Basic Concepts of Geography

GeographyGeographyGeographyGeography is the scientific study of the locationlocationlocationlocation of peoplepeoplepeoplepeople and activitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivities around the Earth, and the

reasonsreasonsreasonsreasons for their distributiondistributiondistributiondistribution. Geographers ask the questions “wherewherewherewhere” things are, “whywhywhywhy” they are

there, and “whywhywhywhy” their geographic arrangements are significant. HistoriansHistoriansHistoriansHistorians study the logical sequence

of human activities through timetimetimetime, and geographersgeographersgeographersgeographers study the logical arrangement of human activities

through spacespacespacespace.

Geography may be divided into twotwotwotwo primary components: Human Geography Human Geography Human Geography Human Geography and Physical Physical Physical Physical

GeographyGeographyGeographyGeography. Human Geography will be our primary focus, and can be further divided into 3 parts:

Cultural, Social, Cultural, Social, Cultural, Social, Cultural, Social, and Economic.Economic.Economic.Economic.

The most useful tool used to study geography is the mapmapmapmap, which is a graphic representation of any

areaareaareaarea, at a reduced scalescalescalescale, on which selected data or locational traits are shown. The science of mapmapmapmap----

makingmakingmakingmaking is known as cartographycartographycartographycartography.

ScaleScaleScaleScale is an important variable in map projectionsprojectionsprojectionsprojections, as it determines how much an area, and how much

detaildetaildetaildetail a map represents. Scale can be presented in one of three ways: a fractionfractionfractionfraction or ratioratioratioratio, a written

statementstatementstatementstatement, or a graphicgraphicgraphicgraphic----bar scalebar scalebar scalebar scale. A smallsmallsmallsmall----scalescalescalescale map shows a large large large large surface area, but contains only

minorminorminorminor detail. A largelargelargelarge----scale scale scale scale map shows a small surface area, but contains highhighhighhigherererer levels of detail.

ProjectionProjectionProjectionProjection is the method of portraying the Earth (or any portion of it) on a flatflatflatflat map. There are many

different forms of projections, but no single projection can accurately show both equal shape

(conformal mapconformal mapconformal mapconformal map) and equal size (equivaequivaequivaequivalent maplent maplent maplent map). Each map has advantages and disadvantages, but if

used properly much can be gained in terms of real knowledge about a given location. The most famous

is the MercatorMercatorMercatorMercator projection, which was created in 1569 by a Flemish geographer named Gerardus Gerardus Gerardus Gerardus

MercatorMercatorMercatorMercator. This projection is mathematicallymathematicallymathematicallymathematically adjusted to attain conformityconformityconformityconformity. The parallels and

meridians form a square gridsquare gridsquare gridsquare grid on this projection. The distortiondistortiondistortiondistortion of shape is great in the high latitudes

(the Greenland problem). Though the Mercator distorts directiondirectiondirectiondirection, it is very useful for navigationnavigationnavigationnavigation.

The Earth is a sphere sphere sphere sphere with a diameter of about 8000800080008000 miles and a circumference circumference circumference circumference of about 25,00025,00025,00025,000

miles. It rotates continuously on an axisaxisaxisaxis that passes through the poles. poles. poles. poles. Distance is measured with

latitudes (paralparalparalparallelslelslelslels) and longitudes (meridiansmeridiansmeridiansmeridians). These are measured in degrees, minutesdegrees, minutesdegrees, minutesdegrees, minutes, and

seconds.seconds.seconds.seconds.

The earliest surviving maps were drawn by

science of cartography is even older.

Relationships and Relationships and Relationships and Relationships and ConnectionsConnectionsConnectionsConnections

•How elements in a physical or cultural system interact

•Ways in which systems are connected

•How environment and human activity are related, including the consequences.

Scale And PerspectiveScale And PerspectiveScale And PerspectiveScale And Perspective

• The relative size of things under study

•How the scoe of study affects the degree of generalization that can be made

• The observational perspective of the location under study

Basic Concepts of Geography

The earliest surviving maps were drawn by BabyloniansBabyloniansBabyloniansBabylonians on clay tabletsclay tabletsclay tabletsclay tablets about 2300 B.C.2300 B.C.2300 B.C.2300 B.C.

science of cartography is even older. PPPPolynesianolynesianolynesianolynesian peoples navigated for thousands of years with

Is it Is it Is it Is it Geography?Geography?Geography?Geography?

Geographic Questions

Location/DistributionLocation/DistributionLocation/DistributionLocation/Distribution

• Absolute and relative positions

• The way in which tings are distributed in space

• The significance of the location and/or distribution

• The regularity or distinctive arrangement of things in space

• The lack of patterns in the distribution

• The significance of patterns

ProcessesProcessesProcessesProcesses

•Why things are situated where they are

• The processes that affect location and patterns of distribution

• The role of change

PlacePlacePlacePlace

• The physical and human characteristics that give meaning to a location

• The ways in which places are defined and grouped into regions

• The development and significance of the sense of place

• The mental maps humans construct of places

By Michal L. LeVasseur

2300 B.C.2300 B.C.2300 B.C.2300 B.C., but the

peoples navigated for thousands of years with threethreethreethree----

PatternsPatternsPatternsPatterns

The regularity or distinctive arrangement of things in space

The lack of patterns in the distribution

The significance of patterns

ProcessesProcessesProcessesProcesses

Why things are situated where

The processes that affect location and patterns of distribution

The role of change

By Michal L. LeVasseur

Basic Concepts of Geography

dimensional dimensional dimensional dimensional maps. Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean sailors and traders made maps of rock formationsrock formationsrock formationsrock formations, islandsislandsislandsislands, and

ocean currentsocean currentsocean currentsocean currents as early as 800 B.C800 B.C800 B.C800 B.C.

AristotleAristotleAristotleAristotle (384-322 B.C.) was the first to demonstrate that the earth was sphericalsphericalsphericalspherical. He observed the

curved shadowcurved shadowcurved shadowcurved shadow of the earth on the moonmoonmoonmoon during an eclipseeclipseeclipseeclipse and the fact that visible groups of starsstarsstarsstars

change as one travels north or south.

EratosthenesEratosthenesEratosthenesEratosthenes (276-194 B.C.) was the first person on record to use the word ‘geoggeoggeoggeographyraphyraphyraphy’. He

calculated the circumference circumference circumference circumference of the earth, and made one of the earliest maps of the known world,

correctly dividing the earth into five climatic regionsfive climatic regionsfive climatic regionsfive climatic regions.

PtolemyPtolemyPtolemyPtolemy (AD 100-170?) wrote an eight volume Guide to GeographyGuide to GeographyGuide to GeographyGuide to Geography, taking advantage of information

collected by merchantsmerchantsmerchantsmerchants and soldierssoldierssoldierssoldiers who traveled throughout the Roman EmpireRoman EmpireRoman EmpireRoman Empire.

After Ptolemy, little progress in mapmaking or geographic thought was made in Europe for hundreds of

years. Outside of Europe, advances were made in Asia. Phei Hsu produced an elaborate map of ChinaChinaChinaChina

in AD 267, and the MuslimMuslimMuslimMuslim geographer alalalal----IdrisiIdrisiIdrisiIdrisi prepared a world map and text in 1154, building on

Ptolemy.

Geography and mapmaking enjoyed a revival in EuropeEuropeEuropeEurope during the Age of Exploration and Discovery. By

the 17171717thththth CenturyCenturyCenturyCentury, maps accurately displayed the outlines of most continentscontinentscontinentscontinents and the positions of the

oceansoceansoceansoceans.

Basic Concepts of Geography

Two important toolstoolstoolstools that developed during the past quarter century are Remote SensingRemote SensingRemote SensingRemote Sensing from

satellitessatellitessatellitessatellites (to collect data) and Geographic IGeographic IGeographic IGeographic Information Systemsnformation Systemsnformation Systemsnformation Systems (computer programscomputer programscomputer programscomputer programs for

manipulating geographic data).

The acquisition of data about Earth’s surfacesurfacesurfacesurface from a satellitesatellitesatellitesatellite orbiting Earth or from other longlonglonglong----

distancedistancedistancedistance methods is known as remote sensingremote sensingremote sensingremote sensing. The smallest feature on Earth’s surface that can be

detected by the sensor is determined by the resolutionresolutionresolutionresolution of the scannerscannerscannerscanner. Some can show objects the

size of the golf ball. The most common though are weather satellitesweather satellitesweather satellitesweather satellites, which take a broader view,

looking at several kilometers at a time.

A GeogrGeogrGeogrGeographic Information Systemaphic Information Systemaphic Information Systemaphic Information System (GIS) is a high-performance computer system that processes

geographic datadatadatadata. Each type of information (topography, political boundaries, population density,

manufacturing, soil type, fault lines, etc.) is stored as an information linformation linformation linformation layerayerayerayer. GIS is most powerful

when it is used to combine several layers, to show relationsrelationsrelationsrelations.

The Global Positioning SystemGlobal Positioning SystemGlobal Positioning SystemGlobal Positioning System is an example of applying new technology to an old human habit:

consulting a mapmapmapmap to get a desired destination. The GPS can pinpoint a locationlocationlocationlocation using signals from a

group of satellites.

Unique Locations

Geographers identify the location of something in 4 ways: placeplaceplaceplace----name, site, situation, and name, site, situation, and name, site, situation, and name, site, situation, and

mathematical locationmathematical locationmathematical locationmathematical location.

Place – Geographers call the name to a given portion of the Earth’s surface its toponymtoponymtoponymtoponym. The name of

a place may give a clue about its founders, physical setting, social customs, or political history. Some

place names derive from features of the physical environment. The name often tells us a lot about the

social customssocial customssocial customssocial customs of the early inhabitants. Places can change names, possibly to commemorate a

particular event. After the fall of communismcommunismcommunismcommunism in the early 1990s, names throughout Eastern EuropeEastern EuropeEastern EuropeEastern Europe

were changed, in many cases reverting back to those names used before Communists had gained

power decades earlier.

The second way that geographers can describe the location of a place is by sitesitesitesite, which is the physical physical physical physical

charactercharactercharactercharacter of a place. Important site characteristics include climate, water sources, topography, soil, climate, water sources, topography, soil, climate, water sources, topography, soil, climate, water sources, topography, soil,

vegetation, latitudvegetation, latitudvegetation, latitudvegetation, latitude, and elevatione, and elevatione, and elevatione, and elevation. Humans have the capability to modifymodifymodifymodify the characteristics of a

site. The central areas of Boston and Tokyo have been expanded for centuries by landfilling in nearby

bays.

SituationSituationSituationSituation is the location of a place relativerelativerelativerelative to other places. Situation is a good way to indicate

location for two reasons – finding an unfamiliar place and understanding its importance. Many

locations are important because they are accessible accessible accessible accessible to other places.

The precise location of any place on Earth’s surface can be described by meridians and parallels.

Measuring latitude and longitude is a good example of how geography is partly a natural sciencenatural sciencenatural sciencenatural science and

partly a study of human behaviorhuman behaviorhuman behaviorhuman behavior. Latitudes are scientifically derived by Earth’s shape and its rotation

Basic Concepts of Geography

around the Sun. On the other hand, 0 degrees longitude runs through GreenwichGreenwichGreenwichGreenwich because England was

the world’s most powerful country when longitude was first accurately measured and the international

agreement was made.

LongitudeLongitudeLongitudeLongitude plays an important role in calculatcalculatcalculatcalculating timeing timeing timeing time. Traveling 15 degrees east is the equivalent of

traveling one hour forward on the clock, and 15 degrees west is one hour backward.

Earth is divided into 24 standard time zones, one for each hour of the day, so each time zone

represents 15 degrees15 degrees15 degrees15 degrees of latitudeof latitudeof latitudeof latitude. Before standard time zones were created, each locality set its own

time. An international agreement in Washington, D.C. designated the time at the Prime Meridian Prime Meridian Prime Meridian Prime Meridian as

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Universal Time (UT)Universal Time (UT)Universal Time (UT)Universal Time (UT). The eastern US is 5 hours earlier than GMT.

When you cross the International Date LineInternational Date LineInternational Date LineInternational Date Line, which mostly follows 180 degrees longitude180 degrees longitude180 degrees longitude180 degrees longitude, you move

the clock back 24 hours if you are heading eastward toward America.

Regional Characteristics

An area of Earth defined by one or more distdistdistdistinctive characteristicsinctive characteristicsinctive characteristicsinctive characteristics is a regionregionregionregion. A region derives its

unified character through the cultural landscapecultural landscapecultural landscapecultural landscape, a combination of cultural features such as languagelanguagelanguagelanguage

and religionreligionreligionreligion, economic features such as agricultureagricultureagricultureagriculture and industryindustryindustryindustry, and physical features such as soilssoilssoilssoils

and vegetationvegetationvegetationvegetation.

The contemporary cultural landscape approach in geography – sometimes called the regional studiesregional studiesregional studiesregional studies

approach – was instituted in FranceFranceFranceFrance. It was later adopted by several American geographers, who

argued that each region has its own distinct landscape that results from a unique combination of

social relationshipssocial relationshipssocial relationshipssocial relationships and physical processesphysical processesphysical processesphysical processes. Geographers identify three types of regions: formal,formal,formal,formal,

functional, functional, functional, functional, and vernacularvernacularvernacularvernacular.

A formalformalformalformal region, also called a uniformuniformuniformuniform or homogenoushomogenoushomogenoushomogenous region, is an area within which everyone shares

in common one or more distinctive characteristics. Some formal regions are easy to identify, such as

countries or local government units. In other kinds of formal regions, a characteristic may be

predominant rather than universal. Caution must be given to the diversity of an area’s cultural,

economic, and environmental factors when making generalizations in identifying a formal region.

A functionalfunctionalfunctionalfunctional region, also called a nodalnodalnodalnodal region, is an area organized around a node, or focal point. The

region is tied to the central point by transportationtransportationtransportationtransportation or communicationcommunicationcommunicationcommunication systems by economic or

functional associations. An example of a functional region is the circulation area of a newspaper. New

technology is breaking down traditional functional regions.

A vernacularvernacularvernacularvernacular region, or perceptualperceptualperceptualperceptual region, is a place that people believe exists as a part of their

cultural identitycultural identitycultural identitycultural identity. Such vernacular regions emerge from people’s informal perceptions of a place, rather

than from scientific models. As an example of a vernacular region, Americans frequently refer to the

South as a place with environmental, cultural, and economic features perceived to be quite distinct

from the rest of the US.

Basic Concepts of Geography

In describing the reasons why each region on Earth is distinctive, geographers refer to cultureculturecultureculture, which is

the body of customary beliefsbeliefsbeliefsbeliefs, material traitstraitstraitstraits, and social formssocial formssocial formssocial forms that together constitute the distinct distinct distinct distinct

traditiotraditiotraditiotraditionnnn of a group of people. Intellectually challenging culture is often distinguished from popular

culture, such as music or television. Culture Culture Culture Culture also refers to small living organisms found under a

microscope. AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture is the term for growing things on a much larger scale. The origin of the word

“culture” is Latin, which means, “to care for.” For geographers, the context of studying culture

depends on what people care about (ideas, beliefs, values, etc.), or what people take care of

(occupation, food, clothing, shelter, etc.).