissues are encoded by
different genes
� Mutant connexins � disorders e.g. X-linked
form of Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
• Major families of cell adhesion molecules �
1) Cadherins
� Cadherins establish molecular links between
adjacent cells
� They form zipper-like structures at ‘adherens
junctions’
� Through these junctions, bundles of actin
filaments run from cell to cell.
� Related molecules e.g. desmogleins form the
main constituents of desmosomes (anchoring
sites for intermediate filaments)
� The expression of specific adhesion molecules in
the embryo is crucial for cell migration &
differentiation of tissues
2) Integrins
� They are membrane glycoproteins e’ α & β
subunits w’ exist in active & inactive forms
� They principally bind to EC matrix components
e.g. fibrinogen, elastase & laminin
� The aa sequence arginine–glycine–aspartic acid
(RGD) � potent recognition sequence for
integrin binding
� Integrins replace cadherins in focal membrane
anchorage of hemidesmosomes & focal adhesion
junctions
� The active form of integrin can come as result
of cytoplasmic signal that causes conformational
change in EC domain �↑affinity for its ligand�
o The ‘inside-out’ signalling occurs when
leucocytes are stimulated by bacterial
peptides �↑leucocyte integrin affinity for
Ig super families structures e.g. Fc portion
of Ig immunoglobulin
o The ‘outside-in’ signalling follows binding of
ligand to integrin & stimulate 2ry signals �
diverse events e.g endocytosis, proliferation
& apoptosis
� Defective integrins are associated e’ many
immunological & clotting disorders e.g. Bernard–
Soulier syndrome & Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia
3) Ig superfamily cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
� Ig-like structures domains
� Neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM) �
o Predominantly in nervous system
o Mediates homophilic adhesion
Cell Adhesion & Molecules
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o When bound to identical molecule on another
cell � N-CAM associate laterally with
fibroblast growth factor receptor �
stimulate tyrosine kinase activity of that
receptor � growth of neurites (Adhesion
molecules can trigger cellular responses by
indirect activation of other types of
receptors)
o The placenta and gastrointestinal
� Placenta & GIT also express Ig superfamily
members but unclear function
4) Selectins
� Selectins interact e’ CHO ligands or mucin
complexes on leucocytes & endothelial cells
(most adhesion molecules bind to other ptn)
� L-selectin (CD62L) is found on leucocytes �
homing of lymphocytes to lymph nodes
� E-selectin (CD62E) appears on endothelial cells
after activation by inflammatory cytokines �
small basal amount of E-selectin in many
vascular beds is necessary for leucocytes
migration
� P-selectin (CD26P) � stored in α granules of
platelets & Weibel–Palade bodies of endothelial
cells � it moves plasma membrane upon
stimulation of these cells
� All 3 selectins play part in leucocyte rolling
• A nucleus is present in all eukaryotic cells that divide
• Contains human genome & bound by 2 bilayer lipid
membranes, the outer is continuous e’ ER
• Nuclear pores present in membranes � allow passage
of nucleotides & DNA interacting ptns in AND mRNA
out
• The genome consists of DNA plus all apparatus for
replication & transcription into RNA
The Nucleus & its responses
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• Types of cell division �
� Meiosis �
� Occurs in germ cells only
� Chromosome complement is halved (haploid) & at
fertilization the union of 2 cells restores full
complement of 46 chromosomes
� Mitosis �
� Occurs in dividing cells after fertilization
� Results in 2 identical daughter cells
• Chromosomes are only visible during cell division
• A nucleolus is dense area e’in the nucleus � rich in
ptns & RNA � synthesis of rRNA & ribosomes
THE CELL CYCLE • Cells in quiescent G0 phase (G, gap) of the cycle are
stimulated by receptor-mediated actions of growth
factors e.g. EGF, PDGF, IGF via IC 2nd messengers
• Stimuli are transmitted to nucleus � activate
transcription factors � initiation of DNA synthesis
then mitosis & cell division
• Cell cycling is modified by cyclin family of ptns
✰ Cyclin & cyclin-dependent kinases
• Coordinated cyclic expression of cyclin-dependent
kinases (Cdk) drives cell replication cycle
• Cell cycle is catalysed by Cdk w’ are activated by class
of ptns called cyclins (Cyc)
• After stimulation from pro-mitotic EC signal e.g.
growth factor � G1 cyclin–Cdk complexes (CycB
/Cdk4/6; CycE/Cdk2) become active to prepare cell
for S phase � expression of transcription factors �
expression of S cyclins (CycB/Cdk2) & enzymes
required for DNA replication
• G1 cyclin–Cdk complexes � degradation of molecules
that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them
for ubiquitination
• Active S cyclin–Cdk complexes phosphorylate ptns
that make up pre-replication complexes assembled
during G1 phase on DNA replication origins � serves 2
purposes �
1) Activate each already assembled pre-replication
complex
2) Prevent new complexes from forming
• This ensures that every portion of genome will be
replicated once only
• Mitotic cyclin–Cdk complexes e.g. CycB/CdK2
(synthesized but inactivated during G2 phase) �
initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream ptns
involved in chromosome condensation & mitotic spindle
assembly
✰ Apoptosis (programmed cell death)
• Deliberate activation of constituent genes responsible
for their own demise
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• Necrotic cell death �
� External factor e.g. hypoxia, toxins damages cell’s
physiology � cell disintegration
� Influx of water & ions � cellular organelles swell �
rupture
� Cell lysis � release of lysosomal enzymes in EC
environment � acute inflammatory responses in
vivo
• Apoptotic cell death �
� Chromatin aggregation + nuclear & cytoplasmic
condensation in distinct membrane bound vesicles
(apoptotic bodies)
� Organelles remain intact
� Cell ‘blebs’� intact membrane vesicles
� No inflammatory response
� Cellular ‘blebs’ & remains are phagocytosed by
adjacent cells & macrophages
• This process requires energy (ATP) and several Ca2+ &
Mg2+ dependent nuclease systems activation � cleave
nuclear DNA at the inter-histone residues
• Endonuclease destroys DNA following apoptosis � this
involve enzyme caspase (cysteine-containing aspartase-
specific protease) w’ activate CAD (caspaseactivated
DNase)/ICAD (inhibitor of CAD) system � destroy
DNA
• Regulated apoptosis is essential for �
� Tissue structure formation in embryogenesis
� Wound healing
� Normal metabolic processes e.g. autodestruction of
endometrium to cause menstruation
� Chemotherapy & radiotherapy only work if they can
trigger tumour cells own apoptotic pathways
• Several factors initiate apoptosis but in general there
are 2 signalling pathways
1) The extrinsic pathway
� Involved in processes e.g. tissue remodelling &
induction of immune selftolerance
� Triggered by death receptors on cell surface e’
internal death domain complexes � multiply pro-
caspase 8 molecules � release of initiator caspase
8 � cleaves pro-caspase 3 � caspase 3 + other
effector caspases � activate DNA cleavage, cell
condensation & fragmentation
� Death receptors are members of TNF receptor
superfamily � include CD95 (APO-1/Fas), TRAIL
(TNF-related apoptosis ligand)-R1, TRAIL-R2,
TNF-R1, DR3 & DR6
2) The intrinsic pathway
� Initiated at the mitochondrial level � centres on
release of cytochrome C from mitochondria
� Cellular stress (growth factor withdrawal & p53
cell cycle arrest) � expression of pro-apoptotic
Bcl-2 family of ptns, Bax & Bak � tetrameric
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The Fas protein & Fas ligand (FasL) are 2 ptns that interact to activate apoptotic pathway. Fas & FasL are both members of TNF family – Fas is part of transmembrane receptor family & FasL is part of membraneassociated cytokine family. When the homotrimer of FasL binds to Fas, it causes Fas to trimerize & brings together the death domains (DD) on the cytoplasmic tails of ptn. The adaptor protein, FADD (Fas-associating ptn e’ death domain), binds to these activated death domains & they bind to pro-caspase 8 through a set of death effector domains (DED)
complexes � imbed to outer mitochondrial
membrane � permissive pores
� Cytochrome C released from mitochondria � binds
Apaf1 � complex called apoptosome � activates
initiator caspase (caspase 9) � activates effector
caspase (caspase 3)
� Other ptns released from damaged mitochondria
(Smac/DIABLO & Omi/HtrA2) � counteract
effect of IAPs (inhibitor of apoptosis ptns) �
normally bind & prevent activation of pro-caspase 3
� Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 ptn, when incorporated as
member of Bak/Bax pore complex � mitochondrial
pore non-permissive to release of cytochrome C &
anti-IAPs
• There is amplification link between extrinsic &
intrinsic apoptotic pathways � caspase 8 cleaves Bcl-2
family member, tBid � formation of Bcl-2/Bax/Bak
pore complexes � if this complex is predominantly of
pro-apoptotic members of Bcl-2 family �
apoptosome/caspase 9 & mitochondrial anti-IAPs �↑
apoptotic activation of effector caspases 3
• Conversely, overexpression of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 �↓
intrinsic & extrinsic apoptotic signalling
✰ Stem cells
• The majority of our cells are terminally differentiated
& contain the blueprint to produce all the ptns of the
body but each tissue has permanently deactivated all
except those required for the specialized function of
the cells
• Therefore we must have nests of cells e’in all
different tissues that have not shut down their
genetic blueprint
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• These stem cells give rise to daughter cell
(differentiated & limited ability to replicate) &
daughter cell w’ will not differentiate & has the
infinite ability to replicate
• In mammals � source categories of stem cells �
� Embryonic stem cells � derived from blastocysts
� Adult stem cells � found in adult tissues
� Cord blood stem cells � found in umbilical cord
• The source of stem cells can also be subcategorized
by potency (specifies the potential to differentiate to
different cell types) �
� Totipotent stem cells �
� Produced from fusion of egg & sperm cell
� Produced by 1st few divisions of fertilized egg
� Can differentiate to embryonic &
extraembryonic cell types
� Pluripotent stem cells �
� The descendants of totipotent cells
� Can differentiate to cells derived from any of
the 3 germ layers
� Multipotent stem cells �
� Produce only cells of closely related family e.g.
haematopoietic stem cells � RBCs, WBCs, etc.
� Unipotent cells �
� Produce only 1 cell type
� Have the property of self-renewal (w’
distinguishes them from non-stem cells)
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
• Genetic information is stored in form of double-
stranded DNA
• Each strand of DNA is made up of deoxyribose–
phosphate backbone & series of purine (adenine (A) &
guanine (G)) and pyrimidine (thymine (T) & cytosine
(C)) bases of the nucleic acid
• The length of DNA is generally measured in numbers
of base-pairs (bp)
• The monomeric unit in DNA (& RNA) is the nucleotide
w’ is a base joined to sugar–phosphate unit
• The 2 strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen
bonds between the bases
• There are only 4 possible pairs of nucleotides � TA,
AT, GC & CG
• The 2 strands twist to form double helix e’ major &
minor grooves
• The large stretches of helical DNA are coiled around
histone ptns � nucleosomes & further condensed into
chromosomes that are seen at metaphase
DNA Structure & Function
17
• Gene is portion of DNA that contains codes for
polypeptide sequence
• 3 adjacent nucleotides (codon) code for particular aa
e.g. AGA for arginine
• Only 20 common aa but 64 possible codon combinations
make up genetic code � most aa encoded by >1 triplet
• Other codons used as signals for initiating or
terminating polypeptide-chain synthesis
• Genes consist of lengths of DNA that contain
sufficient nucleotide triplets to code for the
appropriate number of aa in polypeptide chains of
particular ptn
• Genes vary greatly in size (most extend over 20–40
kbp) but few e.g. gene for muscle ptn dystrophin can
extend over millions of bp
• In bacteria the coding sequences are continuous but in
higher organisms these coding sequences (exons) are
interrupted by intervening sequences that are non-
coding (introns) at various positions
• Some genes code for RNA molecules w’ will not be
translated to ptns � code for functional rRNA &
tRNA)
• Micro RNAs � single-stranded RNA molecules of
about 22 nucleotides � inactivate specific mRNA &
disrupt expression of their ptns � regulating cell
proliferation & apoptosis (in turn they are inactivated
by DNA methylation)
• Conversion of genetic information to polypeptides &
ptns relies on transcription of sequences of bases in
DNA to mRNA
• mRNA
� Found mainly in nucleolus & cytoplasm
� Polymers of nucleotides containing ribose–
phosphate unit attached to base
� The bases are A, G, C & uracil (U)
� RNA is ss molecule but can hybridize e’
complementary sequence ssDNA
Transcription & Translation
Genes
18
• Genetic information is carried from nucleus to
cytoplasm by mRNA � act as template for ptn
synthesis
• Each base in mRNA is lined up opposite to
corresponding base in DNA (C-G, G-C, U-A & A-T)
• Gene always read in 5’-3’ orientation & at 5′ promoter
sites w’ specifically bind enzyme RNA polymerase
(indicate where transcription is to commence)
• 2 AT-rich promoter sites are present in eurokaryotic
genes �
� 1st (TATA box) is located about 25 bp before the
transcription start site
� 2nd (CAAT box) is 75 bp before the start site
• Initial mRNA is complete copy of 1 strand of DNA �
contains introns & exons
• While still in nucleus � mRNA � post transcriptional
modification � 5’ & 3’ ends are protected by addition
of inverted guanidine nucleotide (CAP) & chain of
adenine nucleotides (Poly A tail) � activity of specific
5’ mRNA nucleases is to remove the cap & further
regulated by Poly A tail w’ must 1st be removed by
other degradation enzymes
• In higher organisms � 1ry transcript mRNA is further
processed inside nucleus � introns spliced out
(splicing by small nuclear RNA in association e’ specific
ptns)
• Alternative splicing is possible whereby entire exon
can be omitted � >1 ptn coded from same gene
• Processed mRNA � migrates out of nucleus to
cytoplasm � polysomes (groups of ribosomes) become
attached to mRNA � ribosomes consist of subunits
composed of small RNA molecules (rRNA) & ptns
19
• rRNA components are key to binding & translation of
genetic code held by ribosomes & triplets of adjacent
bases on mRNA called codons are recognized by
complementary sequences or anti codons in tRNA �
each tRNA molecule carries aa that is specific to anti
codon
• As the ribosome passes along mRNA in the 5’-3’
direction (zipper linking) � aa transferred from tRNA
molecules & linked by ribosome � polypeptide chain
• 1st 20 or more nucleotides are recognition & regulatory
sequences and untranslated but necessary for
translation
• Translation begins when triplet AUG (methionine) is
• Encountered � all ptns start e’ methionine but it is
often lost as the leading sequence of aa of native
peptides is removed during ptn folding
• Similarly Poly A tail is not translated & is preceded by
stop codon � UAA, UAG or UGA
• Gene expression is controlled at many points in steps
between translation of DNA to ptns
• Ptns & RNA molecules are in constant state of
turnover
• For many genes, transcriptional control is the key
point of regulation
• Deleterious (even oncogenic) changes to cell may arise
through fault in expression of particular gene e.g. over
expression due to non-break down of mRNA
• Pathway that stops gene expression by ↑ RNA
degradation (RNA interference, RNAi)
✰ Transcriptional control
• Gene transcription (DNA to mRNA) is not spontaneous
event � ? only result of interaction of number of DNA
binding ptns (DBP) e’ genomic DNA
• Regulation of gene expression must 1st start e’ opening
up of double helix of DNA in the correct region of Chr
� in order to do this � ptn molecules that recognize
the outside of DNA helix has evolved � these DBP
interact e’ major groove of DNA double helix
• bp composition of DNA sequence can change geometry
of DNA helix to facilitate fit of DBP e’ its target
region e.g. C-G rich areas form Z structure DNA helix,
sequences such as AAAANNN � slight bend & if
repeated every 10 nucleotides it produces pronounced
curves
• DBP that recognize these distorted helices � opening
up (or prevent opening) of the helix so the gene may
be transcribed
The Control of gene expression
20
✰ Structural classes of DBP
• 4 basic DBP (according to structural motifs) �
Class of DBP Examples
Helix–turn–helix CREB (cAMP response element binding ptn) Zinc finger Steroid & thyroid hormone receptors
Retinoic acid & vitamin D receptors Bcl-6 oncogene product (lymphoma) WT1 oncogene product (Wilms’ tumour) GATA-1 erythrocyte differentiation & Hb expression factor BRCA 1 (familial breast cancer)
Leucine zippers c-jun cell replication oncogene c-fos cell replication oncogene
Helix–loop–helix myc oncogene mad oncogene max oncogene
✰ Control regions & proteins
• DBP act as regulators of gene expression in 3
different ways � promoters, operators & enhancers
• Promoters �
� RNA polymerases bind to promoter region normally
adjacent to transcribed sequence of DNA
� In eukaryotes active transcription is possible only
when number of DBP & DNA associated proteins
come together & interact (general transcription
factors) � these ptns thought to assemble at
promoter sites used by RNA polymerases e.g. Pol II
that are characterized by specific motifs e.g.
TATA sequence
• Operator �
� Other DNA regulator ptns operate in close
proximity to site of promoter binding (operator
ptns/regions & act either as repressors by binding
to DNA sequences e’in promoter site or as +ve
regulators facilitating RNA polymerase binding
• Enhancer �
� Enhancer sequences are >200 bp away from site of
transcription initiation
� Binding of regulator ptns to enhancer regions
(several 100 bases from promoter site) �
upregulates the expression
� This turns out to be distance favourable for DNA
to loop back on itself e’out straining backbone
bonds of DNA double helix
• GAL4 enhancer of yeast � aid binding of transcription
factors to TATA region of promoter � catalyst for
general transcription factor assembly & RNA
polymerase activity
• In mammals � cAMP response element (CRE) acts to↑
IC cAMP � activation & release of CREB � ↑
transcription rate (but may also↓transcription)
• Repressors can↓transcription of gene by binding to
regulatory sequence & blocking +ve regulators or by
interfering e’ promoter ptn assembly
21
CHROMOSOMES, INTRONS & THE SIZE OF HUMAN GENOME
• Coiling around histones & structural regions e.g.
centromeres & telomeres requires regions of DNA
devoted specifically to the purpose of packaging
• 10% of human DNA is highly repetitive (satellite DNA)
� long arrays of tandem repeats � these regions tend
to be supercoiled around histones in condensed regions
(heterochromatin)
• In contrast � most other DNA regions are relatively
uncondensed (euchromatin)
• The remaining DNA is either moderately repetitive
(30% of genome) or codes for unique genes (gene
families occupying 2% of genome)
PREPARATION OF GENOMIC DNA • 1st step in studying DNA of individual involves
preparation of genomic DNA
• It is simple procedure in w’ any cellular tissue including
blood can be used
• Cells are lysed in order to open their cell & nuclear
membranes � releasing chromosomal DNA
• Digestion of all cellular ptn by add of proteolytic
enzymes � genomic DNA is isolated by chemical
extraction e’ phenol
• DNA is stable & can be stored for years
RESTRICTION ENZYMES & GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
• Restriction enzymes cut dsDNA at specific sites
• Whenever human genomic DNA is cut e’ EcoRI � same
restriction fragments (restriction fragment length
polymorphisms, RFLPs) are produced
• As DNA is –ve charged molecule � genomic DNA
fragments can be separated according to their size &
charge by electrophoresis through a gel matrix �
DNA migrates to +ve anode & small fragments move
more quickly � DNA fragments separate out
• Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) can be used to
separate very long pieces of DNA (100s of kilobases)
HYBRIDIZATION TECHNIQUES • When 2 strands separated(e.g. by heating) � they will
always re stick because of their complementary base
sequences
• Therefore presence of particular gene can be
identified using gene ‘probe’ consisting of DNA or RNA
e’ base sequence complementary to the sequence of
interest
Tools for Molecular Biology
22
• DNA probe is piece of ssDNA that can be labelled e’
radioactive isotope (usually 32P) or fluorescent signal
� will locate & bind to its complementary sequence
• Hybridization is exploited in number of techniques
including �
� Southern blot � DNA fragments separated by gel
electrophoresis & transferred onto membrane
sheet
� Northern blot � RNA separated by gel
electrophoresis & transferred onto membrane
sheet
� In situ hybridization � localization of native
nucleic acid sequences e’in the cell & its component
organelles, including chromosomes
THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) • Minute amounts of DNA can be amplified over million
times e’in few hours
• The technique has 3 steps �
� ds genomic DNA is denatured by heat into ssDNA
� Then cooled to favour DNA annealing & primers
bind to their target DNA
� Finally � DNA polymerase extend the primers in
opposite directions using target DNA as template
• After one cycle � 2 copies of dsDNA, after 2 cycles
� 4 copies
✰ Real-time PCR (RT-PCR)
• Also called quantitative real time PCR (QRT-PCR)
• Simultaneous quantification & amplification of given
DNA sequence
• It can be used to determine whether specific
sequence is present in sample e.g. viral genome & if
present, the number of copies in the sample
• RT-PCR is combined e’ reverse transcription PCR to
quantify low abundance mRNA enabling researcher to
quantify relative gene expression at particular time in
particular cell/tissue
✰ Expression microarrays/gene chips
• It is methodology developed to examine relative
abundance of mRNA for 1000s of genes present in
cells/tissue of different types e.g. to examine changes
in gene expression from normal tissue to that of
malignant colonic polyps
• The basic technology is the ability to immobilize
sequences of DNA complementary to specific genes or
different regions of known genes onto solid surface in
precise microdot arrays
• Total mRNA extracted from one tissue & labelled e’
fluorescent tag Cy3-green & mRNA from 2nd tissue e’
fluorescent tag Cy5-red � The 2 fluorescent tagged
total mRNA samples mixed in 1 : 1 ratio & washed over
DNA gene chips � mRNA for specific genes will bind
23
to their complementary microdot & detected by laser-
induced excitation of fluorescent tag � position, light
wavelength & intensity recorded by scanning confocal
microscope � relative intensity of Cy5-red : Cy3-
green is reliable measure of relative abundance of
specific mRNAs in each sample �
� Yellow � equal binding of both fluorescent tagged
mRNA
� Black � no hybridization
� Red � overexpression
� Green � under expression
• Power of the system � many 1000s of genes screened
for expression & relative expression in normal &
diseased tissue
DNA CLONING • Particular DNA fragment of interest isolated &
inserted to genome of simple self replicating organism
or organelles e.g. viruses & plasmids
• Vectors include � bacteriophage viruses; plasmids
• Each vector takes optimum size of cloned DNA insert
(viruses accommodate only small sequences, larger
fragments can be inserted in plasmid & larger in yast
Chr)
• Hybrid between plasmid & bacteriophage (cosmid) �
constructed artificially & has ability to clone
reasonably large sequences as plasmids e’in host
bacteria � trick bacteriophages in packaging them to
viral body & this viral body is then able to infect
target bacteria � efficient transfection rates
• DNA fragment of interest is inserted in the vector
DNA sequence using enzyme ligase (in vitro) � cloning
& creates many copies of recombinant DNA molecule
(in vivo)
• Alternatively it could be cDNA w’ has been copied
from mRNA sequence by reverse transcriptase enzyme
� ssDNA � DNA polymerase � dsDNA contains all
sequences necessary for functional gene but unlike
genomic DNA it lacks introns
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES • Each diploid cell nucleus contain 6×109 DNA bp in Chr
• Chromosomes contain one linear molecule of DNA
wounded around histone in small units (nucleosomes)
• Diploid human cells have 46 chromosomes (23
inherited from each parent) � 23 homologous pairs �
22 pairs of autosomes + 2 sex chromosomes(XY/XX)
• Chromosomes classified according to their size &
shape (the largest is Chr 1)
The Biology of Chromosomes
24
• The constriction in Chr is centromere � metacentric
(in middle of Chr) or acrocentric (at one extreme end)
• Centromere divides Chr into short arm (p) & long arm
(q) � e.g. CFTR gene (of cystic fibrosis) maps to 7q21
� on Chr 7 in long arm in band 21
• Indications for chromosomal analysis
� Antenatal
� Pregnancies in women >35 years
� +ve maternal serum screening for aneuploid
pregnancy
� U/S features consistent e’ aneuploid fetus
� Severe fetal growth retardation
� Sexing of fetus in X-linked disorders
� In the neonate
� Congenital malformations
� Suspicion of trisomy or monosomy
� Ambiguous genitalia
� In the adolescent
� 1ry amenorrhoea or puberty development failure
� Growth retardation
� In the adult
� Screening parents of child e’ chromosomal
abnormality for further genetic counselling
� Infertility or recurrent miscarriages
� Learning difficulties
� Certain malignant disorders e.g. leukaemias &
Wilms’ tumour
THE X CHROMOSOME & INACTIVATION • 1 of 2 X Chr in cells of ♀ becomes transcriptionally
inactive � cell has only 1 dose of X-linked genes (X
inactivation or Lyonization phenomenon)
• Inactivation is random & can affect either X
chromosome
TELOMERES & IMMORTALITY • Ends of Chr (telomeres) do not contain genes but many
repeats of hexameric sequence TTAGGG
• Replication of linear Chr start at coding sites (origins
of replication) e’in main body of Chr (not at 2 extreme
ends)
• Extreme ends are susceptible to ssDNA degradation
back to dsDNA � cellular ageing measured as genetic
consequence of multiple rounds of replication e’
consequential telomere shortening � Chr instability &
cell death
• Stem cells have longer telomeres > daughter
• Germ cells replicate e’out shortening of their
telomeres because they express enzyme telomerase
(protects against telomere shortening by acting as
template primer at extreme ends of Chr)
• Most somatic cells (unlike germ & embryonic cells)
switch off activity of telomerase after birth
• Many cancer cells reactivate telomerase contributing
to their immortality
25
THE MITOCHONDRIAL CHROMOSOME
• In addition to 23 pairs of Chr in nucleus, mitochondria
in cytoplasm have their own genome
• Mitochondrial Chr is circular DNA (mtDNA) �
� Approximately 16’500 bp
� Every bp make up part of coding sequence (no
introns)
� Principally encode ptns or RNA molecules involved
in mitochondrial function (components of
mitochondrial respiratory chain)
• Critical role in apoptotic cell death
• Every cell contain 100s mitochondria � 100s
mitochondrial Chr � virtually all mitochondria are
inherited from mother (sperm head contain no or few
mitochondria)
GENETIC DISORDERS
• Spectrum of inherited or congenital genetic disorders
classified as �
� Chromosomal disorders, including mitochondrial
chromosome disorders
� The Mendelian disorders
� Sex-linked single-gene disorders
• Variety of non-Mendelian disorders & multifactorial
disorders all are result of mutation in genetic code
• Chromosomal abnormalities are very common
• 1/2 spontaneous abortions have Chr abnormalities
• Autosomal aneuploidy (differing from normal diploid
number) is severe > Sex Chr aneuploidies
ABNORMAL CHROMOSOME NUMBERS • If Chr fail to separate (nondisjunction) either in
meiosis or mitosis � 1 daughter cell will receive 2
copies of that Chr & 1 daughter cell will receive no
copies of that Chr
• Non-disjunction can occur e’ autosomes or sex Chr
Chromosomal disorders
26
• If non-disjunction occurs during meiosis � ovum or
sperm e’ either �
� Extra Chr � trisomy (3 instead of 2 copies of Chr)
� No Chr � monosomy (1 instead of 2 copies of Chr)
� Examples �
� Only trisomy 13, 18 & 21 (Down’s syndrome)
survive to birth (most children e’ trisomy 13 &
18 die in early childhood)
� Full autosomal monosomies � extremely rare &
very deleterious
� Sex Chr trisomies e.g. Klinefelter’s syndrome
(44+XXY) are relatively common
� Sex Chr monosomy e.g. Turner’s syndrome
(44+X0)
• Occasionally non-disjunction during mitosis � shortly
after 2 gametes fused � 2 cell lines each e’ different
Chr complement (more often e’ sex Chr) � mosaicism
• Very rarely � entire chromosome set will be present
in >2 copies � triploidy (69 Chr) or tetraploidy (92
Chr) � spontaneous abortion
ABNORMAL CHROMOSOME STRUCTURES • Abnormal Chr structures can disrupt DNA & genes
• Deletions
� Deletions of portion of Chr � disease if 2 copies
of genes in deleted region are necessary (the
individual will not be normal e’ the 1 copy remaining)
Deletion Duplication
Inversion Balanced translocation
copy remaining on the non-deleted homologous)
� Example �
� Prader Willi syndrome � cytogenetic events �
deletion of part long arm of Chr 15
� Wilms’ tumour � deletion of part of short arm
of Chr 11
� DiGeorge syndrome � microdeletions in long
arm of Chr 22
• Duplications
� When portion of Chr is present on the Chr in 2
copies � genes in that Chr portion are present in
extra dose e.g. Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (form
of neuropathy) is due to small duplication of region
of Chr 17
27
• Inversion
� End to end reversal of segment e’in a chromosome
e.g. abcdefgh becomes abcfedgh (haemophilia)
• Translocations
� 2 Chr regions join together (not normally do)
� Chr translocations in somatic cells � tumorigenesis
� Translocations can be very complex involving >2 Chr
but most are simple & fall in 1 of 2 categories �
� Reciprocal translocation
o When any 2 non homologous Chr break
simultaneously & rejoin, swapping ends
o Cell still has 46 Chr (2 of them rearranged)
o Someone e’ balanced translocation is likely to
be normal unless the breakpoint interrupts a
o At meiosis when Chr separate in different
daughter cells � translocated Chr will enter
gametes & any resulting fetus may inherit 1
abnormal Chr & have unbalanced
translocation e’ physical manifestations
� Robertsonian translocation
o When 2 acrocentric Chr join & short arm is
lost � only 45 Chr
o It is balanced translocation as no genetic
material is lost & the individual is healthy but
any offspring have risk of inheriting
unbalanced arrangement depending on w’
acrocentric Chr is involved
o Clinically relevant is 14/21 Robertsonian
translocation in woman � 1 in 8 risk of
having baby e’ Down’s syndrome (male carrier
has 1 in 50 risk)
o 50% risk of producing carrier like
themselves � genetic family study is
necessary
MITOCHONDRIAL CHROMOSOME DISORDERS
• No introns in mitochondrial genes � mutation has high
chance of having effect however as every cell contains
100s of mitochondria so single altered mitochondrial
genome is not noticed
• As mitochondria divide �↑likelihood of more mutated
mitochondria � mitochondrial disease
• Most mitochondrial diseases are myopathies &
neuropathies e’ maternal pattern of inheritance �
� Myopathies � (CPEO) chronic progressive external
ophthalmoplegia
� Encephalomyopathies � (MERRF) myoclonic
epilepsy with ragged red fibres
� MELAS � mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic
acidosis & stroke-like episodes
� Kearns–Sayre syndrome � ophthalmoplegia, heart
block, cerebellar ataxia, deafness & mental
deficiency due to long deletions & rearrangements
28
� (LHON) Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy �
commonest cause of blindness in young men e’
bilateral loss of central vision & cardiac
arrhythmias � it is mitochondrial disease caused
by point mutation in one gene
� Multisystem disorders � Pearson’s syndrome
(sideroblastic anaemia, pancytopenia, exocrine
pancreatic failure, subtotal villous atrophy, DM &
renal tubular dysfunction
� Hearing loss may be the only symptom & 1 of
mitochondrial genes implicated � predispose to
aminoglycoside ototoxicity
� Other abnormalities � retinal degeneration, DM &
hearing loss
ANALYSIS OF CHROMOSOME DISORDERS
• Cell cycle arrested at mitosis by colchicines � staining
� examine for abnormality
• YAC-cloned probes labelled e’ fluorescently tagged
nucleotides in insitu hybridization
• Mendelian & sex-linked single-gene disorders are due
to mutations in coding sequences & their control
elements
• All cause dysfunction of the protein product
MUTATIONS ✰ Point mutation (Missense mutation)
• The simplest type of change
• Substitution of 1 nucleotide for another � change
codon in coding sequence
Gene Defects
29
• Example � triplet AAA (codes for lysine) � mutated
to AGA (codes for arginine)
• Whether it produces clinical disorder depends on
whether it change critical part of ptn molecule
produced
• Many substitutions have no effect as several codons
code for same aa
• Some mutations have severe effect e.g. in sickle cell
disease � mutation in globin gene change 1 codon from
GAG to GTG � valine is incorporated into polypeptide
chain (instead of glutamic acid) w’ radically alters its
properties
✰ Insertion or deletion
• Insertion or deletion of 1 or more bases is more
serious as it � alteration of rest of the following
sequence (frame-shift mutation)
• Example �
� If the original code was �
TAA’GGA’GAG’TTT
� Extra nucleotide (A) is inserted �
TAA’AGG’AGA’GTT’T
� If 3rd nucleotide (A) is deleted �
TA-G’GAG’AGT’TT
� In both cases � different aa incorporated in
polypeptide chain
• It is responsible for some forms of thalassaemia
Missense mutation
Nonsense mutation
• Insertions & deletions can involve 100s of bp of DNA
� examples �
� Large deletions in dystrophin gene remove coding
sequences �Duchenne muscular dystrophy
� Insertion/deletion (ID) polymorphism in ACE gene
� genotypes II, ID & DD � deletion of 287 bp
repeat sequence & DD is associated e’ higher
concentrations of circulating ACE � heart disease
✰ Splicing mutations
• If DNA sequences w’ direct splicing of introns from
mRNA are mutated � abnormal splicing
• Processed mRNA w’ will be translated to ptns by
ribosomes may carry intron sequences � altering w’ aa
are incorporated in polypeptide chain
30
✰ Termination mutations (Nonsense mutation)
• Normal polypeptide chain termination occurs when
ribosomes processing mRNA reach one of the chain
termination or stop codons
• Mutations involving stop codons � late or premature
termination
• Example � haemoglobin Constant Spring � Hb variant
where instead of ‘stop’ sequence � single base change
� insertion of extra aa
SINGLE-GENE DISEASE • Monogenetic disorders involving single genes can be
inherited as dominant, recessive or sex-linked
• Many syndromes show multiple forms of inheritance
pattern because multiple defects occur in given
disease associated gene or in separate genes for
example in Ehlers–Danlos syndrome � AD, AR & XL
inheritance
✰ Autosomal dominant disorders (AD)
• Overall incidence 7 in 1000 live births
• AD disorder occurs when 1 of 2 copies of autosomal
Chr has mutation & ptn produced by normal gene
cannot compensate
• Heterozygous individual e’ 2 different forms (or
alleles) of same gene � manifest the disease
• Offspring of heterozygotes � 50% inheriting Chr
carrying disease allele � also have the disease
• Estimation of risk to offspring for counselling families
can be difficult because �
� Great variability in their manifestation �
incomplete penetrance � if patients have dominant
disorder but does not manifest clinically �
appearance of the gene having skipped generation
� Variable expression � dominant traits are
extremely variable in severity e.g. mildly affected
parent may have severely affected child
� New cases in previously unaffected family may be
due to new mutation � risk of further affected
child is negligible e.g most cases of achondroplasia
are due to new mutations
✰ Autosomal recessive disorders (AR)
• Overall incidence 2.5 in 1000 live births
31
• Manifest only when individual is homozygous for
disease allele i.e. both Chr carry the mutated gene
• Parents are generally unaffected healthy carriers
(heterozygous for disease allele)
• Usually no family history (although defective gene
pass from generation to generation)
• Offspring of affected person is healthy carrier unless
the other parent is also carrier
• If carriers marry offspring �
� 1 in 4 chance homozygous & affected
� 1 in 2 chance (2 in 4) being a carrier
� 1 in 4 chance being genetically normal
• Clinical features of AR disorders are usually severe,
patients present in 1st first few years of life & high
mortality
✰ Sex-linked disorders
o Genes carried on X-Chr said to be ‘Xlinked’ &
can be dominant or recessive
o Females have 2 X-Chr � unaffected carriers
of X linked recessive diseases
o Males have 1 X-Chr � any deleterious
mutation in X linked gene will manifest (no
2nd copy of gene)
• X linked dominant disorders (XLD)
� Females e’ heterozygous mutant gene & males e’ 1
copy of mutant gene � manifest the disease
� Affected mother � 1/2 male or female offspring
are affected
� Affected father � all female offspring are
affected & all male offspring are unaffected
32
� Affected males tend to have severe disease >
heterozygous female
• X linked recessive disorders (XLR)
� These disorders present in males & homozygous
female (usually rare)
� Transmitted by healthy female carriers or
affected males if they survive to reproduce
� Example of an XLR is haemophilia A (mutation in X
linked gene for factor VIII � in 50% there is
intra Chr rearrangement (inversion) of tip of long
arm X-Chr � one break point e’in intron 22 of
factor VIII gene)
� Offspring of carrier female + normal male �
� 50% of girls are carriers � inherit mutant allele
from their mother & normal allele from their
father
� 50% of girls � inherit 2 normal alleles � normal
� 50% of boys � have haemophilia as they inherit
mutant allele from their mother (& Y Chr from
their father)
� 50% of boys are normal � inherit normal allele
from mother & Y Chr from their father
� Male e’ haemophilia + normal female � normal male
offspring + carrier females
• Y-linked genes
� Genes carried on Y Chr are said to be Y linked
� Only males are however � no known examples of Y
linked single gene disorders
• Sex-limited inheritance
� Occasionally a gene can be carried on an autosome
but manifest only in one sex � frontal baldness is
an AD in males but behave as AR in females
✰ Other single-gene disorders
• These are disorders w’ may be due to mutations in
single genes but do not manifest as simple monogenic
disorders
• They can arise from variety of mechanisms �
� Triplet repeat mutations
� In gene responsible for dystrophia myotonica �
mutated allele was found to have expanded
3’UTR region in w’ three nucleotides (CTG) was
repeated up to 200 times
� In families e’ dystrophia myotonica � people e’
late onset disease had 20–40 copies of the
repeat but their children & grandchildren who
presented e’ disease from birth � had increase
in number of repeats (up to 2000 copies)
� number of triplets affects mRNA & ptn function
� Mitochondrial disease ًتم مناقشته سابقا
� Imprinting
� In some way (not yet clear), the fetus can
distinguish between Chr inherited from mother
33
& Chr inherited from father (although both give
23 Chr)
� The Chr are ‘imprinted’ � maternal & paternal
contributions are different
� Imprinting is relevant to human genetic disease
because different phenotypes may result
depending on whether mutant Chr is maternal or
paternal
� Deletion of part of long arm of Chr 15 (15q11–
q13) � Prader–Willi syndrome if it is paternally
inherited but deletion of similar region of the
Chr � Angelman’s syndrome if it is maternally
inherited
� The affected gene is identified as ubiquitin
(UBE3A)
� Significantly � maternal Chr 15 UBE3A is
expressed in brain & hypothalamus � defective
maternal ubiquitin in Angelman’s syndrome �
accumulation of undegraded ptn & neuronal
damage
COMPLEX TRAITS: MULTIFACTORIAL & POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
• Combination of genetic & environmental factors are
said to be multifactorial
• Those involving multiple genes are said to be polygenic
• Measurements of most biological traits e.g. height is
variant thought to be due to additive effects of
number of alleles at number of loci many of w’ are
individually identified using molecular biological
techniques
• There are sex differences e.g. congenital pyloric
stenosis is most common in boys but if it occurs in
girls � larger number of affected relatives
• Most human diseases e.g. heart disease, DM and
common mental disorders are multifactorial traits
• Aims of genetic counselling �
� Obtain full history � pregnancy history, drug,
alcohol ingestion during pregnancy & maternal
illnesses
� Establishing accurate diagnosis of genetically
abnormal child
Genetic Counselling
34
� Draw family tree & questions about abortions,
stillbirths, deaths, marriages, consanguinity
� Estimate risk of future pregnancy being affected
� Give information about prognosis & management
� Continued support & follow-up
� Genetic screening including prenatal diagnosis
PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS • Should be offered to all pregnant women in UK but it
is offered to high risk mothers only
✰ Investigations depend on gestation
• 7–11 Weeks
� Vaginal U/S
� Confirm viability, fetal number & gestation by
crown rump measurement
• 11–13 Weeks & 6 days (combined test)
� U/S for nuchal translucency measurement (normal
fold <6 mm) � detect major Chr abnormalities e.g.
trisomies & Turner’s syndrome
� Maternal serum is tested for �
� PAPP-A (pregnancy associated plasma protein-A)
from syncytial trophoblast
� β-HCG for trisomy 21
� Combined test is more accurate > triple test
alone at 16 weeks
� All serum marker are corrected for gestational
ages � multiple of the mean (MOM) value for
the appropriate gestation week is necessary
� Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) at 11–13 weeks under
U/S control to sample placental site
� Amniocentesis at 15 weeks to sample amniotic fluid
• 14–20 Weeks (serum triple or quadruple test)
� The triple test for Chr abnormalities � testing
maternal serum for �
� α-fetoprotein (low) �↑in neural tube defects
� Unconjugated oestradiol (low)
� Human chorionic gonadotrophin (high) for
Down’s syndrome & neural tube defects
� The quadruple test �
� The triple test + inhibin-A ( ↑ in Down’s
syndrome)
� If too late for triple test or previous option not
offered
• 14–22 Weeks
� U/S for structural abnormalities e.g. neural tube
defects, gestation period
� The best time to detect congenital heart defects
is 18–22 weeks
� Reported detection rates for all congenital defects
vary from 14 to 61% for hypoplastic ventricle to
97-100% for anencephaly
35
• Gene therapy entails placing normal copy of gene into
the cells of patient who has defective copy of the
gene (concentrating on recessive disorders e.g. cystic
fibrosis where the disease is due to absence of normal
gene product)
• In dominant disorders it is difficult & complicated
• 2 major factors are involved in gene therapy �
� Introduction of functional gene sequence in target
cells
� Expression & permanent integration of transfected
gene in host cell genome
• Suitable diseases for current gene therapy include �
� Cystic fibrosis
� CFTR gene �
o Cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator
gene is the responsible for cystic fibrosis
o It was 1st localized to Chr 7 by linkage
analysis
o CFTR gene spans about 250 kbp & contains
27 exons
o DNA sequence analysis predicts polypeptide
sequence of 1480 aa
o CFTR gene also encodes a simple Cl- ion
channel
� Mutation �
o The commonest is single mutation e’ 3 bp
deletion in exon 10 � removal of codon
specifying phenylalanine (F508del)
o Also >1000 different minor mutations of
CFTR gene e’ most mapping to ATP-binding
domains
� Gene therapy experiments �
o Still under trial to restore CFTR function by
transfection of cells e’ wild type receptor
o 2 different routes are tried �
♦ Placing CFTR gene in adenovirus vector
♦ Placing CFTR gene in liposome (conveyed
to lung by aerosol spray) � fatty surface
of liposome fuses e’ cell membrane to
deliver CFTR DNA into cell
o Topical nasal gentamicin (aminoglycoside AB)
� expression of functional CFTR channels
� Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
� Rare immunodeficiency disease � introducing
normal human ADA gene in patient’s
lymphocytes � reconstitute function of cellular
& humoral immunity in severe combined
immunodeficiency
� Familial hypercholesterolaemia
� It is due to↓LDL receptor gene
Gene Therapy
36
� Gene therapy � receptor gene is inserted in
hepatocytes (removed by liver biopsy) � gene-
corrected hepatocytes � reinjected in portal
circulation � migrate back to liver �
reincorporated � start to produce LDL
receptor protein � dramatically↓ cholesterol
level
TREATMENT OF SOMATIC DISEASE ✰ Vascular disease
• Neovascularization to↑blood flow & repair cardiac
tissue after MI � temporary expression of angiogenic
factors at site of blockage � new blood vessels
• Local temporary expression of clot disintegrating
enzymes e.g streptokinase & lipases � repair damaged
& diseased arteries
• Deliver liposomes loaded e’ DNA or direct inject of
DNA plasmids to tissue � ptn will be expressed by
cells (only 1–3% but it is sufficient for local effect
required)
✰ Neuronal disease
• Neurotrophic factors can be transiently expressed
same as e’ vascular diseases � nerve cell regeneration
& maintenance
• Extend expression period of neurotrophin by injecting
transfected myocytes in damaged area � fuse e’ any
adjacent muscle
✰ Cancer
• Cancer is genetic disease & many genes are
deregulated
• p53 is TSG � apoptosis in cells e’ damaged genetic
material � reintroduction & overexpression of
functional p53 in tumours is investigated
• Since it is only likely to occur in rapidly dividing cells
� perfect target for cancer gene therapy by repeat
exposure to vectors e.g. retroviruses, liposomes &
naked DNA plasmids
• Tumour growth depends on development of new blood
vessels (angiogenesis) & inhibitors are under trial
✰ Stem cell therapy
• Number of adult stem cell therapies already exist
particularly bone marrow transplants
• It is anticipated to treat wide variety of diseases
require replacement of destroyed tissues e.g.
Parkinson’s, spinal cord injuries & muscle damage
• The blood in umbilical cord is available & rich source of
haemopoietic stem cells i.e. CD34 +ve & CD38 –ve �
colonize bone marrow & rapidly populating marrow e’ all
various cells (RBC’s & WBC’s)
• Umbilical cord stem cell, dubbed cord blood-derived
embryonic like stem cells (CBEs) � able to
differentiate to more types of tissue not simply
haemopoietic cells (super pluripotentiality)
37
• Primitive monocyte derived multipotential cell (MOMC)
� could be isolated from adult peripheral circulating
monocytes � induced (given the correct paracrine,
environmental & adhesion signals) � endothelia,
neurones, cardiomyocytes & mesenchymal lineages
• Similar reports concerning adult stem cells isolated
from skin
THE HUMAN PROTEOME PROJECT • Studying of ptn expression characteristics of normal
& diseased cells
• Achieved by using 2D gel electrophoresis
• Pattern of dots corresponds to different ptn
expressed � non-, over- & underexpression of given
ptn can be detected by corresponding change on
proteome
• Post-translational modifications of ptns show up as
change in either size or charge on proteome picture
2D gel electrophoresis comparing paired serum & synovial fluid in patient e’ RA. The circled ptns indicate major ptns w’ differ between the 2 biofluids.
Although serum contained many ptns not found in synovial fluid & 1 major ptn was found in synovial fluid but not in serum. This indicates that synovial fluid
is not simple transudate (exudate)
• Cancers are genetic diseases & involve changes to
normal function of cellular genes
• Multiple genes interact during oncogenesis & stepwise
progression of defects leads over proliferative of
particular cell to full breakdown of control ( apoptosis)
• Susceptibility to development of particular form of
cancer can be inherited
• Cancer tissues are clonal & arise from changes in only
one cell w’ then proliferates in the body
• The genes that are primarily damaged by genetic
changes w’ lead to cancer fall in 2 categories:
oncogenes & TSG
• Oncogenesis is multistep process � number of
mutations or alterations to key genes are required
before malignant phenotype is expressed
• Once mutations begun to cause unchecked clonal
expansion of 1ry tumour cells � further mutations
occur e’in subsequent generations of daughter cells �
clones w’ are invasive & or form metastases
ONCOGENES • Genes coding for growth factors, growth factor
receptors, 2ry messengers or even DBP would act as
promoters of abnormal cell growth if mutated
The Genetic basis of Cancer
38
• Viruses carry genes w’ when integrated to host cell �
promote oncogenesis (v-oncogenes) & later their
normal cellular counterparts (c-oncogenes) were found
• Oncogenes encode ptns that participate in regulation
of normal cellular proliferation e.g. erb-A on
chromosome 17q11–q12 encodes for thyroid hormone
receptor
Examples of acquired/somatic mutations & proto-oncogenes
Point mutation K-ras
DNA amplification Myc HER2-neu
Chromosome translocation BCR-ABL PML-RAR Bcl-2/IgH c-myc & Ig
Pancreatic cancer
Neuroblastoma Breast cancer
CML, ALL APML Follicular lymphoma Burkitt’s lymphoma
CML, chronic myeloid leukaemia; ALL, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia; APML, acute promyelocytic leukaemia
✰ Activation of oncogenes
• Non activated oncogenes w’ are functioning normally
(proto-oncogenes)
• Transformation to oncogenes can occur by 3 routes �
① Mutation
� Carcinogens e.g. cigarette smoke, ionizing
radiation UVR can cause point mutation in
genomic DNA
� By chance some of these point mutations will
occur in regions of oncogene � activation of
that gene
� Not all bases in oncogene cause cancer if
� Mutated but some do (those in coding region)
② Chromosomal translocation
� If during cell division an error occurs & 2 Chr
translocate � portion swaps over �
translocation breakpoint in middle of 2 genes
� If this happens � end of 1 gene is translocated
on to beginning of another gene (fusion gene) �
sequences of 1 part of fusion gene are
inappropriately
� Example of fusion gene (Philadelphia Chr) in
GML
� Similarly in Burkitt’s lymphoma � translocation
� replace the regulatory segment of myc
oncogene by regulatory segment of unrelated Ig
③ Viral stimulation
� When viral RNA is transcribed by RT to viral
cDNA & in turn spliced in cellular DNA � viral
DNA may integrate & activate oncogene
� Alternatively the virus may pick up cellular
oncogene DNA & incorporate it to its own viral
genome
� Subsequent infection of another host cell may
� expression of this viral oncogene e.g. Rous
39
sarcoma virus of chickens was found to induce
cancer because it carried ras oncogene
� After the initial activation other changes occur
in DNA
TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENES (TSG) • These genes restrict undue cell proliferation (in
contrast to oncogenes) & induce repair or self
destruction (apoptosis) of cells contain damaged DNA
• Example � germline mutations in genes found in non-
polyposis CRC responsible for repairing DNA
mismatches
• 1st TSG to be described was RB gene � mutations in
RB � Retinoblastoma �
� 1 in 20’000 young children
� Familial variety of retinoblastoma � 1st mutation is
inherited & by chance 2nd somatic mutation occurs
e’ the formation of tumour
� Sporadic variety of retinoblastoma � by chance
both mutations occur in both RB genes in a single
cell
• Other TSG � gene p53 �
� Mutations in p53 have been found in almost all
human tumours including sporadic CRC, carcinomas
of breast & lung, brain tumours, osteosarcomas &
leukaemias
� The ptn encoded by p53 is cellular 53 kDa nuclear
phosphoprotein (plays role in DNA repair &
synthesis in control of cell cycle, differentiation &
apoptosis)
� p53 is DBP �
� Activate many gene expression pathways but it
is normally only short lived
� p53 is likely to act as tetramer � mutation in
single copy of gene can promote tumour
formation because hetero tetramer of mutated
& normal p53 subunits would still be
dysfunctional
� In many tumours � mutations that disable p53
function � also prevent its cellular catabolism
although in some cancers there is loss of p53 from
both Chr in most cancers (particularly CRC) � such
long lived mutant p53 alleles can disrupt normal
alleles ptn
How TSG work?
• TSG products are involved in control of cell cycle
• Progression through cell cycle is controlled by many
molecular gateways w’ are opened or blocked by cyclin
group of ptns that are specifically expressed at
various stages of the cycle
• RB & p53 proteins control cell cycle & interact
specifically e’ many cyclin ptns (The latter are
affected by INK 4α acting on p16 ptns)
40
• General principle � being held at 1 of these gateways
� programmed cell death
• p53 � induces expression of other genes & its own
expression is induced by broken DNA � initially cause
expression of DNA repair enzymes, if repair is too
slow or cannot be effected then other ptns induced by
p53 will effect programmed cell death
✰ Viral inactivation of tumour suppressors
� Suppression of normal TSG function by disabling
normal ptn (once it is transcribed) rather than by
mutating the gene
� Viruses have developed their own genes w’ produce
ptns to do precisely this
� The main targets of these ptns are RB & p53 to w’
they bind & disable
� Adenovirus E1A & HPV E7 gene products bind RB
� Adenovirus E1B & HPV E6 gene products bind p53
� SV40 virus large T Ag binds both RB & p53
✰ Microsatellite instability
� Microsatellites are short (50–300 bp) sequences
composed of tandemly repeated segments of DNA
2-5 nucleotides in length (di/tri/tetranucleotide
repeats) scattered throughout the genome in non-
coding regions between genes or e’in genes (introns)
� Many of these microsatellites are highly
polymorphic
� Often used as markers for linkage analysis because
of high variability in repeat number between
individuals
� These regions are inherently unstable & susceptible
to mutations
� Somatic microsatellite instability (MSI) has been
detected in number of tumours
� Detecting MSI involve comparing length of
microsatellite alleles amplified from tumour DNA e’
the corresponding allele in normal tissue from same
individual
� Recent studies indicate that MSI can be detected
in 90% of tumours from individuals e’ hereditary
non-polyposis CRC
� The presence of these additional microsatellite
alleles (repeated segments) in tumour cells results
from inherent susceptibility of these areas to such
alterations & from mutations in DNA mismatch
repair mechanism that would normally correct
these errors
✰ Tumour angiogenesis
� Once a nest of cancer cells reaches 1–2 mm in
diameter � it must develop blood supply in order to
survive & grow as diffusion is no longer adequate to
supply the cells e’ O2 & nutrients
41
� As e’ all tissues, solid tumour cancer cells secrete
substances that promote formation of new blood
vessels (angiogenesis)
� Substances identified to promote angiogenesis e.g.
angiopoietin-1, basic fibroblast growth factor
(bFGF) & vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
� Inhibitors of angiogenesis (part of cancer
treatment strategy) �
� Angiostatin � polypeptide of 200 aa produced
by cleavage of plasminogen & binds to subunits
of ATP synthase exposed at surface of cell
embedded in plasma membrane
� Endostatin � polypeptide of 184 aa w’ is derived
from globular domain found at the C-terminal of
type XVIII collagen (specific collagen of blood
vessels) cleaved from the parent molecule
� Several therapeutic vaccine preparations are under
development to produce range of host immunity
responses (humoral & cellular) against pro-
angiogenic factors & their receptors in tumours �
1 approach has been directed at cell adhesion
molecules found in tumour blood vessels
� Vitaxin � monoclonal Ab against alpha-v/beta-3
vascular integrin � shrinks tumours in mice e’out
harming them
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