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Saccules Two rounded edges in the cross section. Ranges from 3 to 10 in a golgi

complex. It has a forming face, the cis face, and the trans face. The cis facs is Alwaysconex, and when you loo! at the cis face, it has small little esicles. These are transport

esicles. It contains proteins which hae "een synthesi#ed from the Rough $R which

 "ring it to the %olgi complex for glycosylation. The trans face is always &oncae.

&ondensing acuoles and secretory granules are always associated with the trans face.The transport esicles are also !nown as translational esicles or transitory esicles.

'hich "ring it from the $R to the cis face. The acuoles are then formed off at the trans

face, which then mature to form secretory esicles. It then (oins with the cell mem"raneto release compounds through exocytosis, which then reforms to form a cell mem"rane

with no

)age *

Incorporation of glycoproducts to form glycoproteins in the golgi apparatus . +ere you

can see monosaccharides coming in which form glycoproteins with the peptides

)age 3.They form glycoproteins through glycosylation through glycosyltransferases

They also conert large molecues, proproteins into smaller mature proteins.

Lysosomes

They help to digest toxins which are endogenous or exogenous. This is "ecause of the

 presence of the 0 en#ymes present in each of the lysosomes.

They are for intracytoplasmic digestion for cells, or for toxins which are damaging to the

cells itself. The examples on page 3 get rid of compounds in the human "ody or the cells

itself

)age

)rimary lysosomes are lysosomes which are not inoled in en#yme actiity at all. This

is the way it has "een formed, and it is not actie at all. This "uds off from he golgiapparatus, and is not inoled in any form of digestion. The ones that hae fused with the

su"strate are !nown as secondary lysosomes

In the primary lyso#ome, it has plasmalemma, which is non-permea"le to oth the

su"strate and the en#yme, which segregates a primary lysosome and preents it from

wor!ing "efore it "ecomes a secondary lysosome

This can only happen after the lysosome has fused with the cell organelle. It can also

wor! digested matter ta!en up "y pinocytosis or phagocytosis. It only wor!s in an acidic

medium, i.e. p+ /.

)age

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This shows a primary lysosome "udding off from a golgi apparatus. It shows a )rimary

lysosome "inding with a damaged organelle to find a secondary lysosome, which is them

rea"sor"ed. The residue is excreted "y exocytosis.

'hateer is "eing endocytosed can "e !nown an endosome or a phagosome, one is

formed from phagocytosis, the other is formed from pinocytosis. This endosome fuseswith primary lysosome to form secondary lysosome.

The last scenario is when there is Autolysis of the lysosome, and the cell may eentuallysuccum" to the release of lysosomal digestie en#ymes, and it2s !nown as autolysis

Mitochondria Plural: mitochondrion

uter mitochondrion mem"rane. ne theory is that it is an pro!aryote "eing ta!en up "y

an animal cell, often referred to as the powerhouse of the animal cell. Apparently it has

migrated into the animal cell millions of years ago. &ristae are the folds of the

mitochondria

The intercristae space 4 mitochondrial matrix.

Inaginated space 4 intra cristae spae

The spaces "etween the cristae are the inter cristae space, also !nown as the

mitochondrial matrix. It is to increase surface area for the respiratory en#ymes. Singular

of cristae 4 crista.

)age

The "ottom diagram demonstrates ery clearly the inner mitochondrial mem"rane. 5T$that the mem"rane is continuous "etween the inter cristae space.

'hat is found in the inner mitochondrial mem"ranes is the cytochromes,dehydrogenases, and the flaoproteins

esides the en#ymes for oxidatie phosphorylation, there is also AT)-ase, which "rea!s

down AT) into A6), with the release of phosphate group and energy. This is eryimportant, "ecause they are used to fuel the cell.

)roteins synthesi#ed with the ri"osomes are for its own use, within the mitochondria.This is the reason why scientists "eliee it is a "acteria ta!en up "y the animal cells. AT)

is useful "ecause it is "ro!en down as and when energy is needed for production.

7itochondrial granules "affled scientists, until they reali#ed they are dialent cation

 "inding sites, which store iron and calcium.

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)age 8

Cytoskeleton

7icrofilaments are usually actin and myosin, which are mainly found in the s!eletal

musles. ut other cells also hae them to support the cell.

)age 9

7icrotu"ules are formed from alpha and "eta tu"ulin, 7' 0000. ecause they are

different, some "oo!s call them hetereomers.

&ilia and :lagella is !nown as 9 dou"les and two singlet pattern -- ; !nown as an

axoneme, !nown as a "asal "ody.

)age 10

&lilium is plural . If you cut across a cilium, you reali#e that they are similar to flagella.

They are formed from heterodimer. They polymeri#e to form proteofilaments. y chance,

13 of them form a concentric ring, and the diameter of each of the su"unit is nm, and thecore of the entire center is 1 nm. 'hen you loo! at the nine dou"lets, you reali#e they

are made up of two su"units, su"fi"re A and su"fi"er . su"fi"re has 13 su"units, andsu"fi"er has 10 units, "ecause 3 microtu"ules are shared with su"fi"er A. Su"fi"re A

has dynein arms with AT)ase, which generates energy from AT) to A6). They are

 "ro!en down to release energy. A cilium has a plasma lemma , and 9 dou"lets which isthen connected to the central sheath with radial spo!es. 'hen you loo! at the 9 dou"lets

with two singlets, it2s !nown as the axoneme pattern.

The centriole has 9 triplets, su"fi"re A has 13 units, while su"fi"re and & has 10 units.The 9 triplets are connected "y protein lin!s to form a pinwheel formation.

The diagram at the "ottom shows the cell is undergoing &ellular 6iision

As mentioned earlier, the "asal "ody gies rise to the axoneme pattern. It consists of the 9

triplets. ut the moment it reaches the "ase, the & su"fi"re disappears, and you get 9dou"lets.

Inermediate filaments.

&yto!eratins are found in the epithelial.6esmein are mostly found in cardiac and s!eletal muscles

<imentin are found in the mesodermic cells

%lial &ells are founds in Astrocytes, the star shaped cells

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)age 1*

Cell nucleus

In its completely resting states, the chromosomes can "e differentiated, "ut in its normal

state, it uncoils into chromatin.

The nuclear enelope is made up of a unit mem"rane, made up of * concentric layers,

+ence they form a perinuclear space. +ence if you cut through the top you see a space,

surrounding the nucleus. This can range from 0 to 0 nm. 'here the unit mem"ranefused, then it forms a nuclear pores. This nuclear pore is not empty, and it is coered "y a

nuclear diaphragm. +ence this forms a selectie "arrier for proteins, R5A and ri"osomes

and proides a way to trael out, to the cell cytoplasm through the nuclear pore.

'hen chromatin are dar! and tied together under the electron microscope, they are

!nown as heterochromatin, The light areas refer to euchromatin, which indicates a ery

actie cell. 'here the inner plasmalemma and the outer plasma lemma fuse together

gies a nuclear pore, which allows meta"olites and iron and tR5A and mR5A to come inand out of the nucleur. The outer surface of the nuclear mem"rane is studded with

ri"osomes, indicatie of the fact that is capa"le of protein synthesis. The cisternae is thespace which is formed "etween the two layers. The nuclear pore is 0nm.

 5=&>$AR )R$ IS :R7$6 ? T+$ 7$R%I5% : T+$ I55$R A56 =T$R 5=&>$AR 7$7RA5$

The 6ar! structure is the nucleolus which main contains the rR5A

$uchromatin is electron lucent <ery actie

+etero chromatin is eletron dense not so actie

 5ucleolus associated protein 5o"ody !nows the function of the nucleolus associated

 protein.

)age 1 5uclear sap is the nucloplasm.

)ars granulosa are maturing ri"osomes, 1 to *0 nm, hence you can see them @uite

clearly under the electron microscope. )ars fi"rosa contains the primary transcripts of therR5A genes. In addition to the rR5A genes, they also contain the newly synthesi#ed

rR5A , which then form ri"osomes in the )ars %ranulosa. There is a nucleolar organi#er

65A, which codes for the se@uence for the R5Ase. Another thing that is produced here

is tR5A. Nucleolus organizer region (NOR is a chromosomal region around which thenucleolus forms. It is also called the nucleolar organi#er. The region contains seeral

tandem copies of ri"osomal R5A genes. 

6aughter strands produced in replication, and only 1 strand produced in transcription.

In transcription, 1 strand of 65A forms 1 strand of mR5A.