background research · playground safety initiatives playground surfacing and playground injuries...
TRANSCRIPT
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Playground Surface TestingBackground Research
Martyn R. Shorten, Ph.D.
Portland Oregon, USA
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Playgrounds
High AvailabilityPublicSchoolsHome
High Risk
Playground Surfacing – Background Research
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Injury RatesInjury Statistics
205,850 Emergency Room admissions during 1999
Frequency1 per 1.3 minutes
Occurrence1 per 1333 children
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Accident TypeInjury Statistics
Collisions17%
Falls70%
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Injury TypeInjury Statistics
LimbFractures
33%
HeadInjuries
10%
Cuts,Bruises,SprainsStrains
46%
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FatalitiesInjury Statistics
Source: US CPSC: Tinsworth and MacDonald, 2001
147 deaths between January 1990 and August 2000
Head Injury75%Entrapment
Falls21%
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Risk FactorsInjury Statistics
Equipment height
Equipment design
Parental supervision
Maintenance
Mixed use
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Surfacing as a Risk FactorInjury Statistics
Falls to the surface:• 20% of deaths• 70-80% of injuries
Shock Attenuating Surfaces:• Potential for lower injury risk
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Playground Safety InitiativesPlayground Surfacing and Playground Injuries
CPSC Handbook(1975)
Safety Advocates
Legislation
Equipment Design
Surfacing Standards
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Playground Surfacing MaterialsPlayground Surfacing
Loose-Fill Surfaces• Organic
– Bark Dust– Wood– Engineered Wood Fiber
• Inorganic– Sand– Gravel– Shredded foam / rubber
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Playground Surfacing MaterialsPlayground Surfacing
Unitary Surfaces• Rubber / Urethane• Poured-in-Place• Tiles
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Performance CriteriaPlayground Surfacing
Standards• ASTM F1292• EN 1177, etc.
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Performance CriteriaPlayground Surfacing
Standards• ASTM F1292• EN 1177, etc.
Fall Height
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Performance CriteriaPlayground Surfacing
Standards• ASTM F1292• EN 1177, etc.
Fall Height
Test Method• Instrumented headform• Triaxial Accelerometer
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Performance CriteriaPlayground Surfacing
Standards• ASTM F1292• EN 1177, etc.
Fall Height
Test Method• Instrumented
headform• Triaxial Accelerometer
Critical Fall Height
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Performance CriteriaPlayground Surfacing
Historical efforts tobase performancecriteria on (head)injury risk data
g-maxHead Injury Criterion
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Brain Injury Mechanisms
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Diffuse Axonal InjuryBrain Injury Mechanisms
Normal Axons
Traumatized Axons
Metabolic Cascade:
• Ca and K ion release
• Disruption of neural function
• Compensation
• Increase energy expenditure
• Metabolic distress
• Increased vulnerability
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Mild Traumatic Brain InjuryBrain Injury Mechanisms
Normal Axons
Traumatized Axons
Long Term Consequences:
• Second Concussion Syndrome
• Cumulative Effects
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Abbreviated Injury ScaleBrain Injury Mechanisms
AIS 1 2 3 4 5 6Degree Minor Moderate Serious Severe Critical Survival
Injury Uncertain
Headache, DizzinessLoss of Consciousness
Skull FractureNeurological Damage
HemorrhageBrainstem DamageTissue Disruption
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Abbreviated Injury ScaleBrain Injury Mechanisms
AIS 1 2 3 4 5 6Degree Minor Moderate Serious Severe Critical Survival
Injury Uncertain
Headache, DizzinessLoss of Consciousness
Skull FractureNeurological Damage
HemorrhageBrainstem DamageTissue Disruption
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Abbreviated Injury ScaleBrain Injury Mechanisms
AIS 1 2 3 4 5 6Degree Minor Moderate Serious Severe Critical Survival
Injury Uncertain
Headache, DizzinessLoss of Consciousness
Skull FractureNeurological Damage
HemorrhageBrainstem DamageTissue Disruption
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Impact Tolerance of the Brain
• Cadaver studies• Animal studies• Human volunteers
– Automotive Industry– Aerospace Industry– Military
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AccelerationImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 15 20Time, ms
Acce
lera
tion,
g
gmax
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Wayne State CurveImpact Tolerance of the Brain
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Gadd Severity IndexImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 15 20Time, ms
(Acc
eler
atio
n)2.
5 /100
0
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Gadd Severity IndexImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 15 20Time, ms
(Acc
eler
atio
n)2.
5 /100
0
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Head Injury CriterionImpact Tolerance of the Brain
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
AIS
1
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
AIS
1
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
AIS
1
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryPrasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
No InjuryAIS
1
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
No InjuryAIS
1
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryPrasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
No InjuryAIS
1
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryPrasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
No InjuryAIS
12
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryPrasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
No InjuryAIS
12
3
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryPrasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
AIS
12
34
No Injury
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryPrasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
AIS
12
34
5
No Injury
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
AIS
12
34
5 6
No Injury
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ry
AIS
12
34
5 6
No Injury
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ry
AIS
12
34
5 6
No Injury
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ry
AIS
12
34
5 6
No Injury
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
HIC = 1000
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Prasad-Mertz CurvesImpact Tolerance of the Brain
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ry
AIS
12
34
5 6
No Injury
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Are Impact Tests Good Surrogates?Surface Shock Attenuation Tests
• Mass
• Energetics
• Geometry
• Flexibility
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0
500
1000
1500
3 6 9 12Fall Height, feet
HIC
0
100
200
300
g-max
Critical Fall HeightPlayground Surfacing
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0
500
1000
1500
3 6 9 12Fall Height, feet
HIC
0
100
200
300
g-max
Critical Fall HeightPlayground Surfacing
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0
500
1000
1500
3 6 9 12Fall Height, feet
HIC
0
100
200
300
g-max
Critical Fall HeightPlayground Surfacing
Critical Fall Height:7 feet
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0
1
2
3
4
Gravel Sand WoodChips
WoodFibre
ShreddedRubber
Cri
tica
l Fa
ll H
eig
ht, m
ete
rsShock Attenuation PerformancePlayground Surfacing Materials
25 cm uncompressed depth 15 cmthickness
Loose-Fill Unitary
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Benefits of Shock AttenuationPlayground Surfacing
Non-conforming surfaces• 2.3 times greater injury risk
NonConforming
Conforming
Relative Injury Risk
Chalmers et al, 1996
2.3
1
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Benefits of Shock AttenuationPlayground Surfacing
Non-conforming surfaces• 2.3 times greater injury risk
Surfacing MaterialsConcrete
Rubber
BarkDust
Relative Injury Risk
12
5
Mott et al, 1997
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Relative Injury Risk
Benefits of Shock AttenuationPlayground Surfacing
Non-conforming surfaces• 2.3 times greater injury risk
Surfacing Materials
Severe head injuries
Sand
1
6
Sosin et al, 1993; Laforest et al, 2000
1.7
Grass
Asphalt
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Impact Test IssuesPlayground Testing
Positives:
•Good faith attempt to evaluate injury risk
•Documented effectiveness
•Bias of risk estimates
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“True” HIC EstimationAre Impact Tests A Good Surrogate
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 500 1000 1500
HIC Score
Prob
abilit
y of
Inju
ryAdjusted HIC scores
12
3
4
5
In-filled Conventional
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Impact Test IssuesPlayground Testing
Limitations:
•Data QuantityApplicabilityValidity
•Method BiofidelityReproducibility and repeatability
Head injury focus
•Concussion
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“Concussus”
“to shake violently”
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