IndexNote: Page numbers followed by “n” denote endnotes.

AAirlangga, 82Alaungsithu, 125, 156Ananda Temple, 35, 36Anawrahta, 122, 136

canal system, 125era of, 134, 135textual accounts of, 180–81

“Anawrahta’s Palace”, 185, 187, 211Anjali Mudra, 63Arabo-Persian traders, 202Arakan, 157, 158, 167archaeological political economy,

184–85archaeological reasoning, 201archaeology, in Bagan, 185–86, 194

Arimaddanapura (Bagan), 159architecture of Bagan

building materials, 40–42parabaiks, 27reconstructed plan, 27stone, advantages of using, 40, 41stupas, construction of, 28, 38temples. See temple construction,

in Bagantimber buildings, 41–42urban design principles in, 27–28vaulting techniques, 6–7, 39

artefact(s), 17Anawrahta and Kyanzittha Palace

sites, 185, 187, 192

distribution of, 17, 185, 201of metals, 205from random surveys, 188–92style/types, 150n24, 200, 201, 210

Arthasastra, 15ash deposits, 93, 123, 145, 146Aung, Myint, 99, 101Aung Thaw, 6, 207, 210Aung-Thwin, Maitrii, 97Aung-Thwin, Michael, 97Avalokitesvara, 60Ayeyarwady River, 27, 164, 168, 203

BBagan, 153

Angkor’s dependency in, 162archaeological zone, 185–86, 194Buddhism, 157, 171n5development of, 170, 212–13economy of, 155–60, 165–67,

169–70, 183–84enigma of, 154fault lines, 163gold and silver trade, 157, 158internal layout of, 213labour issues, 156metals, 158–62, 167, 169monetization, 156–57Mongol invasions, 157–58polities, 165–66pottery, 214

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222 Index

rivers, 163–64silver deposits, 155southeastern Bengal, interactions

with, 155as urban centre, 185–87

Bagan–Arakan silver link, 157Bagan Archaeological Museum, 185,

187Bagan Museum, Śiva in, 72, 80Bagan period, phases of, 57Baw-Baw-Gyi, 24, 26Bawdingyi mines, 171n2Be Be Temple, 59Beikthano

building technologies in, 18–19, 21–22

ceramics at, 209–10radiocarbon dating, 89–97, 200

Bellwood, P., 91, 202Bengal

economy, 159–60gold coins, 160metals, 158–62overseas trade and currency, 161silver currency in, 159, 160trans-regional trade routes, 162valuation units, 166

Bhitargarh, 169Bhumija, 64bhūmisparśa mudra, 136, 137Bochyomi Gubyauk Temple, 64, 139Brahmanical function, 70Brahmanism, 81Bronson, B., 202bronze–iron culture, 200Brumfiel, E.M., 184BTO 32, 91–93, 97, 98BTO 35 (230–390 ce), 97BTO 36 (380–540 ce), 97Buddha, life of, 66Buddha’s tooth relic, 180

BuddhismBrahmanism and, 81Kyaukse context, 122, 124in Mrauk-U, 47–48three jewels of, 60–61

Buddhist ecumene, 179–80Buddhist pilgrims, 203Buddhist transformation, of

rajadharma, 84Buddhist Triad, 60building technologies

in Beikthano, 18–19, 21–22in Southeast Asia, 17–18, 20in Sri-Khitara, 19, 23–26

Burman buildings, 7Burmese archaeology, 203Burmese earthenware, 188, 189,

191–92Burmese sculptures, 66

CCambodia, Viṣṇu Anantasayin images

in, 82Carbon-14 (14C), 89Catalan Atlas of 1375, 163ceramics

Beikthano, 209–10Chinese, 186–88, 190, 194density, 187–89distribution, 187–88sampling of, excavated from Bagan,

192–93sites, 189–90Sriksetra, 208–9Tagaung, 210

Champa, 83, 158charcoal samples, 92, 97, 112Chattagrama/Arakan, 161Chindwin, 161, 167, 168Chinese ceramics, 186–88, 190, 194Chinese porcelain sherds, 190, 191

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Index 223

Choḷa and Pala art, of 11th century, 75coinage decline, 166, 177Cūlavaṁsa, 180

DDali Yunnan, 155, 158, 162decorative motifs, 209Dhammayazika, 69, 190Dhanyawadi city, excavations of, 46Dhanyawadi Yazawinthit, 46dhyani mudra, 137double Gu, with encased images,

130–34Dry Zone of Myanmar, 199–200, 202,

204, 207

EEarle, T.K., 184early urban Halin, 99–104East Java, 82–83ecumene, Buddhist, 179–80encasement of temple, 139–45Esoteric Buddhism, 60, 62, 65n1EURASEAA 14 Conference, Dublin, 66

Ffire debris, 101

GGeological Survey of India, 67Geological Survey of Prussia (1886), 67“Glass Palace”, 88Goh Geok Yian, 210Grünwedel, Albert, 69Gu-taw-thit-hpaya, 137Gutman, Pamela, 200

HHalin

early urban, 99–104pre-urban, 98–99

Hall, K.R., 165, 214

Harappa culture, 16, 23Harikela, 160‘head of an ogre’, 63–64Hermitage Viṣṇu, 73, 78, 80heterogenetic cities, 183, 185Hlan-Kya Temple, 32HMA 52, 112HMA 53, 110–12Hmannan Yazawindawgyi (Twinthin), 180Huang Di (Yellow Lord), 16Hudson, Bob, 200, 201, 209, 211, 213

IIndia

construction technology, 17, 19Geological Survey of, 67sikhara-type temples in, 59Vaiṣṇavism in, 80, 81

Indian influence, 91in Bagan monuments, 62

“Indianization” process, 115Indonesian culture, 83Indus Valley civilization, 16inscriptions, 181–85

adaptationist approach, 184commercial model, 184occupational specializations, 183Polanyi’s redistributive model, 183political model, 184specialization of labour, 182

Inventory of Monuments at Pagan (Pichard), 211

Iron Age, 97, 99, 114, 116, 200

JJayarudravarman, 83Jeno, Jenne, 206Jetavana monastery, 81, 93

KKale, 167, 168

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224 Index

Kamarupa, 161Kaṭṭhahāri-Jātaka, 143, 144kauris trade network, 165, 166Kaw-gun Viṣṇu, 72Khain-Kaik Pitaka-taik, 50–52khayaing administration, 125, 126, 129Khmer sites, 18, 76Khyit San Win, 210Kircher, Athanasius, 155kirttimukha, 63–65KKG 9, radiocarbon date range for,

91, 92Kubyauk Nge (IMP 1391), 136Kyanzittha, 81–84, 158, 204, 207“Kyanzittha’s Palace”, 185, 187, 211Kyauk-Ku-Umin, 41Kyaukse, 122. See also Ta Mok temple

complextradition and prehistory of, 124–28

Kyaw Myo Win, 114kywan, 182

LLay-myat-nhar Pitaka-taik, 50Lichhavi kingdom, 161Lieberman, Victor B., 157–58, 166Lingwai Daida of 1178, 154Lokananda, 29Luce, G.H., 72, 78, 125, 203Lwin, Nyein, 101

MMahābodi-type sikhara, 60mahākārunika mudra, 136Mahamuni Pitaka-taik, 49Mahayana Buddhism, 60–61, 65n1Mahayazawingyi (U Kala), 3, 70, 180,

181Majapahit empire, 198, 214Malay ethnicity, 201Malay Peninsula, 83

“Man rebels”, in 832 ce, 103marabein design, 142Maritime Frontiers of Burma, The

(Leider), 8Martaban revolt, 158Maung Maung Tin (Mahaweiza), 123Mauro, Fra, 164McAdam method, 104Mercator, Gerhard, 163–64metals, Bagan and Bengal, 158–62Miksic, John, 192Min Ba-gyi, 47Mingalar Pitaka-taik, 50Min Saw Mon, 46, 49Moat-sate-taw Pitaka-taik, 50monetization, 156–57Mongols, 170

invasion, 70, 157–58“silver century”, 170

“Mon” sites, 18monuments of later Bagan period

features of, 57–58‘head of an ogre’, 63–64sikhara, use of. See sikhara

Moore, E., 148n2, 200, 201, 207Mrauk-U

architecture of, 47Buddhism in, 47–48external relations of, 46–47history of, 45–46Khain-Kaik Pitaka-taik, 50–52monasteries of, 54repositories of, 49–50, 55

Mukherjee, B.N., 160–61“multi-nucleated center”, 206multiparty democracy,

implementation of, 10Munipoor river, 168Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst, 66Museum für Volkerkunde, 66, 67Mu-taw, 124

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Index 225

Myanmarancient state economies in, 185building technology, 18–26historical sites in, 18splendid isolation. See “splendid

isolation”, myth ofMyanma Yazawinthit (Twinthin), 4Myit Ngeh River, 125

NNagayon Temple, 37Nal Rajar Garh (Garh Mendabari),

168namaskāra mudrā, 72Nan-Hpaya Temple, 41Nan Zhao, 154

decline of, 159Narapatisithu, 125, 155, 156Nat Daw Kyaung, 69–70Nat Hlaung Kyaung

Anantaśayin, 82architectural grounds, 70–71architecture and iconography of,

84Champa, 83East Java, 82–83provenance, 78–80sculptures and painting, 71–72in situ at, 74Śiva, 78Viṣṇu avataras, 72Viṣṇu Garuḍāsana. See Viṣṇu

GaruḍāsanaNga Kywe Nadaung Stupa, 29Nötling, Wilhelm, 67, 69

OOrtelius, Abraham, 163orthogenetic cities, 183, 185Otein Taung (“Potters’ Mound”), 189

Bagan site, 212

excavations at, 209, 214kendis at, 212

Oxcal, 89OZM355, 92, 97OZN590, 110OZN909, 105OZN914, 101

PPadumarhattha Mudra, 63Pagan rule, 204Pagan: the Origins of Modern Burma

(Aung-Thwin), 8Pahto Thamar Temple (monument

no. 1080), plan and section, 30Pahto Tha Mya (monument no. 1605),

35, 37Pala art forms, 161–62Pala Bengal, 161, 165palaeontology, 67Pala sculpture, 74Pala Viṣṇu Garuḍāsana model, 83palin, 133, 134Pāñcarātra, 80–82, 84Pan Laung, 125, 128Pattikera, 155Pinya-era stupa, 129pitaka-taik, Mrauk-U period, 49–50, 55Pitakat Thamaing, 4Polanyi, Karl, 183Polo, Marco, 163, 165porcelain, 188–89

green, 188–91white, 186, 188–92

pottery technology, 189, 194, 199Bagan, 214distribution studies, 187–88

pre-urban Halin, 98–99proto-Vaiṣṇavite Bhāgavata, 80Pundravardhana (Mahasthan), 160Pyu burial urns, 123

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226 Index

Pyu cites, 199–201Arabo-Persian traders, 202in archaeology, 201architectural styles, 204Bagan by 107 ce, 210Bagan-period material, 208finger-marked bricks of, 212inner enclosures of, 205and Myanmar, 201–2and Nanzhao, trade relationship,

203radiocarbon dates and, 202Sriksetra. See Sriksetra

“Pyu period”, 2Pyu sites, 18, 193

Rradiocarbon dating, 89

application of, 200Beikthano, 89–97BTO 35 (230–390 ce), 97BTO 36 (380–540 ce), 97BTO 32, 91, 92early urban Halin, 99–104for earthenware firing mound, 99HL 31 and 32, 101, 103interpretation of, 202for KKG 9, 91–92OZN914, 101pre-urban Halin, 98–99Sriksetra. See Sriksetra

Rakhine culture, 17Rakhine kingdoms, 45Rakhine Yazawinthit, 49Ramanuja, 81, 82Ray, Nihar-Ranjan, 208river valley civilizations, 5Russian Geological Society, 67, 85n5

SSamon Rivers, 128

Sample 769 (760–980 ce), 212San-gar-taung Pitaka-taik, 50San Htwa, 130Seal, Marian, 69Shah Alam, 201, 204, 205, 208

Bagan-period structures, 207data, 206excavation of SR 3, 206, 209identified 106 rim forms, 2092001–4 field research, 206

“Shrine confining the Devas”, 69, 80Shwe-gu-gyi temple complex, 123,

125, 126Shwe-gu-taung Pitaka-taik, 49Shwezigon, 30sikhara

Bochyomi Gubyauk Temple, 64feminine deities on, 61–63Indo-Aryan, 59kirttimukha, 63–65Mahābodi type, 60origin of, 5913th-century, 58, 60types of, 60

sima stones, 134Śiva, 78

Solokov, A.P., 67, 68Southeast Asia

ancient state economies in, 185building technologies in, 17–18, 20

“splendid isolation”, myth ofclassical, and early modern

periods, 6–9in conceptual and theoretical arena,

12–13early history, 5historical and political reasons for,

9Mahayazawingyi (U Kala), 3Myanma Yazawinthit (Twinthin), 4prehistoric period, 4–5

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Index 227

reality, 12urban period, 5–6Yazawinkyaw (Thilawuntha), 3

Sri-Khitara (Sriksetra), building technologies in, 42n4

Baw-Baw-Gyi, 24, 26corbelled arches, 24prototypes of Bagan temples in, 24“resolution of forces”, 24scientific vaults and arches, 25, 26temples of, 23, 24true arch and vault, 20, 23Yahanda Gu, 25, 26

Sriksetra, 104–14archaeological excavations, 104–5Bagan-type structures in, 211ceramics from, 208–9and delta region, 204early functioning of, 112economic status, 2055th and 9th centuries, 203florescent period of, 203, 204HMA 53, 110–12HMA 52, 112–14HMA 47, 107–9intensive labour investment, 209OZN590, 110OZN909, 105–7post-Pagan period, 205post-Pyu period, 203settlement pattern, 205–8thermoluminescence dating, 204

Stadtner, D., 211Stargardt, Janice, 91Stein, Gil, 185Strachan, Paul, 211stucco Jatakas, 139–40stucco preservation, 139–45stucco reliefs, 143–44Sukampha, 172n8Sun Laichen, 202

TTagaung, 155, 162

ceramics, 21012th-century pottery stamps, 214

Ta Mok Shwe-gu-gyi temple, 122, 124, 138

buildings unearthed in, 131Ta Mok temple complex

canal, 125chronology, 123–24discovery and dating, 129–30double gu, 130–34exterior of, 140Kyaukse, 124–28location, 128–29main two-storey temple structure,

136–38monasteries in, 128–29Naung-taw-gyi, 146northwest compound, 124pre-and proto-historic significance

of, 138–39stucco-mixing tank, 146stucco preservation, 139–45ta-wa-gu with andagu, 145–46temple encasement, 139–45temples at Bagan, 135–36thein/ordination hall, 134–35thrones of, 133–34urns, square structure with,

146–47votive tablets, 136zayat, 145

Tamralipta, 161, 171n4Tang–Abbasid network, 160Tang China, 154Tang dynasty sources, 203Tasmanian Museum, 69Taung Thugyi, 70Tavola XVIII, 163, 164Tchernyshev, Feodosji, 67

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228 Index

temple construction, in Bagan, 6–7, 135–36

Ananda Temple, 35columns and pillars, 33, 34developments in, 32evolution of, 36Hlan-Kya Temple, 32inner shrines, 32large solid core, construction of, 32lightings/light wells, 33, 35Nagayon Temple, 37Pahto Thamar Temple, plan and

section, 30Pahto Tha Mya, 35, 37single-shrine temples, 31technological change, 28, 31That Byin Nyu Temple, 33

terracotta plaques, 211Thailand, Viṣṇu Anantasayin images

in, 82Than Tun, 214Tharehkettara (Sriksetra), 210That Byin Nyu Temple, 33Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 163thein, 134–35

initial construction of, 135–36Theravada Buddhism, 61, 62, 65n2, 157thermoluminescence (TL) date, 105, 204Thilawuntha, 3Thiri-dhamma (Asoka), 12413th-century buildings, in Bagan, 58Tibet, 154, 160TL (thermoluminescence) date, 105,

204Tripura, 164, 168Tripura Vaṁsavali, 164, 168Twinthin, 42σ probability, 89

UUdayadityavarman II, 82

Upali Thein, 188, 189urban society, 182–83urns

burial, 93, 97, 123, 145square structure with, 146–47

Ussana, 139stupa construction, 129–30

VVesali kingdom, 46Vikrama dynasty, 112Viṣṇu Garuḍāsana, 73–77, 82

Anantaśayin, 71–72, 78avatar of, 78, 82configuration of, 75–76history of, 83and Kingship in Southeast Asia,

80–82in mid-12th century, 83personality, 80

votive tablets, 136

Wwadang, 210Wheatley, Paul, 214Win Maung, 116, 123, 128, 130, 146

Xxenophobia, 9

YYahanda Gu, 25, 26Yazawinkyaw (Thilawuntha), 3Yazawinthit (Twinthin), 180, 195n2Yunlu manchao, 159

ZZawgyi, 125Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 67Zhou Daguan, 82

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