AUXILIARY SPECIALTY COURSE SEAMANSHIP

(AUXSEA)

STUDENT STUDY GUIDE

PUBLISHED FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY

COMDTPUB P16794.42

;;,kffff'MCommandantU.S. Coast Guard

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COMDTPUB PL6794 .42

I 5 APR 1992

COMMANDANT PUBLICATION P16794.42

Subj : Auxi l iary Specia l ty Course Seamanship (AUXSEA); StudentStudy Guide

1. P_UBPOSE. This publication is intended for use as the studentstudy guide for the Auxil- iary Specialty Course inSeamanship. I t is published for instructional- purposes onlyand is not po l icy mater ia l .

2. DIRECTIVES AFFECT_E_D_. The Auxil iary Operational SpecialtyCourse, Student Workbook, CG AUX 498-2(74) , is canceled.

3. DISCUSSION. This publ icat ion conta ins inst ruct ionalin format ion regard ing Coast Guard Auxi l iary Seamanship.Major rev is ions in th is new edi t ion j -nc lude:

a. New chapter on anchoring techniques which reviews theproper safety procedures for anchoring and clearing afouled anchor.

b. New chapter on duties and manners which reviews thedutj-es expected of the deck hand, radio watchstander,navigator, engineer, J-ookcut, hel-msman, and towingwa tch .

c. Redesigned and expanded topics on terminology, boatconstruct ion mater ia ls , and steer ing gear types.

d. Revised chapter on internal combustion engines,i nc lud ing i n fo rma t ion on i nboard -ou tboa rds ( I /O ' s ) .

A

B

D

E

F

u

H

DISTRIBUTION - 5P1Pe. 130

a b d e o h J K m n o p q u w x v z

NON-SrANDARDDlsrRlBUTloN: See page 2.

COMDTPUB PL67694 .42

15 APR 19sZ4. ACTION. Distr ict Commanders shall insure that this

publication is used as a resource for Auxil iary training andthat al l Auxil iary instructors and teaching assistants areaware of this publication and become thoroughly famil iarwi th i ts contents .

/QA,rxW. J . ECKERChief , 0f f jce of Navlgai lon Safety

i r :C I j l tCr ' , r , ,e1, Scrv ices

Nonstandard Distribution

Auxil iary National BoardAuxil iary Department ChiefsAuxi l iary Past Nat ionaL Commodores

TABLE OF CONTE}MS

TNTRODUCTION

CIIAPTER 1-TENMINOLOGY, BOAT CONSIRUTTION MATERIALS AIID STEERINGGEARTYPES

INTRODUCTION.......... .,......... l-lFIBERGLASS BOATS.... ...,...... 1-lwooD BoATs ...................., ............,............ t-5

ALUMINUM ,.......1.7FABRIC 0nflatables) ................ l-8TypEs oF STEERINC $YSTEMS .......,....... l-8CHAPM.AN Piloting Seamanship and Small Boat Handling

EdyEditions ;....................Chap1er onNautical TermsIater Editions ...Section I Chapter I and Abbreviations and Acronyms; Section 8, Appcndices

Pagoiv

STUDY QUESfiONS

CHAPTDN, 2 - BOAT MNNTENANCE

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CHAPTER 4 * MARLINSPIIG SEAMANSHIP

TNTRODUCTTON .......,........TYPES OFROPE

NanualLineSynthetic Line ...,...,.......Wire Rope

CARE OF LINESLINE USAGE, KNOTS, HITCHES, BENDS, AI.{D SPLICES ...................-........,.

"DippingfteEye-. SquareKnot.........,...,

BowlineHalf HitchClove HitchTimberHitchRolliogHitchSheet Bend/Becket Bcnd ..*.....,....

SAICINGShort SpliceEye Splice

STOWINGLINECHAPMAN Piloting Seananship and Smail Boat Handling

Early Editions ......Chaper on Marlinespikc SeamanshipLater Editions Section 3, Chapter 13

STUDY QT.IESTTONS .. 4-r2

CHAPTEN. 5 _ BOAT IIANDLING

INTRODUCTION 5.ISTUDYOUTLINE 5-I

4-l4,14-l4-l+3u34-54-54-54-6M4-74r74.84-94.94-94-104-l I

Basic Principles of Boat HandlingDock Lines and Their UseLanding at aPierGetting Clear of a BerthManzuver at Slips in tigbt QuartersHandling Twin Screw Boats

CHAPMANPilotingSearnanship and SmallBoatHandlingEatly Editiom, Chapter onPower Cruiscr Seamanship

Iator Editionsn Section 3, Chapte{ 9STUDYQUESTTONS 54

CIIAPTEB 6 * H0AVY WEATIIER

INTRODUCTION 6.IwrNDwAy8s.................... 6.rSTORMTIDE WAVES 63SEISMIC WAVES G4TIDALWAVE$ 64SWELLS 6.4suRF............ MWAKES 65cRoss sEAs ............ 6sTI{B ETFECT OF WIND AND CURRENT ON MANEUVERING................... 65HEAVYWEATIIEROPERATION 6.8TrrE SEAANCHOR(DROGUE)..................... 69

6 l lCIIAPMAN Piloting Searnanship and Small Boat Handling

Early Editions ....,..Section on Boat Handling Under Adverse Conditions

Later Editions .,. ., - :.. ".:- ::::1" ::.T.:13: :::.T:1 ::g#ffiHHJ1TSTUDYQT]ESTIONS GI3

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CIIAFTER 7 - ASSISTANCE TO BOATS IN DISTRESS AND DAMAGD CONTROL

INTRODUCTrON....,..... 7.1RIGIITING A CAPSIZED SAILBOA.T 7.1REFLOATINGASTRANDEDVESSEL 7AAPPROACHINGABURNINGVESSEL 7.5FrRE FIGInING............. 7.5PLUGGINGAI{DPATCHING ....,.I".r....r.,... 7.6D8WAT8RrNG................. ?-10CHAPMAN Piloting, Seamanship and Small Boat Handling

Early Editions ,.....Section sn Stranding, Assisting and Towing and on Emergency

LaterEditions................-:.:::::::.T.::::::.:.:.:::::::.:::::.::5ffiJfffiffisrIJDy QUESTIONS.................. .............r!.,....

CTIAPTER 8. NAVIGATION RI]LES

7-13

INTRODUCTIONSTUDYOUTLINENAVIGATION RULES: LIGHTS AND DAY SHAPES

Tho U. S' Inland RrlttIntehationil Rules of the Road

STUDYQUESTTONS

CHAPTER 9- AIICEORING

INTRODUCTION ....,......... ..................STUDY OUTLIM

CHAPMAN Piloting Seamanshipond Small Boat llandlingEarly Edritions, Chaptor onNavigation RulesLater Editioq$! Section 3, Chapters 7 and I

8.18-1

9.19-1

l0-llG.ll0-3

AtchoringGround TacklsAnchoring Te,chniquesPermanent Moorings

CHAPMAN Piloting Seamanshipand Small Boat IlandlingEarly Editions, Chapto on AnchoringLater Editiong Section 3, Chapter 12

STUDY QUESTIONS ...............-. %3

CHAPTER TO-DUTIES AI\ID MAI\INERS

INTRODUCTIONDUTIESMANNERSPOLLUTIONCOURTESY BOARDING A COAST GUARD VESSELSTUDYQUESTIONS

104lc.510{

l lt

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This Page Left Intentionally Blank

Reverse of Page iii

CHAPEER 1

TEnMtNOI.ocy, BOf[ CONSIRUCIITOD| lrATERflxJ, AIID grEERnrG CEAR lrpEs

MTRODUCrIq}!. This chapter provides overall lnforrnation onf f ima tex ia1sused fo rboa tbu i1d ing . I t g i vessomeo f theadvarltages and disadvantages of, each. Students are also introduced tosome of the "Nautical Terms" associated wlth seamanship. Fina}lythere is a review of corunon steering systems. The readS-ng materialfor this l-esson can be found In the fol lowing pages of this chapterand in designated portions of Cna4tril Pil.gttllgt, FeaoanqLlip ?tl4.,FTet+Boat EandlinE, In the earlier editions of CIIAPMAN, the naterial is in#

m6- cEapEer on l{auti.cal lerma. fn the later editionsr the material isin Sectl,onI

sed upon these readings,

Today's prospective boat ewner has nany boat building materials tochoose f rom. I t 's a far cry f rom yesteryearr when pract ica l ly a l l 'boats were built from one material-wood. Now, there ls woodrfibergrlass, aluminun, steel, fero-cement, plus many combinations ofthese, For instance, yoo can see f iberglass hulls with wooden decks,lnteriors, and deck houses. The same is true for aL1 of the othermater ia l$ .

You don't need the desire to be a boat builder to learn more about boatbuilding. The more you know about how boats are buil t and whatmaterials are used to build them' the bet,ter you wil l be able to sel-ecta boat and then to maintain her year after year. This lesson wil lintroduce you to sofite of the boat building materlals In use today andw111 explain the, steering systems you wil l f ind in nearly aL1powerboats.

FIBEF€LaSS=,BgryS. I letrs begin l^t i th f iberglass. Today, f j .berglassf f i po1 i zes theboa tbu i1d ing1ndus t r y .Th i swasno talways so. The use of, fiberElass is a relativel,y new innovation and hason1y, within the last few decades, come to replace wood as the primaryboat building material. The reason f iberglass has become so popuJ.aris due to the fact that i t is so easily maintained. Thousands of boatolrners have discovered to their delight that, taking care of afibergJ-ass boat is far easler than maintaining its wooden counterpart,A J.ook at f i t t ing-out yards in the spring is proof enough. Owners ofwooden boats spend hour upon hour getting them ready for launching,Owners of fiberglass boats find that much Jess maintenance-time isrequired.

But then again, f iberg lass is not exact ly a mirac le mater ia l e i ther . I trequiree proper care and, contxary to what many people think, rreedspainting periodical ly.

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The word fiberglass doesn't really define the material. It is more exactly plastic reinforced withfiberglass. The British use a more accurate description - CRP, which stands for glass reinforcedplastic. A fiberglass hull, then, is composed of shands and layers of fiberglass saturaled withiesin. This constuction can be compared with that of reinforced concrete. The fiberglass strartdssompare to the steel rods and the resin compares to ttre cement.

Just as with any other kind of boat building material, there ate good fiberglass boats and badfiberglass boats. There are ilulny ways to use fiberglass in building a boat and, predictably,there are firrr supporters of each of these,

Fiberglass itsel{ the reinforcingmaterial, comes in four differertt forms-mat,cloth, wovon roving, and choppedstrands (frgure 1-1). Mat is a mass ofrandomly chopped fiberglass fibers thatare either bonded together with resin ormechanically stitched together. It is used asa primary reinforcsrnent for the hull and thedeck ofa boat.

It is also used to reinforce joints and toprovide a waterproof banier. Fiberglasscloth is just what the rurme implies. it isan opeq square weave with strandsgoing in trivo directions only. It is used asThe four primary types of a primaryreinforcoment for hulls and decks, andcommonly used as a reinforcemenl fotthesurface coat (called the gel coat). Wovett

Figure l-I.-The four primarytypes of fiberglass reinforcemetrts.

FiberglassMat

FiberglassCloth

- n t\ \ v A - .

,fr?5Ry}\rU

iW-/4ti{t*-o-q l f i l i l h '

Chopped StandsWoven Roven

roving is almost exactly like cloth but it has a heavier weave, It is used as a primaryreinforcement for hulls and decks. Chopped shands are just that, fiberglass that has been choppedinto very srnall pieces.

The two basic types of resin rxed in boat constuction are polyester and epoxy. Polyester resinsare most commonly fouud. They are versatile, easy to handle, and have a relatively low cosLEpoxy resins are stronger than polyesters, but then, they are more expensive. They are also verydifficult to work with.

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There are many substances conmonly actded to boat building resi-ns.Some are used to harden the resin. Others are used to control thecuring t irne of the resins. Stif t others are used to make the resinfire retardant since untreated f iberglass laninates are extremelyflanmable. Resins that have addit ives to rnake thern f ire retardantwi l l d isco lor , smoke, and char in the presence of heato but wi l lnot break in to f lame.

There are various steps which must be fol- lowed to build afiberglass huII, oE any f iberglass part for that matter. First aplug must be nade. This is a nale nold that looks exactly l ike thefinished product. I t can be made of wood, plaster, or almost anyother naterial, and is often rnade very f ightly and cheaply to cutdown on costs. The pluq is used to make a cavity mold, also knownaS a female mold. I t too may be made of wood, p laster , or o thermaterials. } lany t ines i t is made of f iberglass. The cavity rnoldis used to rnake the f inished hutl, much in the same way that a panis used to bake a cake. There are two ways to use a cavity mold inbui ld ing a f iberg lass hul l . One is the hand- Iayup process, and theother i ; the chopped-strand process. Sometimes a combination ofthe t$ to is used. In the hand- Iayup process, f i rs t the gel coat isappl ied to the ins ide of the mold, which wi l l g ive the boat i tscotor anO i ts f in ish sur face. Next a layer of f iberg lass c lo th istaiO down on the gel coat and bonded to i t with resin. This layerof c lo th acts as a re in forcement . Af ter th is , combinat ions ofcloth, mat, \doven roving, and sornetimes chopped strands are addedin successive layers unt i l the desi red th ickness of the huI I isobta ined. How the f iberg lass mater ia ls are combined has a lo t to dowi tn how st rong and durable the hul l w i t l be-

In the chopped-strand process, 9el coat is f irst applied to theins ide of the cav i ty no ld. Then a gun, which is fed wi th res in andfiberglass strands, in one operation chops the strands and ruixesthem wi th res ins. The mixture is sprayed over the gel coat .Handling the gun requires a great amount of ski l l so as to get aneven layer of f iberg lass mixed wi th res in over the gel coat . Anyrn iscalcu lat ions wi l l resul t in a hul l that is th ic lc in sone p lacesand th in in others, someth ing that wi l l produce a ter r ib ly weakboa t .

Af ter the basic f ibergtass huLl has been bui l t i t is s t rengthenedwitn st i f feners and other members. Then the rest of the boat isadded such as the declcs, the cabins, the superst ructure, e tc .

Another nay to make a f iberglass huII is to use the matched diernethod. Matched d ies are noth ing more than male and female molds,usual ly made of meta l , that are c lamped together wi th a laminatebetween. By applying the correct amount of pressure and heat, thehult is made uniform throughout.

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Sti l l another construct ion nethod is cal led sandwich construct ion.r t consists of a core nater ia l , usuar ly wood, such as balsa, thatis sandwiched on ei ther s ide by layers of f iberglass inpregnatedwith resin. ottrer core materials that are soietirnes

-used are

foaned plastics or plywood. Sandwich construction provides a boattfat_ is very strong and buoyant. There is one diawback though.Should the laninate become cracked, noisture can enter and stirtdry rot in the wooden core. This can cause a najor problern. (seef igure t -2 . )

BArSA n63rerA55tAh,{lNAIEOR oTt-lE<

@MATE€IAUFigurc 1-2.-Srndwich construction. Thc fiberglrs lamina& can bc madc up of rny combinrtion of mrt. doth,

or roving. Ulral ly only the cutsidc of thc hoctformed in thir manncr'u f inichcd with gcl coal

The advantages of f iberglass boat construction are many. Fiberglassby its very nature. is irnpervious to narine borers, shipworns; androt . S ince the f ibergJ-ass hul l does not have any seams as such(af ter a1 l i t is . ? one-p iece hurr ) there cannot be any reaksthrough seams or jo in ts . The co lor can be molded in to f iberg lass,so for a few years, a t least , tbe hul t need not be painted.

Don' t be foo led, however , the bot toms of f iberg lass boats are s t i l la f fected by 'qar ine growths and barnacles. r t is wise, then, to coatthe bot tom wi th ant i fou l ing paint .

Fiberglass boats can be extremely strong. This is true even thoughthey have very I i t t Ie f ran ing. This is not to say there are noweak f iberg lass boats, though. The qual i ty o f the engineer ing thatgoes in to any k ind of a boat d i rect ly a f fects how st iong that boatw i l l be .

Another advantage of f iberg lass is that i t can be molded in toal rnost any shape, nak ing i t very easy for the boat des igner . r tshould be noted, however , that f la t sur faces are not exact ly idealfor f ibergrass boats. Frat sur faces, when used, are norrnar lyre- in forced wi th some other type of nater ia l .

One of the d isadvantages of f iberg lass as a boat bu i ld ing mater ia lis that i t is heavier than water . F iberg lass does not haveinherent buoyancy. fn other words, a f iberg lass boat f i l led wi thwa te r w i l l s i nk , un less i t has bu i l t - i n f l o ta t i on . Such f l o ta t i onis usual ly prov ided by us ing a i r tanks, s tyrofoam, balsa wood, oFo the r ve ry l i gh t rua te r i a l s .

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Another disadvantage of f iberglass boats is that they are usuallyvery heavy. In f iberglass, strength and weight are related.Though it is hard to mal<e a general rule, strong f iberglass boatsare usually heavy f iberglass boats-I ight ones night or night not bestrong ones. There is much research and developnent going on thesedays to cut down on the weight of f iberglass laminates while at thesame t i rne increasing the i r s t rength.

Another disadvantage of f iberglass boat construction is that i t isal l too easy to cover up shoddy workmanship. Air bubbles inf iberg lasS laminates can mater ia l ly weaken the huI I , and yet theyare v i r tua l ly unseen. There are so many layers in many of thefiberglass boats being buil t today that air bubbles in theinnermost layers, for instance, are undetectable. Boats that arebuitt by the chopped-strand rnethod night have uneven thicknesses,yet i t is very hard to determine that th is is t rue-

Without cut t ing up a f iberg lass huI I , i t is v i r tua l - Iy impossib le totet l what went in to i ts make-up. F iberg lass boatbui lders whoprovide cross-sections and cutaways of their boats are doing thebuying publ ic a rea l serv ice. Then you can, i -n t ru th, te I I exact lywhat you are buying.

WOOD BOATS. The use of wood as a boat building rnaterial hasdecl ined rapid ly in the last twenty years. In compet i t ion wi thf iberg lass and other p last ics, i t has s teadi ty lost ground. Thisis not to say that wood is not good for bu i ld ing boats. This isfar from the truth. There are many people who would not trade aboat bu i l t o f wood for any other one. Even to those who favor themodern synthet ics, wood represents the u l t imate. This can be seenin the large number of boat owners who ins is t that the i r boats,even though basica l ly constructed in f iberg lass, have as much woodas i s economica l l y poss ib le .

Al l wood can be grouped in two genera l c lasses - hardwoods, whichcome from trees with broad leaves, and soft woods, which come fromt rees w i th need le - l i ke o r sca le - I i ke l eaves . Ac tua l l y , t he wordshardwood and softwood are not truly accurate, since some of the so-cal led sof twoods, such as southern ye l low p ine and douglas f i r areharder than some of the so-called hardwoods, such as basswood andcot tonwood.

There are hundreds of d i f ferent types of wood, but , surpr is ing lyenough, very few are widely used in boat bu i ld ing. In many cases 'the Lvai lab i f i ty o f cer ta in wood in suf f ic ient quant i t ies andsui tab le d inensions has been the decid ing factor . Many types ofwood used in the past for boat building are no longer used becausethey a re no l onger read i l y ava i l ab le .

The fo l lowing is a tab le of character is t ics of some of the woodsused in boat bu i ld ing todaY:

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l{AROWOOO

Tvprot Wood Ogrlitig Ur

Arh

Gr-nharn

Lignum Vitrr

AfricrnMrhognny

Mrhogrny

Ork

PhiligprinrMthogany

Tcrk

Bltk Walnut

HrarV, hrrd,

..rd ttiff

Orcry cisttnt

Vrry hrrd rndvoy hcary

Hrrd rnd drcryf.drtlnt

Hervy nd hrrd,low dr?ink g.

H.rvy, hrrd, niff,frd nroag

Modarrtaly d.crfratinrnt Jrdmodantrly h.rw

Strong, hirly hrrd,altaly workcd,vary dccayrc3rtttnt

Hclrry, hrrd.nrong, r r i f f .retirtlnt tod.cay

Mortly fo? orr

Grnrnl

Prop.l|lr dlaft b..ringr

Furnitun, fLntrrr andhtrrion

Furniirn, {|rrurra.imrrian rndDl.nkirre

Fnmrr rrd othrrttructu?rl m.'nban

lntl?io.r

Hull rnd d.ck plrnking,nrlingt and oth.rfinirrgr

Int lr iorr

soFTvrrooo

The principal considerations inselecting wood for boat buildingare strength, decay resistance,and avai lab i l i ty . Thesecondary,but s t i l l impor tant ,propert ies of woods that affecttheir selection for buitding areworkab i I i t y and w i t e rabsorption.

One o f t he b i gges tconsiderations of wood for boatbui ld ing is how i t wi I I endure.The effect of decay, marineborers, weather ing, heat , e tc . ,makes the difference betweengood wood and bad wood. Howt'rood stands up to decay is animportant factor. Decay-causingfungus plants gradually reducewood to a punky or crunblingmass .

Fungi that cause decay thrive indanp condit ions caused by freshbrater rather than salt water.Wood used in boats, that is notproper ly vent i la ted, a l lowingthe danpness to evaporate, wiIIalmost surely be attacked bydecay. More on this in lessontwo.

Sof twood of a l l wood species isIow in decay res is tance.Hardwood varies considerably indecay resistance according tothe type of wood. Only a fewtypes of wood are rated high inthis property. Hardwood of suchspecies as douglas f i r , cedar ,rnahogany, southern ye l low p ine,western larch, and whi te oak, isusual ly c lass i f ied as moderatein decay resistance andgenera l ly g ives good serv iceunder nold condi t ions of decay.

Tvxof Wood

Ourl i t icr Ur

Cyprur

Alaskr Ccdar

Cadar

Oouglas Fir

EancrnLrrctl(H!ck-

mrtackl

SoutharnYcl low Pinr

EancmWhitr Pinr

Modcrrt.ly lighrrnd modarrtcly

ttroog

ModGrrt!ty lighr

rrd rnodaEtrly

lo! in rtra?rgth.Hrt axcll|!ntwaking rndfinirhingproPCnt6

Light, nEdcr.taly

nrong. hahlyrdinant todccry

Strong. moderrtalyhrrd, hrany, rndmodcrataly dccayncrrtt!nl

Modrntaly Jror\g

Mod.nr.ly h.rd

alrd titong

Modcrat.ly light.

wc€hL mod?r-

ttaly low in

nrln€th

Goml

Gmrnl

Pbnking

Gcncnl

K|!at

Plrnking, kmllnrrt'|.. dacl bdnr

Otcking md Plrnkirrg

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STEEL. There are two metals that are most cornmonly used to buildboats, s tee l and a luminurn. Steel has been used in the past , and inthe present , too, for that mat ter , for fa i r ly large boats andyachts, whi le a luminum has been used for large and smal l craf t .For instance, a luminum accounts for the najor i ty o f canoes and johnboats bui l t today.

There are several advantages to steel construction. The mainadvantage is that steel, on a strength-to-weight ratio is strongerthan f iberg lass, wood, or a luminurn. I t ra tes h igh in res is tance toinpact , s t i f fness, abras ion res is tance, and fa t igue res is tance. AhuI I made of s tee l wi l l be l ighter than a hul l o f equal s t rengthmade of another boat bu i ld ing mater ia l .

Another advantage for s tee l const ruct ion deals wi th noise. Steel ,a lurn inum, and f iberg lass have been accused of be ing noisyrnater ia ls ; that is , they conduct no ise more readi ly than wood.Though th is is cer ta in ly t rue, s tee l , however , is less noisy thanaI I mater ia l except wood.

The f ina l advantage is res is tance to f i re . Steel and a luminuro aremore f i re res is tant than other mater ia ls . A s teel huI l wi l l s t i l lbe af loat a f ter a f i re that would have dest royed her f iberg lass orwood counterparts. This does not mean, however, that the non-steeIpar ts of a s teel boat wi l l be f i re-sh ie lded by the s teel . To the-ontrary, a steel boat can be gutted just as quickly, leaving justt he hu l l .

A potent ia l d isadvantage of s tee l for boats is i ts qu ickdeter iorat ion wi thout proper maintenance. A s teel huI I that hasnot been protected correctly fron corrosion can turn into a sorrymess within a short period of t ine. Boat owners who tend toneglect the i r boats would do bet ter wi th a f iberg lass boat .

ALttllINI'Ir{. Like steel, there are many advantages to aluminurnconstruction. One of the prinary advantages of aluminum as a boatbui ld ing mater ia l is i ts l iqht weight . This is why you see somany snit l boats made of alurninum. A canoe, which is required tobe very l ight is ideal ly su i ted for a luminun construct ion.

Another advantage is a luminum, I ike s teel and f iberg lass, isinpervious to narine borers. I t must, however, I ike the others, bepainted with a botton paint to reduce the growth of marine plantson the botton. It is irnportant to remember that aluninu:n and thecopper in botton paint are dissirni lar netals, and when in contactwi t l each other wi t f set up the process of e lect ro lys is . Unless youput a layer or two of non-metal l ic paint between the hull and thetottorn paint, your aluminum wit l be corroded in short order-Alurninun hulIs ind superstructures above the waterl ine need not bepainted at al l - alurninum does not oxidize to the extent of steel.

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one d isadvantage of aruminum is that i t is a very good heatconductor. Aluninum hulls tend to sweat considerably because ofth is . Another d isadvantage is that a lurn inum has a fa i r ly lownel t ing point . rn the presence of a f i re wi th in tense heat ,a luminum wi l l mer t more readi ly than wi l l s tee l . Anotherd isadvantage is that i t is no isy. r t is so noisy that i f the hul lo f an a luminurn boat is not specia l ly t reated against no ise, i t w i l lconduct sounds unheard of in boats buil t of other materials. Tosit in an outboard-motor-powered, non-sound-darnpened alurninum boatbeing operated at high speed can be deafening.

FABRTG (rnf la tab les) . A c lass of boats gain ing increasedpopular i ty is the in f la tab les. They have been around for long t inebut on ly s tar ted to gain ut i l i ty dur ing and af ter I {W I I .

These boats have a wide range of uses frorn the l ight single p1y forp lay to the many layered laminates used for running rapids andheavy ocean use.

Use of many of the synthet ic rnater ia ls , inc lud ing one that is nowused for bu l le t proof vests , enable the bui lders to fabr icate forext reme toughness. As in other mater iars , a wide range of des ignis now being produced inc lud ing large boats wi th inboard enginesand r i g id hu l l s w i th t remendous seakeep ing ab i l i t i es . Thesequal i t ies make them valuable for such dut ies as board i rg, rescue inheavy seas, and where the requi rement is for maximum buoyancy andsha l l ow d ra f t .

There are severa l advantages of fabr ic boats over other boats. Oneis the ease of t ranspor t both in the def la ted and in f la tedcond i t i on . f n f l a t i ons may be accomp l i shed by CO, bo t t l es , bu tgenera l ly is done wi th an a i r punp. The mater iars are tough andw i th reasonab le ca re these boa ts w i r r ras t a rong t ime . They donot rust , b l is ter , or have dry- rot , and storage and haul out can beeas ie r t han boa ts made o f o the r ma te r ia l s .

TYPES OF STBEEING SYSTEI{S. Basical ly, there are six differenttypes of s teer ing systems in use on p leasure boats today. Some ofthem are fa i r ly s imple, requi r ing few gears or pu l leys, but o thersare ext remely complex and employ scores of moving par ts . Here arethe s i x :

1 , T i l l e r2 . D rum and cab le3 . Sp rocke t and cha in

4 . Rack and p in ion5. Gear and shaf t6 . Hyd rauJ - i c

The t i l ler system is the ear l iest type of s teer ing arrangement , andthe s inp les t , f t i s s t i t l used w ide l y on sa i l boa ts , bu t has foundIimited use for powerboats. Just about the only powerboats st i l lus ing t i l l e r s a re sma l l l aunches . T i l l e r s a re easy to hand le andhave no compl icated gears or pu l leys. A t i l ler s teer ing systern isnoth ing more than a hor izonta l p iece of wood or neta l that isattached to the head of the rudder stock.

1 -8

Ti l lers are predorn inant ly usedin sa i lboats. The naind i sadvan tage o f a t i l l e r i s t ha ti t takes up too much room in thecockp i t o f a boa t . And , o fcou rse , a t i l l e r i n a l a rge boa thas very I i t t le mechanica ladvan tage . (See f i g . 1 -3 . )

The drum and cable systen isprobably the next sinplests teer ing system. f t is nade upof a drurn connected to as tee r ing whee l . A cab le i sbound around the drun. The twoends o f t he cab le , a f te r pass ingthrough pul leys, are at tached tothe t i ] l e r o r rudder quadran t .When the wheel is tuned, oneside of the cable is wound uP onthe drurn while the other side isunwound. This is t ransmi t tedthrough the pulleys to rudderquadran t o r - t i l I e r ; t he boa twi I I turn to the r ight or thelef t , depending on which waY thewhee l i s t u rned . (See f i q . 1 -4 . )

Actual ly , the sprocket and chainsystem is noth ing more than avar ia t ion of the drum and cablesystem. Instead of a drum, asprocket is used; and instead ofa cable, a cha j .n ' comPat ib lew i th the sp rocke t , i s used .Operat ion of the s teer ing sYstemis ident ica l to the drum andcable sYstem

The rack and p in ion s tee r ingsystem is becoming more and morepopu la r , because i t t akes uPless room than the three tYPesdescr ibed above and g ives theboat operator nore sensi t ives tee r i ng . (See f i g . 1 -5 . ) Thesteer ing wheel has a smal Ip in ion gea r a t t he end o f t hes tee r ing whee l sha f t . Th i s

Figurc 1.3.-A tillcr rtecring ,yrtrm.

p in ion gea r engages a rack ,wnicn is a f la t , ra ther than round, gear . At tached to the rack isa cab1e , wh ich i s i n a condu i t . Th i s cab le i s a t tached

Figurc 14.-Thc drum rnd flcxible cablc rtocring ryrtom. Ths cabler can bc rfiadred to r tittor or rudderquadrrnt.

Figun 1-S.-Thc rrck and pinion (purh-pulll

rtecring Jystem.

Tru.ER

F,Lt:Y

51FSRtNe

l _ -9

at the other end to the rudder assembly. There is no need forpulleys in this system and the cabre Can go up, down, and aroundaccording to the layout of the boat" when the pinion gear turnsand engages the rack, the cabre is pushed or pulled, ac6ordinq iowhich way the steering wheel is turned. The cable iransmits €fr ispush or pull to the rudder assenbly, which in turn translates i tin to r ight or le f t rudder .

The gear and shaf t s teer ing systern is se ldom found on smal l boats.rt is found more often on large craft, usually commercial boats.At the end of the s teer inq wheel i -s a bevel dr iv ing gear , whichengages another gear that is connected to a shaf t . The shaf t ,sornet imes ut i l iz ing universal jo in ts , t ravels f rom the s teer ingwheel to the rudder, where its notion is transrated by a worm gear,a bevef gear , or cables and purreys, to ref t or r igh l rudder :

Hydraulic steering systems are sini lar to automotive powersteer ing. This type of system is be ing found on an incre ls ingnumber of recreat ional vessels . They use hydraul ic f lu id that i ;purnped through a system to actuate the rudder. The steering wheelis connected to a pump with valves. l{hen the wheel is turn6d, thepump pushes f lu id through the appropr ia te va lves in to hydraul icl ines that carry the f lu id to the actuat ing cy l inder . rn thecy l i nde r , t he mo t ion o f t he f l u id i s t rans la tea i n to te f t o r r i gh trudder by a l inkage to the rudder head.

1 - L 0

STUDY QUESTIONS

l - . A f iberg lass hu l l i s composed o f

2. L is t the four types of f iberg lass re in forc ing rnater ia ls :

saturated with .

t _ .

2 .

3 .

4 .

3. The two types of res ins used in f iberg lass construct ion are

and

4. There are many substances added to boat bu i ld ing res ins. They

are used toand to

5. A rnale rno ld is known as a

6. A f emale rnold is known as a

7. The hand- layup and chopped-st rand processes are used in

A .

g. In the hand- Iayup and chopped-st rand processes, the

is appl ied to the ins ide of the rnold f i rs t -

g . In the matched-d ie method the

are clamped together with

10. What core mater ia ls are used in sandwich construct ion?

l t_ . L is t the advantages of f iberg lass-bui l t boats.

t - L L

12. L is t the d isadvantages of f iberg lass-bui l t boats.

13. What are the two genera l c lasses of wood?

L4. What are the pr inc ipa l considerat ions in the se lect ion of

various types of wood for boat building?

l -5. L is t the advantages of s tee l for boat bu i ld ing.

16. The d isadvantage o f s tee l fo r boat bu i ld ing is

17. Why rnust you put a layer of nonmeta l l ic pa int between the

hult of an aluminum boat and a layer of copper bottom paint?

18. L is t the advantages of a luminum for boat bu i ld ing.

19. L is t the d isadvantages of a luminum for boat bu i ld ing.

20 . The s i x t ypes o f s tee r ing sys tems a re :

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

6 .

t-L2

21. The simplest steering system is the

22. The cuve or sweep of the deck of a vessel whe.n viewed from the side is tlre

23, The outward cruvature of the sides of the boat near the bow that is used to keepthe deck drier is called the

24. What are the three basic shapes of thE bottom of a boat?

25. What is the diftrence between a displacement and planing huln

26. In wood boa constnrcdon, the plank attached starting at the gunwale is the

27. What is the differcnce betwe€n a trunk cabin and a raised deck cabin?

28. What re limber holes and what purpose do they senre?

29. The use of two or more materials in the hull of a vessel is known ascons8uction.

30 The portion of the extotior hull at the waterline is called thp

cH2

top.

r-13

31, The spoke of a steering wheel that is vertical when the rudder is exacfly centeredis the _spoke.

32. The vertical distance betweeu the waterline and gunwale is _.

33. Desctibe the characteristics of the followiug sailboat qpes:

Catboat

34. The gross tonnage of a vessel is

Sloop

Ketch

Yawl

cH2l -14

CHAPTER 2

BOAT IIAII'TENAIICE

IIflrRODUCTION. The study questions at the end of the lesson arebased on the readings in this chapter and not on any outsideread ings .

HAULfNG OtIf. Hauling out t ine is one of the nost important t inesto ensure the proper maintenance of your boat. To most boaters,however , haul ing out s ignals the end of the boat ing Season, andmaintenance is put as ide unt i l the f i t t j "ng out per iod just beforethe boat is launched in the spr ing. That a t t i tude is dangerous,since it can mean more work later. Many of the maintenance choresyou night face in the spring can be handled when the boat is hauledout, or can even be prevented if the job is handled correctly atthe beginning. What you do when you haul your boat, and how you goabout Aoing i t , can mean the d i f ference between a wel l -na inta inedboat and a poor ly rna inta ined boat , regard less of your in tent ions.

When you haul your boat, whether the job is done by you or at ayard, the f i rs t th ing to consider is the proper b lock ing of thehul l . Boats should be s tored upr ight , though d inghies, canoes, andother small craft can be stored upside down provided they arecovered adequately. Upright boats must be blocked correctly. Theweight o f the boat should rest on the keel , which should i tse l frest on b locks to a l low vent i la t ion of the bot tom of the keel .Blocks should be spaced about every f ive feet along the keel andshould be high enough so that you can get to the bottom of the keelto per form your maintenance chores. When you b loc l . tp your boat ,t ry to get the water l ine as level as poss ib le ; th is wi l l preventthe boat f rom being subjected to s t ra ins she htas not des igned tohandle. Do not a l low the weight o f the boat to rest on the shor ingthat you wi I I have to use to hold the boat upr ight ; th is shor ing isin ten-ded only as la tera l suppor ts , s ince excessive s t ra ins on thesides and bottom of the hull could do severe damage to thest ructura l s t rength of the boat .

The procedures to fo l low i f you wi l l be s tor ing your boat on at ra i ier are the same. The boat should rest on her keel ; the s idesuppor ts of the t ra i ler should only keep the boat upr ight . .Becer ta in to b lock up the tongue of the t ra i ler so that the boat wiL lbe l eve l a t he r wa te r l i ne .

Af ter the boat is b locked up, the real lay ing-up procedure begins.It is here boats are neglected. Too many boat onners see theirboats hauled up on shore at th is s tage and assume that a l l work onher has ceased unt i l the fo l lowing spr ing.

2-1,

rmnediatery af ter the boat is haured, crean the bot ton of ar lgrowths and nar ine l i fe . r f you wai t to do the job, a l l thatgrowth on the bottorn wil l dry up and harden l ike cement. In shortorder, i t wil l seem as if that ness has become a permanent part ofthe hul l . At the same t ime, wash the ent i re hul l down wi tn f reshwater , inc lud ing decks and superst ructure. This is especia l lyimpor tant i f you are going to s tore the boat under cover , u" thafal l and winter rains wil l then have no chance to wash away al l thesal twater that can becorne crusted on every sur face.

LAYING ttP. When laying up the boat, there are several inportants teps that must be taken.

Dra in, and i f necessary, winter ize your water systen wi th non- tox icRV an t i f r eeze .

F i l I t he fue l t anks and use a fueL s tab i l i z i ng compound . Th i s w i I Iprevent the format ion of varn ish in the fue l system and a id inreducing water condensat ion in the tanks.

Dra in the b i tge. Leave the dra in prug out , but s tow i t where youcan f i nd i t be fo re l aunch ing . r f you don , t have a d ra in i n t nebottom of your boat, pump out as much as you can and then spongedry the res t .

change the eng ine o i l and f i l t e r and then l ay up the eng ineaccord ing to the speci f icat ions of the par t icu la i engine that youa re us ing ; each manu fac tu re r has i ns t ruc t i ons tha t upp ly to i t =machinery. This usual ly involves a t t foggingrr procedure-wnich coatsthe cy l i nde r wa l l s w i th o i l t o p reven t co r roJ ion .

Remove the bat tery and store i t in a rocat ion not subject tof reez ing . The ba t te ry shou ld be checked pe r iod i ca l l y andmainta ined in a fu l ty charged state dur ing s torage.

Go through the ent i re boat and remove arr the per ishables youf ind. Don' t be faced wi th return ing to your boat in the spr ingd iscove r ing a l i nge r ing odo r tha t w i I I no t go away ,

r f you have a hold ing tank, f lush i t out wi th f resh water andapprop r ia te non - tox i c RV an t i f r eeze . Remove a l r l i qu ids i nboa t t ha t m igh t f reeze .

Remove a l l " c l o thes , bedd ing , ma t t resses , r i f e j acke ts , e t c . , andc lean them be fo re s to r i ng i n a c lean ven t i l a ted , d ry p lace .

Take ou t eve ry th ing tha t i s movab le , i nc lud ing a I l t hose i t ens tha tare l ikery aspects for thef t , such as the compass, nav igat iontoo l s , r ad io te l ephone , oa rs , e t c .

Af ter a l l o f th is gear is out o f the boat , wash down the in ter ior ,i nc lud ing the cockp i t a rea , l ocke rs , and fo repeak . Remove thefLoo r -boa rds and l eave them o f f t o a l l ow the b i l ge to ven t i l a te .I f t he boa t i s t o be cove red , l eave the eng ine cove r o f f .

canand

addthe

2 -2

Your boat is now ready to be covered. f f you are going to keep theboat in a shed, so much the better. But i f not, the best bet is tocover the boat wi th a tarp or p last ic . Whatever you use, be surethat the boat is venti lated. Leave spaces around the covering toa l l ow a i r t o c i r cu la te . Th i s w i I I p reven t condensa t i on , wh ich w i l lresult in dry rot andr/or a foul sroell . I t night be a good idea tobui ld a l iqht f ramework over the boat , i f i t is large, to suppor tthe covering. PVC pipe makes an easily constructed framework.

Now check over the cover ing for secur i ty . Make cer ta in that i t ison t iqhtly and that aII t ie-downs are knotted securely. Go overeach i t ress point , and i f there is any doubt in your mind aboutwhether i t w i l l ho ld, then i t w i l l not . Check for p laces wherechafe n ight occur , and put chaf ing gear in p laces where i t isca l led for . Bungee cords are good for mainta in ing tens ion on thecove r .

Check the boa t pe r iod i ca l l y du r ing he r l ayup pe r iod , espec ia l l yaf ter s torms (before, too, for that rnat ter ) . I f you leave the boatin a storage yard, make sure that sornebody nearby has your

telephone nurnber so that you can be contacted in an emergency.

BOTTOU pArNTS. Moored boats suffer from a common problen-thef"r,, f :-. ,q of their bottoms by marine growths over a period of t ine.The tyb" of these growths and the sever i ty o f the i r presence

depenal on local condi t ions. Some areas of the country seem topronote more mar ine growths than others, but no mat ter thelocat ion, a t least some organisms wi l l becone at tached to a boat 'sbot tom over the course of the boat ing season.

Mar ine growth takes two forms: vegetable and animal L i fe . Thoughbo th t ypes can be found ove r a l l pa r t s o f a boa t ' s hu l l , t hegenerai tendency is for vegetable growths to congregate around thewater l ine and ani rna l growths to spread over the l -ower par ts of thehuI I . Vegetable growtn inc ludes weeds, a lgae, and fungi . Animalg rowths i r i c l ude ba rnac les , m inu te she l l f i sh , and worms ( i n t rop i ca lc l ima tes ) .

Two th ings can happen to a wooden huI I that is unprotected andat tacked by mar ine growths. The bui ld-up of p lant l i fe on the

bottorn can become so great that the performance of the boat isgreat ly reduced. The boat wi I I become s luggish and her speed wi l l

6" q . " i t ly reduced. The at tack of an imal growth can resul t in the

weaiening and perhaps even the dest ruct ion of the huI I . Th is is

especia l iy t rue of mlr ine borers that are found in t rop ica l waters.

Boats of materials other than wood are not threatened by borers and

worms ; f i be rg lass , f e r ro -cemen t , a lum inum, and s tee l boa ts a re

irnpervious to tnis type of growth. But contrary to sorne beliefs,

th ly can st i l l be - i t tacked

by vegetable growth and must bep ro tec ted as ca re fu l l y as wooden hu l I s .

2 -3

rn years past, the sorution to the probrem was to sheath hurlbottoms with copper. Sailors discovered that, although copper doesnot corrode much in the presence of sea water, i t constantly givesoff soluble poisonous salts when inmersed in salt water. ihesesar ts , dS they wash of f the sur face of the copper , e f fect ive lyprevent the adhesion of weeds, sherlf ish, and worms to the hurr.

Today, boaters use modern bottom paints that perform the samefunction as copper sheathing. These paints ki l I marine growths inthei r ear ly s tages, prevent ing a bui ld-up of vegetat ion ind aninall i fe on the bottour. The principle of these paints is the same asfor the copper sheathing-a constant solution of poisonous matters(prinari ly copper and mercury) is given off by the paint. i larinegrowths are thus discouraged by what is in effect an antisepticf i lrn on the bottom of the boat.

one d i f f icu l ty o f bot torn paint is that i t is far less permanentthan ord inary mar ine paint . The paint is d issolv ing in the water ,so that a t the end of a boat ing season, there wi l l be very t i t t leleft. Most bottom paints sold today rnust be applied annually forth is very reason. But when choosing between paint ing the bot tomonce a year , or scraping growths of f the bot torn per iod ica l ly , mostboaters wise ly choose the former.

Another problern caused by bottorn paint is galvanic action, whichw i l l be d i scussed l a te r on i n t h i s l esson . Pa in t s tha t con ta inmercury and/or copper react with certain other metals in such a waythat the meta ls can be corroded. For instance, a wooden boat thathas fer rous fasteni -ngs, such as i ron, wi I I soon have no fasteningsa t a l l i f i t i s pa in ted w i th a copper bo t tom pa in t . Th i s i s onereason why you don' t hear much about i ron boat na i ls these days.Even galvanized fer rous fastenings can deter iorate under copperpaint i f onry a t iny n ick is made in the z inc coat ing. specia lsac r i f i c i a l z i nc anodes he lp p reven t ga l van ic ac t i on (as d i scussedlater) and should not be painted.

when buying and appry ing bot tom paint , be ext remery carefur . Readthe laber and tark i t over wi th your paint dearer . l , ta tch thebot tom paint to your boat . Consider the other rneta ls in your boatthat wi I I be in f luenced by the paint i for instance, the meta l inthe skeg , s t ru t , p rope l l e r , sha f t , r udder p in t l es and gudgeons ,etc . Manufacturers have developed many d i f ferent bot ton paints formany d i f f e ren t cond i t i ons . Odds a re tha t you w i l l f i nd one tha t i si dea l l y su i t ed to you r boa t .

DRY ROT. Dry rot is one of the ev i ls that face owners of woodenboats. I t is always Iurking about, ready to str ike when and whereyou l eas t expec t i t . f f you have i t and cu re i t , i t o f t enreappears just after you have convinced yourself that i t is qonefo r good .

2 -4

Dry rot is a nisnomer, as this type of rot only can take hold inthe presence of wetness or dampness. It is caused by a fungrus thatthrives on fresh water. Saltwater seems to discourage dry rot,though it , wiII not necessari ly cure i t once it has taken hold.

Usual ly the f i rs t ind icat ion of dry rot is i ts snel l . I t has arnusty, moldy odor. Once you have snelled dry rot you wil l probablynever forget i t . You are snell ing the worl< of the fungus thatattacks the f ibers of the wood and reduces it to a soft ' powdery,spongy, weak ness.

If you suspect dry rot, thef i rs t p laces to look are dark,danp places. Check out areaswhere fresh water, in the formof ra in or condensat ion, canenter . Some of the nore l ike lYp laces a re : i n t he b i l ge ,especia l ly the garboard s t rakes;in the f loors i in the Plankingaround and behind the frames; atthe top and bottom of theframes; between the deck beansand the deck; under the deck;under the coaning and betweenthe coaming and the deck; in thetransom where it meets thebottom and the sides.

gdr.b.d @ra-a

Figun 2'1.4ommon lnrlt whcrc dry rot drrivcr

Thc tranroor d $c bil6 ir alro I gtctt collcstor of

nRlxtrg-/tE.r6 a1pft4o- fR^rts'

st Br.(.t. GfEcoLLY6!6crs{8t€

Look in a l l o f the above praces, t t t '

and any other l ikelY locationsas weI I . But don ' t conf ine your inspect ion to s ight a lone. Getout your knife, or a spike, and start probing. Dig around for softspots that are easy to penetrate and disintegrate easily. Younight have to remove various parts of your boat to get atsuipicious areas, and even get your hands dirty, but the searchruust be done if you want your boat to last- (See f ig. 2-L-)

After you have found dry rot, i t nust be renoved. The fungus wil lspread l ike wildf ire i f i t is not checked, and merely soaking itwi tn a preservat ive, o ! someth ing you th ink n ight k i l l i t , is noteneugh. Cut out the affected wood innediat€IY, and.get as nuch oneither side of the rot as you can. By cutt ing back into good wood,you are providing for a margin of error. There is no way to tel li f tne fungus has spread from the obviously rotten section or not.

There is a preparation on the market that is said to help you soJ.vethe dry rot problem without cutt i .ng out the affected wood. Peoplewho have used thi-s material have had good results for the mostpar t , and i t is cer ta in ly wor th invest igat ing.

2-5

The rnost effective way to l ick the dry rot problem is to prevent i tfrom gett in.g in your boat in the f irst place. The best way ofdoing this is to keep fresh water out and stop it from collecting.This neans naking sure that hatches are t ight, decks are wellcaurked, f i t t ings are bedded in conpound, etc. rf fresh watercan't get into your boat, then you have nothing to worry about.But you must also be certain that fresh water can also get out ofyour boat. Condensation can form inside the boat and cause dry rotas easily as can rainwater frorn without. Make sure your boat iswe l l ven t i l a ted a t a I I t imes .

Another way to prevent dry rot is to appty wood preservative to aIIunpainted and unvarnished surfaces. There are many preservativeson the market today that are effective, though nothing wil l offeryou total protection. onry by being constantly on your guard canyou keep dry rot out of a wooden boat.

GALVAI{IC ACTION. The process of electrolysis is based on thepr inc ip le that two d iss in i rar metars, when praced in sar t water(or non-pure f resh-water) , generate e lect r ic i ty by a chemicarprocess. This is garvanic act ion. Galvanic act ion is thepr inc ip le behind the funct ion ing of a dry-ce l l bat tery . I t is a lsothe pr ime e lement in the dest ruct ion of meta ls in a boat .

The corrosion of metals by electrochernical action is something al lboaters must be concerned wi th . Unless carefu l a t tent ion is pa idto the types of rnetars that go into a boat, the fastenings,f i t t ings, and even the huI I o f meta l boats can quick ly deter iorateand crumbre away. Though galvanic action is a probrem facedpr imar i ly by boats used in sa l t water , f resh-water boaters cannotbe totarry ignorant of the probrern. Not al l fresh water ischemical ly pure, and even water that is ever so s l ight ly brack ishcan set ga lvanic act ion in to mot ion.

Galvanic act ion as boaters know i t , takes p lace when two d iss in i larmetals that are electr ical ly connected are immersed in non-chemical ly-pure water . The meta ls actual ly don ' t even have to bein the water; corrosion can take place when the metals areconnected only by danp wood. By galvanic action, one metal of thetwo is corroded at the expense of the other.

what exact ry is a d iss imi lar neta l? To make i t . easy on thoseboaters who are not chemical engineers, the fol lowing Electrolyt icTable prov ides the answer. Meta ls are rated as being r tmost noblet lor f l Ieast noble. r f Current wi l t f low f ron the less noble to themore nobre meta l i in the process, the less noble meta l wi l l bedestroyed.

2-6

fn the tab le, the nost noblemetals are at the top, and theIeast noble meta ls are at thebot tom. In other words, n ickeltogether with aluminum in non-pure water wil l produce anelect r ica l current that wi I leventually result in thedestruction of the alurninum.

Galvanic act ion is ins id ious.It takes place when you leastexpect i t . For instance, i f youuse copper botton paint on thehuII of an aluminun boat, thecopper in the paint wil l corrodethe alurninum in the hull . Theonly bray you can prevent this,assuruing that you must use acopper ant i - fou l ing paint , is toput a layer ofnon-ruetal l ic paint between thetwo. But even then, you must becertain that the coverage of thenonneta l l ic pa int is absolute.The sl ightest exposure of thealuninum below can result inga l van ic ac t i on .

ord inary ye l low brass, conposedof z inc and copper , carr ies theseeds of i ts own destruction insal t water . over a per iod of t ine, the galvanic act ion in , Sdy, abrass screw, wiII erode the zinc, Ieaving a spongry mass of copper.For that reason, brass screws, brass sea cocks, and va lves areuseless in sa l t water .

What can you do? lilost boats require many types of netal f ordiverse purposes. For instance, a boat that has a bronze propellerand an iron rudder needs protection or the rudder wil l be quicklydestroyed. The answer is to add a third metal to the process.This th i rd meta l is known as a sacr i f ic ia l rneta l i t is sacr i f icedto save the other two. To protect the iron rudder, a block of zincor other rnetaL less noble than iron can be attached to the rudder.What happens then is the zinc, not the iron, sets up a current withthe bronze propel ler , which is most noble, and is i tse l f dest royed.Thus the iron rudder is protected. The bronze propeller, since iti s mos t nob le , t akes ca re o f i t se l f .

THE ELECTROLYTIC TASLE

Mrranry

Monrl

Nickcl

Eronzr {rillcon}

Copprr

Eras lrtdl

Sron:r {dunrlruml

Gun mrol

Brut lyrllow)

Bron:r (phqhor)

Tin

L..d

Stacl (rtainlorl

I ron

Strl (mildl

Aluminum

Crdmium

Galwnizrd iroo tnd cta.l

Zirc

Megrniwn

Th. illtalr clot togath.r in thir t$h can bo tnrdto{adr.r. Mrtali frr ap.n clnnot. For insoncr. brooza rndcoppar crn bc urcd togcthr; alqminum and copprr crnnot.

2 -7

Note: when us ing sacr i f ic iar metars on your boat , be cer ta in toreplace then per iod ica l ry . r f you do not , you wi l l be foo led byyour ohtn craf t iness the sacr i f ic ia l neta l wi l l conplete ly erode,Ieav ing you wi th the or ig ina l two meta ls , which wi l l imrnediate ly goto work on each other . Remember, do not pa int over the z incsr or -e lse they wi l l not work.

ELEqIROLYTfC ACTfON. Electrolyt ic action is an electrochemicalprocess s in i lar to galvanic act ion. When an e lect r ica l currentfrom an independent source, such as a battery, passes through arle lect ro ly t ic f ru id , such as sea water , metar wi l l be dest royed. r fa stray current from some source on a boat (or adjacent boat)passes through a meta l hurr f i t t ing, for instance, in to the sea,meta l wi I I be t ransferred f ron the hul l f i t t ing. Eventual ly i twil l be eroded. Uetal wiII not be transferred, however, where thecurrent re-enters the boat .

The so lut ion to the problern of e lect ro ly t ic act ion is to e l i rn inatestray electr ical currents from the power sources in your boat. Inrnost boats, the problen centers around the battery. Make sure thatthe negative pole of the battery rather than the posit ive pole isgrounded to the engine. This should be done because current f lowsfrom posi t ive to negat ive. Thus, current s t ray ing f rom theposit ive side of the battery wiII re-enter the boat through thepropel ler shaf t , which is , o f course, connected to the engine. Assaid prev ious ly , meta l t ransfer wi l l not take p lace at the point o fent ry of an e lect r ica l current .

In addi t ion, to prevent other s t ray currents in your boat , checkal1 other electr ical equipment. l , lake sure that everything isproper ly grounded and secure.

Figure 2-2.-The essential parts of the shaft train.

TIIE SHAFT TRArN ( f igure 2-2) .The shaft train of an inboardmar ine engine insta l la t ion isthe nachinery that transmits thepohrer of the engine inside theboat to the propeller outsidethe boat . f t is made up, innost inboard boats, of the shaftlog, the shaf t , the s t rut , thestrut bearing, and thepropel ler . The except ion toth is type of insta l la t ion are V-dr ives and hydraul ic dr ives.

The shaf t is most usual ly acont inuous p iece that is a t tached to the engine by a coupl ing onone end and to the propel ler a t the other end. However , i f forsome reason the shaf t cannot go in a s t ra ight l ine i t n ight have auniversal jo in t to aI low for the change in d i rect ion. Most shaf tstoday a re rnade o f b ronze , mone l , oF s ta in less s tee l .

2-8

The shaft nust eventually 90through the bottom of the hull .To do th is , i t passes through ashaft 1og. At the inboard endof the shaft log there is astuf f ing box. This is s i rn i larto the packing gland in a waterfaucet. This combination of theshaft 1og and stuff ing boxprevents water from entering theboat through the shaft hole.The stuffing box surrounds theshaft and holds r ings of packingmater ia l . These r ings aresqueezed t ightty around theshaft by a ttglandtr or rrgland

nutrr. Water can come up intothe shaft log from the bottorn,but is prevented from enteringthe boat by the packing materialin the s tuf f ing box. The shaf tIog and stuff ing box are usuaIIYmade of bronze. The Packingmater ia l is made of a specia lf l ex ib le na te r i a l .

0t AiloI{UIfl.Arf0

sruffil6BOI

tigre 2-3. Typicaf stuffing bor.

Check the s tuf f ing box per iod ica l ly , but don ' t be a larmed i f thereis a sl ight drip of water coning frorn i t . l ,{ost stuff ing boxes relyon a srnall amount of water gett ing through to work properly.Usually t ightening down on the gland nut, which squeezes thepacking mater ia l more, wi l l contro l the amount of dr ip . I f youhave a leak, however, and no amount of t ightening of the nut stopsi t , then you wi l l probably have to rep lace the pack ing rnater ia l .This is a sirnple process that amounts to nothing more than backingoff the gland nut and wrapping new packing material around theshaf t ins ide the s tuf f ing box.

Once through the hull , the shaft goes through the strut. The strutis an appendage attached to the botton of the boat that acts as asupport and bearing for the shaft. There are many types of strutsin use today, nost with only one arm but sone with two or three.

The strut must always be securely bolted to the bottom of the boatand must be r ig id . I f i t is not , the shaf t wi l l be able to wobble 'the bearing night be ruined, the shaft rnight bend, and you wil l atIeast get a considerable anount of vibration in your boat. As thestrut, shaft, and strut bearing are underwater, the bearing rel ieson water for lubrication. Bearings in the old days were almostalways made of l ignum vitae wood, but now they are.usually nade ofrubber or micarta. Many of then have grooves cut in then to al lowfor a continuous f low of water inside. The bearing rnust be checked

2-9

per iod i ca l l ybear ing goes,

At the end of the shaf t is the propel ler , which comes in nany s izes

and shapes. eiopellers diffe-r i ; diarneter, pitch, direction of

iotation, shaft-n^ofe size, and the nunber of blades. The dianeter

of a propeller is simply the diameter of the circle defined by the

tips tf -tne

turning bfaaes. The pitch of the propeller is the

.ngt" of the blades; to engineers, i t is the distance the propeller

wouta move ahead after one revolution. The number of blades for apropeller can go fron two on up. Most powerboats use a three-

b laded proPel ler .

The selection of a propeller is beyond the scope of this lesson.

It is appropriately in the realrrn of naval architects, that many

calcuta€ions and considerations must be applied to arrive at the

r ight propel ler for the r ight boat .

your main concern about the propeller is whether i t wil l stay on

the shaft. Because most propellers must operate in forward and

reverse, a lock nut must be used to keep it on t-he shaft ' Uost

instal lat ions use a nut backed by a janb nut combined with a key-

Whatever your boat uses, check i t out per iod ica l ly to ensure that

it is secure. The last thing you want to do is lose your

p rope l l e r .

to be certain that i t is in good condit ion. If thethe shaft can be damaged.

2 - L O

STT'DY QUESTIONS

l-. What is the proper way to block up a hul l?

2. Why shouldn't you al low the weight of the boat to rest on

the shor ing?

3. List the lay-up chores that must be done after the boat ishau led ou t .

4 . What is the purpose of a l lowing the boat to vent i la te when

i t is layed up?

5. The two types of marine growth are and

6. What are the two things that can happen to a wooden boat that

is not protected against marine growths?

7. How does copper protect a boat 's hu l l?

8. t lhat should you consider when select ing a bot ton paint

for your boat?

9. What causes dry rot?

10. A f i rst indicat ion of drY rot is

2-Lt

l -1. Lj-st some of the places to look for dry rot in a wooden boat.

L2. When dry rot is found, i t must be

L3. How can you prevent dry rot?

14. What is the difference between galvanic action and

elect ro ly t ic act ion?

15 . Cur ren t w i l t f l ow f rom the metal to the

meta l dur ing galvanic act ion.

16. What is the pr inc ip le of us ing a sacr i f ic ia l meta l to min in ize

the ef fect o f ga lvanic act ion?

17. How can you prevent e lect ro ly t ic act ion?

18. The shaf t t ra in is made uP of

f

, and

19. How does the s tuf f ing box work?

20. The st rut bear ing re l ies on for lubr icat ion.

21. What is used to keep the propel ler on the shaf t?

2 -L2

CHAPTER 3

TNTERNAL CPI{BUSTIOI'I ENGTNES

ffflfRODUCTIOX. The study questions at the end of the chapter arebased on the readings in this chapter and not on any outsideread ing .

RECIPROCATfNG ENGINES. The internal combustion engines (diesel andgasol ine engines) , wi th which most boaters work, are nachines thatchange, or convert, heat energry into work by burning fuel in aconbustion chamber. Since the pistons in diesel and gasolineengi-nes use an up-and-down notion, they are classif ied asrec iprocat ing engines.

IGNITION PRIXCIPLES. The gasoline and diesel engines differpr inc ipa l ly in the method of ign i t ing the fue l .

Gasoline Engines. Gasoline engines uses a spark ignit ion systemand are referred to as an SPARK fGNITION ENGINE. The fuel andai r for the engine is rn ixed in the carburetor (or a in ject ionchamber i f fue l in jectors are used) . This mixture is drawn in tothe cy l inders where i t is compressed and ign i ted by an e lect r icspark from the spark plugs.

Diesel Engines. The d iesel engine takes in atmospher ic a i r ,compresses it , and then injects the fuel into the combustionspace. The heat generated by compress ion of the a i r ign i tes thefuel. Hence it is referred to as a COI{PRESSION IGNfTION EIIGINE.Diesel engines used in boats look very much l ike the gasol ineengine. They have fue l in jectors in p lace of a carburetor , andthe l ines leading to the ry I inders carry fue l o i l instead of ane lec t r i c cu r ren t .

OPERATING CYCLE. AII reciprocating engines have a definite cycleof operat ion. I t is necessary to atonize the fue l , 9et i t in to thecy l inders, burn i t , and d ispose of the gases of combust ion. AI Ireciprocating internal cornbustion engines operate on either a 2-s t roke or a 4-s t roke cyc le. A s t roke is a s ing le up or downmovement of the piston, or the distance a piston moves betweenl in i ts o f t ravel . Each p is ton executes two st rokes for eachrevolution of the crankshaft. The number of piston strokesoccurr ing dur ing any one ser ies of operat ions (cyc le) is l in i ted toeither two or four, depending upon the design of the engine.

FOUR STROKE CYCLB engines are used in most automobiles. Eachpiston goes through four strokes and the crankshaft makes tworevolut ions to cornplete one cyc le. In th is case, each p is ton isdelivering polrer during one stroke in four, or there is one polrers t roke for each two revolut ions of the crankshaf t .

3 - t

rxru!l

t

FiEue 3-1. Ibe Porr StrokeGasoline Brqine.

Let us use one cyc le of a gasol ine engine totrace its operation through the four strokestha t make up a cyc le . (See F igu re 3 -1 . )First there is the fNTAKE STROKE. The intakevalve is open and the exhaust valve isclosed. The piston moves down, drawing amixture of a i r and gasol ine in to the cy l inderthrough the open valve. This is shown in 1.

Next is the COI,IPRESSfON STROKE. Both theintake and exhaust valves are closed andduring this stroke and the piston startsrnoving upward ( i l lus t rat ion 2) . The a i r lgasmixture which entered the cyl inder during theintake stroke is conpressed into the smallspace above the p is ton. The vo lume of th isair may be reduced to less than A/B of whati t was at the beginning of the s t roke.

The h igh pressure which is a resul t o f th isgreat reduct ion in vo lume creates a h igh lyexplos ive mixture. V lhen the p is ton reachesthe top of the compress ion s t roke, the sparkplug in the cy l inder receives h igh vo l tagefrom the d is t r ibutor . This creates a sparkwhich ign i tes the a i r lgas mixture.

During the POWER SIROKE, which follows theigni t ion, the in le t and exhaust va lves areboth closed. The increase in ternperatureresul t ing f ron the burn ing fue l great lyincreases the pressure on top of the p is ton.This increased pressure forces the p is tondownward and rotates the crankshaf t . Th is isthe only stroke in which power is furnishedto the crankshaf t by the p is ton.( f l l u s t r a t i on 3 )

The last stroke of the cycle is the EXIIAUSTSIROKE ( i l lust rat ion 4) . The exhaust va lveis open and the in take va lve remains c losed.The piston moves upward, forcing the burnedgases out of the combustion chamber throughthe exhaust va lve. This s t roke is fo l lowedimmediate ly by the in take s t roke of the nextcyc le, and the sequence of events cont inues.

3

3 -2

The 4-st roke cyc le d iesel engine operates on the same nechanica l ,or operat ional , cyc le as the gasol ine engine. fn the d iesel engine,the coropression ratio is nuch higher than in the gasoline engine.This is necessary to increase the heat generated by the compressionof the air in the compression stroke. The fuel is injected intothe cylinder at the top of the compression stroke where it isignited by the heat.

TI|O-STROKE-CYCLE diesel engines are widelyused. Although some gasoline engines operateon the 2-stroke cycle, their use is l initedprincipally to outboard motors. Every secondstroke of a 2-stroke-cycle engine is a POWBRSTROKE. The strokes between are CII{PRESiSIOXSTROKES. The intake and exhaust functionstake place rapidly at the botton of eachpoerer stroke. With this arrangement there isone power stroke for each revolution of thecrankshaft, or twice as many as in a 4-strokecyc le engine. ( See Figrure 3-2 . )

The cy l inder of a 2-s t roke-cycIe d ieselengine has an exhaust valve but no intakevalve. The air enters the combustion chanberthrough ports (openings) in the cyl inderwall. These ports are uncovered by thepiston as i t nears the botton of each stroke.( I l l us t ra t i on L )

When the piston moves upward on thecompression stroke, the exhaust valve isclosed and the intake ports are covered.( f l lust rat ion 2) The p is ton compresses theair trapped in the cornhustion chamber. Atthe top of the stroke, fuel is f irst sprayedinto the cyl inder and then ignited by the hotcompressed a i r .

I l lustration 3 shows the downward notion ofthe piston on the power stroke. The exhaustva lve is s t i l l c losed and the increasedpressure, resul t ing f ron the burn ing fue l ,forces the piston downward, and rotates thecrankshaf t .

As the piston nears the bottom of the powerstroke, it uncovers the intake ports and theexhaust va lves open. ( I l lust rat ion 4) A i rdelivered under pressure by a blower (airpunp) forces air in through the intake ports,and the burned gases are carried out throughthe exhaust va lve.

a

Figre 3-2. ne fi,o StrokeDiesel hgine.

IIi

iiII

3 -3

This scavenging operat ion takes p lace a lmost instant ly andcorresponds to the intake and exhaust strokes of the 4-strokecyc1e .

On the compression stroke, the exhaust valves are closed, theintake ports are covered, and the air is trapped in the cyl inder.The r is ing p is ton compresses the a i r and heats i t ad iabat ica l ly , orwithout a loss or gain of heat. By the t ine the piston reaches thetop of the stroke, the volume of the eombustion chamber has beengreatly reduced. The relation between the volune of the cornbustionchamber with the piston at the bottom of the stoke, and the volumeof the cornbustion chanber with the piston at the top of the stokeis ca l }ed the compress ion rat io . Cornpress ing the a i r toapproximately one-sixteenth of i ts original volurne representing acompress ion rat io of L6 to L. Gasol ine engines operate atcompression ratios between 4 to L and 8 to I, but the compressionrat ios of d iesels range between 72 to 1 and 16 to L.

As the compression ratio is increased, the r ise in the temperatureof the a i r in the cy l inder increases. For example, wi th acompression ratio of 14 to 1", the ternperature wil l be sl ightly overIOOO' F. This means that on the cornpress ion s t roke of a d ieselengine the a i r is heated to about 1000" F. At th is temperature,the fue l begins to burn when i t is in jected in to the cy l inder .

You might expect a 2-s t roke-cyc1e d iesel engine to develop twice asmuch power as a 4-st roke cyc le engine; however , such is not thecase because approx imate ly 10 to L4 percent o f the engine 's poweris requi red to dr ive the b lower. Never theless, 2-s t roke-cyc lediesel - engines g ive excel lent serv ice.

PPWEB_SISTEU. The Power System of the engine transmits polder fromthe cyl inders to the drive shaft. The pohrer system includes thecy l inders and p is tons, the connect ing rods, and the crankshaf t .

The cy l inders of most nar ine engines are cast in a s ing le b lock.Each cy l inder is l - ined wi th a specia l hardened a l loy i ron s leeve toreduce wear .

The p is tons are at tached to the crankshaf t by connect ing rods,which transrnit power from the pistons to the crankshaft. The rodsare jo ined to the p is tons by p is ton p ins (wr is t p ins) and areconnected to the crankshaf t by bear ings (see f igure 3-3) . A sealis prov ided between each p is ton and the p is ton wal l . Th is seal isaccompl ished by p is ton r ings in grooves in the p is ton wal l . As thepis ton moves up and down, the r ings press against the cy l inderwal l , thus prevent ing the a i r or gases (dur ing the exhaust s t roke)f rom passing down in to the crankcase and the o i l f rom work ing uppast the p is ton.

3 -4

€---0--_-€--

tigre 3-3. Pistonand onnectinq rod parts.

The crankshaft is a device usedto change the reciprocating notionof the piston and the connectingrods into rotary motion needed todrive such iterns as reductiongea rs , p rope l l e r sha f t s ,generator- alternator, and punps.There are many conmon applicationsof th is pr inc ip le ; the t readle ofan o1d- fashioned sewing machineand the up-and-down notion of yourIegs on the pedals of a b icyc le.Figure 3-4 shows the crankshaftaction of a sewing nachine treadleand band wheel. this arrangenentcan also be used to change rotaryto reciprocating motion. Duringthree of the strokes of a 4-stroke-cycle engine, the rotarymotion of the crankshaft is novingthe piston up and down.

Valve Mechanisms. The valvesare opened by the action of acanshaft, driven by the crankshaftthrough a t ra in of gears.

corrPREssroflPSTOil ilG:;

PE;TOil Pir

Plttttr Pil c^P

SANO,, WHEE L

Air Pilot Trainint, Bcrt A. Shields

Fi5rn 94.-Tht cnnkrhrft rction of rtroedh rnd brndwhccl.

E.-/(\\

E;lt

aE

CONNECTING

3 -5

Figure 3-5 Si rnple Camshaf t and ValveMechani . sm

The camshaf t is a long steelshaft that extends the length ofthe engine and carries one or norecams for each cyLinder . The shaf tis cy l indr ica l , but the cans areirregular in shape (see f igure 3-5 ) . Each cam i s pa r t l y c i r cu la rin outl ine but carries a LOBE( HIJUP ) which gives it an egg-shaped appearance. The circularpart of the can is cal led the CAI{FLAT. The canshaft is designed tochange rotary to interrnittentreciprocating motion. A tappetriding on the rotating cam isI i f ted each t ine the lobe comesaround.

On sone types of engines, thecamshaf t is i-ocated near thecrankshaf t " In these designs theact ion of the cam ro l ler istransnitted to the rocker ar:rn by apush rod. In other engines, thevalves are inverted and arelocated in recesses at the side ofthe cy l inders. with thisarrangenent, the valve stems nayride directly on the cams or theymay be separated by a short steelshaf t ca l led a TAPPET. Thisarrangement is shown in above.

The camshaft must be t ined with the crankshaft so that the lobeswi l l open the va lves in each cy l inder at the correct instant in theoperat ing cyc le. In the 2-st roke cyc le the exhaust va lves areopened for only a short t ine, at the botton of the pohter stroke, topern i t the burned gases to escape. Since the cyc le is cornpleted inone revolut ion, the camshaf t ro tates at the same speed as thecrankshaf t .

The 4-st roke-cyc le engine has an in take and an exhaust va lve inevery cy l inder , each of thern operated by a separate can. Theintake va lve is he ld open dur ing the in take s t roke, and the exhaustva lve opened dur ing the exhaust s t roke. Both are opened and c losedseveral degrees of crankshaft travel before and after the top andbot ton of the p is ton t ravel . S ince two revolut ions of thecrankshaf t are necessary to conplete a 4-s t roke cyc le, the canshaf tof these engines turns one hal f the speed of the crankshaf t .

3 -6

Air Svstern. In the 4-st roke cyc le engine, the a i r enters thecy l inders through the in take va lve. As each p is ton goes down onthe intake stroke, the volume of the conbustion charnber increasesand the pressure decreases. The normal atmospher ic pressure thenforces the a i r in to the cy l inder through the in take vaIve.

The 2-st roke cyc le engine does not go through an in take s t roke.The air enters through intake ports, uncovered when the pistonapproaches the bottom of the polder stroke. Since the exhaustvi lves open as the intake ports are being uncovered, the incomingai r forces the burned gas out through the exhaust va lves and f i l lsthe cy l inder wi th a supply of f resh a i r . On large Z-st roke cyc lediesel engines, b lowers must be prov ided to force a i r in to thecy l i nde rs .

Lubricating Systen. TheIubr icat ion system is a v i ta lpa r t o f an i n te rna lcombust ion engine. I f thelub r i ca t i ng sys tem shou ldfa i l no t on l y w i l l t he eng ines top , bu t a I1 o f t he pa r t sare l ike ly to be darnagedbeyond repa i r .

The I ub r i ca t i ng sys ten Fde l i ve rs o i l t o t he nov ingpar ts of the engine to reducef r i c t i on and ass i s t i nkeeping them cool . Mostd iese l and gaso l i ne eng inesare equipped wi th a pressurelubr icat ing system thatde l i ve rs the o i l unde rpressure to the bear ings andbush ings , and a l so l ub r i ca testhe gea rs and cy l i nde r wa l1s .The o i l usua l l y reaches thebear ings through Passagesdr i l led in the f rarnework andthe c ranksha f t o f t he eng ine .The lubr icat ing systern of a a

t. oG raxrtq.o |t cl ltroar ILEIt otL trt. l l lt . l l .?^ll l^Lvt

I I ltr^tl atq,rxo lTlatrll r.O C.n.tl

syster of an inboard engine.

t yp i ca l 4 -s t roke cyc leinboard engine is shown inf i gu re 3 -6 "

Many methods of lubr icat ingthe i nd i v idua l pa r t s o f eachtype o f eng ine a re i n use i nthe d i f f e ren t eng ine mode ls .

tl. oft ?^ral. lcrttx4tt tult |rT^rtl. ?rllgrrt oL tu.2.. v^tvlJtatlJrc lal-|lti orl |tt^xtlc ort. cE-ar

Pigure 3-6. m€ Lubrication

3 -7

The oi l is delivered by the gear-type oi l punp. This pump takessuction through a screen fron an oi l pan or sump. Frorn the punp,the oi l is forced through the oi l strainer and the oi l cooler intothe o i l nani fo ld in the cy l inder b lock. This nani fo ld extends thelength of the engine and serves as a passage and reservoir fromwhich the oi l is fed to the nain crank-shaft bearings and one endof the hollow carnshaft. Host noving parts and bearings areIubricated by oi l . drawn fron these two sources. The cyl inder wallsand the teeth of many of the gears are lubricated by oi l spraythrown off the rotating crankshaft. After the oi l has served itspurpose, i t drains back to the sump to be used over again.

Constant oi} pressure, throughout a wide range of engine speeds, isnaintained by the pressure rel ief valve that a1lows the excess oi lto f low back into the sump. AII of the oi l from the punp passesthrough the strainer and cooler, unless they are clogged or the oi lis cold and heavy. In such cases, the bypass valve is forced openand the o i l f lows d i rect ly to the engine. Par t o f the o i l fed tothe engine is returned through the f i l ter, which removes f lakes ofureta l , carbon par t ic les, and other inpur i t ies.

The oi l pressure in the l ine }eading fron the purnp to the engine isindicated on a pressure gage. A ternperature gage in the returnIine provides an indirect nethod for indicating variat ions in theternperature of the engine parts. Any abnormal drop in pressure orrise in ternperature should be investigated at once. It isadvisable to stop the engine unti l the trouble has been located andcorrected.

The oi1 should be changed according to the manufacturer'sspeci f icat ions. This is par t icu lar ly t rue for d iesel engines.

Cooling System. Marine

tlrFg?^lrqlt€

engines are equipped with awater-cooling systen to carryarday the excess heat producedin the engine cy l inders. Thewater is circulated throughwater jackets in the cy l inderwalls and passages thatsurround the valves in thecy l i nde r head . Thelubr icat ing o i l acts incool ing the p is tons andcy l i nde r wa l l s .

E i ther f resh water or seawater nay be used forcool ing. fn some engines thesea water is c i rcu latedthrough the engine and thendischarged overboard.

or'.F ^{POa'gl O,€IF^EFOat€D

cn acr Frao

3HAr"lartq.o

cn dr{rro

D{L|t?nrrarq.O

r^tt nr^SltoaCA.q

clrroltrlEr

Figrte 3-7. Tte bboard c{ohDg syster

3 -8

In other types of engines, f resh water is c i rcu lated through theengine and then through a heat exchanger. Sea water is purnpedthrough this exchanger and cools the fresh water. An advantage ofthe fresh-water systern is that i t keeps the water passages cleaner,avoids the corrosive effects of sea water, and thus provides bettercoo l i ng .

Electr ical Systen. The electr ical systero of most inboard enginesconsists of the fanil iar generatorr/alternator, and electr ic motorthat serves as a starter, a suitable battery, and the necessarywiring. The generator/alternator keeps the battery charged andprovides current for l ights and other equiproent. The charging rateof the generator/alternator is control led by a voltage regulator,and a cut-out is provided to keep the battery from dischargingthrough the alternator/generator at low speed. When the starterbutton is pressed the starter bendix gear engages with the teeth onthe f lywheel and turns the engine over . Diesel engines genera l lyrequi re double the bat tery capaci ty of gasol ine engines. Somelarge d iesel engines are s tar ted wi th compressed a i r or a snal laux i l iary gasol ine engine.

Diese1 Enqines. Fiqure3-8 shows the componentsfound in the typicald iese l eng ine . Thepower, a i r , lubr icat ing,cool ing and e lect r ica lsysterns are general ly asdescribed above. Asstated ear l ier , thed iese l eng ine i s aCompress ion fgn i t i onengine. The fue l systemof the d iese l eng ine i sd i f ferent f rom thatfound wi tn gasol ineeng ines .

The fuel punp draws thefuel o i l f ron the tankthrough a pr i rnary f i l terand del ivers i t to thein jector through thesecondary f i l ter . Theout le t l ine carr ies theexcess fue l o i l f ron thein jector back to thefuel tank. In someins ta l l a t i ons a t rans fe rpunp i s i ns ta l l edbetween the tank and thep r imary f i l t e r .

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Y LVI s'irxc

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Figrre 3-8. Corpnents of tbe diesei engine.

3 -9

A diesel engine wi l l not operate ef f ic ient ly un less c lean fue l isdelivered to the injector. As the fuel oiL is punped into the fueltanks, i t should be strained through a f ine- nesn screen. Thelarger part icles of the solids suspended in the fuel are trapped inthe pr imary screen. The secondary f i l ter separates the

- f iner

part icles of _foreign natter that pass through tne prinary f i l terscreen. The f ina l f i l ter ing takes p lace wi th in the in jectdr . l tostf i l ters have a drain plug for removing the water, sludge, and otherfore ign mat ter . The f i r ter shourd be dra ined once ; d .y , or asspeci f ied in the manufacturerrs technica l manual .

There are many nethods of fuel injection and just as many types ofin jectors . one is the r run i t in jector ' r system. The i i jectorconsis ts bas ica l ly o f a smal l cy l inder and a p lunger , and e i tendsthrough the cyl inder head to the combustion chamber. A cam,located on the camshaft adjacent to the cam that operates theexhaust valves, acts through a rocker arm and lowers the plunger atthe correct instant in the operat ing cyc le. when the in jectorprunger is depressed, i t sgui r ts , oF in jects , a f ine spray o i fuerinto the cyl inder, through srnall holes in the nozzLe. The smoothoperation of the engine depends to a large extent on the accuracywith which the plungers inject the same amount of fuel into eachconbustion charnber. The amount of fuel injected into the cyl inderson each stroke is control led by rotating the plungers or a unitin jector . The throt t le , which regulates the speed of the engine,is connected to the injectors through a portable l inkage. Changingthe thrott le sett ing rotates the plungers and varies €he anount oifue l in jected in to the cy l inders on each st roke.

Another system is ca l l the r rcommon ra i r t system. This is mostcomroonly used in engines other then General Motors. Instead of apunp being located at each cyl inder in a separate unit, there isone pump for a l l in jectors. This systern has one drawback. I f a i rgets into the systen it nust be purged. This usuarry is done byloosening the snal l de l ivery tube at the cy l inder and ro l l inq theengine over with the starter unti l the air is purged and only fuelcomes out . Per formance of the r rcommon ra i l t ! system is genera l ly asgood as with the rrunit injectortr system. Caution should be usedbefore naking any adjustments to e i ther system. ser ious andexpensive damage can occur frorn irnproper adjustnents.

GASOLTNE ENGTNES. Most inboard engines are a 4-stroke cycleengine. Two-st roke cyc le gasol ine engines are used pr inc ipa l ly todr ive outboard motorboats, motorcyc les, and rnodel a i rp lanes. Thepower, a i r , lubr icat ing, cool ing and e lect r ica l systerns aregenera l ly as descr ibed above. The pr inc ipa l d i f ference between thegasol ine and the d iesel engines is that the gasol ine engine has acarburetor and an ign i t ion system. rn addi t ion, the gasol ineengine has a lower conpress ion rat io than the d ieser engine. Atyp ica l mar ine gasol ine engine has a compress ion rat io of about 7to L, compared to an approx imate rat io of 16 to 1, even 20 to l , insone d iese l eng ines .

3- l_0

Induct ion System. This system draws gasol ine f rom the fuel tankand air from the atrnosphere, mixes then, and delivers the mixtureto the cyl inders. f t consists of the fuel tank, the fuel punp, thecarburetor, and the necessary fuel l ines and air passages.Flexible tubing carries the fuel from the tank to the carburetor,while the intake nanifold carries the fuel-air mixture fron thecarburetor to the indiv idual cyl inders.

The FUEL PUlilP comrnonly used ongaso l i ne eng ines i s s l i gh t l ydifferent from any of the purnpsdiscussed la ter on in th ist ra in ing course. In somerespects th is is l ike the o ld-fashioned water punp, wi th thep is ton rep laced by a f l ex ib led iaphragrn. This d iaphragrm,which forms the bottom of thepunp charnber, is composed ofsevera l layers of t reated c lo thheld between two meta l d isks.(See f i gu re 3 -9 )

tiEre 3-9. I scieHtic draring of agsoline eDgine fuel pnp.

The diaphragrm is actuated by the rocker arm, which rides on theeccentr ic . However , the par ts are connected in such a way that thediaphragrn can be pul led downward only . An eccentr ic is mere ly ac i rcuLar-shaped cam that is mounted of f -center on i ts shaf t andwobbles up and down as it rotates" The diaphragrm is raised by theact ion of the spr ing t .hat pu ishes against i ts under sur face. Anintet and an out le t -check va lve permi ts the fue l to f low throughthe punp chamber in one d i rect ion only .

When the engine is running, the eccentric acts through the rockerarn to lower the diaphragrm against the spring pressure. This drawsa charge of fr:el into the pump chamber through the inlet checkvalve. Dur ing the next ha l f - revolut ion of the eccentr ic , thespring pushes the diaphragrm upward and forces the fuel out of thepunp chamber, through the out le t check va lve, in to the l ine leadingLo the carburetor . The pump wi t l cont inue to del iver fue l as longas the force of the spring is able to overcome the pressure in thecarburetor fue l l ine.

Frorn th is descr ip t ion, i t can be seen that the cam act ion of theeccentric merely moves the diaphragrn downward and compresses thespr ing, whi le the actual pumping is done by the spr ing .as thepiessure on i t is re leased. The pressure which the punp mainta insin the fue l l ine depends on the s t rength of the d iaphragrn spr ing.As the pressure bui lds up, a point is reached where the spr ing wi I Ibe strong enough to l i f t the diaphragn only part of the htay. l{henno fue l is be ing taken in to the carburetor , the d iaphragm wi l lremain in the lowest pos i t ion and the punp wi l l not de l iver anyfue l .

3- t_ t_

The CARBURETOR is a device usedfor sending a f ine spray of fue linto a ruoving stream of air onits way to the intake valves ofthe cy l inders. The spray isswept a long, vapor ized, andAk Hqm nixia ( as ; gai) , with the

6orrvrlvr noving air. The carburetor isdesigned to naintain the samenourt nixture ratio over a wide range

vrntwi Cbrta of engine speeds. The UIXTTIREvcnr'd RATIO is the number of pounds of

air nixed with each pound oflhrorrtrEorty gasoline vapor. A RICH l,lIxTttRE'

is one in which the percentageThronrrvrhn of gasoline vapor is high, while

a LEAN MIXTTIRE contains a lowpercentage of gasol ine vapor .Gasol ine engines nonnal lyoperate best on a mixture ratioof about 12 to 1. A carburetor

tigre 3-10. I scberatic ftaring of a consists of several principalfloat-type carbrrretor. parts, each of them perf onning

risure 3-r.o). rhese units are the t=t".:? $:S::i"I"iHtttil.(ff;idring systems, and the throttre and choke varves. A throttLeconnected to the thrott le valve controls the engine speed, andadjustrnents are provided for regutating the ial ing ipeed andn ix tu re .

The FLOAT rnaintains a constant fuel level in the f loat chanber byregulat ing the f low of gasor ine through a needle va1ve. As morefuel enters the chamber, the f loat r ises and c loses the va lve.Whi le the engine is running, the f loat a l lows gasol ine to enter thef loat chamber at the same rate as i t is be ing used by the engine.A constant fue l pressure is rna inta ined on the needle va lve by thefuel punp.

The MAIN JET SYSTEM consis ts of the d ischarge nozz le located in theventur i -shaped a i r passage or throat o f the carburetor . Ares t r i c t i on , ca l l ed a me te r ing j e t , i s l oca ted i n t he passage tha tcarr ies the fue l f rom the f loat chanber to the nozz le. fhe nainai r -b leed perru i ts a i r to pass in to the d ischarge nozz le and mixwi th the fue l . This a i r -b leed arrangernent , when properry des igned,wi l l rna inta in a fa i r ly constant fue l -a i r n ix ture ra i io at a I lengine speeds above id l ing.

The ter rn VENTURI is appl ied to the constr ic ted sect ion of the a i rpassage around the rnain je t .

3-L2

The inconing air must speed up to get through this snall passage.According to a law of physics, the speeding up of a f luid in aclosed passage is accompanied by a corresponding decrease inpressure. The reduction in pressure in the venturi section of thecarburetor causes a f ine stream of fuel to spray from the nain jet.The fuel level in the f loat chamber is naintained sl ightly belowthe t ip of the discharge nozzle, so that fuel wil l not run out ofthe nozzle when the engine is stopped.

The IDLING SYSTEM provides a r ich mixture for slow engine speedsand for s tar t ing. I t is made up of the id l ing je t , the id l ing a i r -b leed, and the id l ing passage. The id l ing passage opens in to theair passage through the idl ing jet, which is just above thethrott le valve. When the engine is idl ing with the thrott le alrnostclosed, the action of the intake stroke in each cyl inder creates ahigh vacuum in the air passage above the thrott le valve. FueIf lows up through the idl ing passage and discharges into the airs t rearn. The id l ing a i r -b leed is ad justed to regulate the id l ingmixture rat io ,

The operat ion of the id l ing je t depends on the posi t ion of thethrot t te va lve, but the main je t depends on the ve loc i ty , or speed,of the air passing through the venturi. This means that the enginestarts and runs up to a certain speed on the idl ing jet; but as thespeed increases, the nain je t begins to funct ion and the id l ing je tcuts out. Carburetors are designed and adjusted so that the mainjet wi I I cut in before the id l ing je t cuts out . Over a range of afew hundred rph, both jets are functioning. If the thrott le isopened too suddenly , the engine may sta l l , because opening thethrot t le va lve has caused the id l ing je t to cut out , but the enginespeed is not yet h igh enough to s tar t the rnain je t funct ion ing.

Most carburetors have only two or three operating adjustments. Theid l ing a i r -b1eed should be set when the engine is turn ing overs lowly. I t should be turned to the r ight or le f t to f ind theposi t ion in which the engine wi l l run smooth ly . Turn ing th isldjustment to the teft leans the mixture, while turning to ther ight makes i t r icher . The id l ing speed is ad justed by means of aset screb/ in an arm mounted on the thrott le shaft. Somecarburetors have a third adjustrnent for regulating the mixturedel ivered to the engine by the main je t .

I gn i t i on Sys tem. In a gaso l i ne eng ine , t he fue l -a i r m ix tu re i sign i ted by an e lect r ic spark. The compress ion rat io is not h ighenough to heat the a i r to the k ind l ing ( ign i t ing) temperature ofthe fue l . The re la t ionship between the gasol ine and d ieselprinciptes can be seen when you try to stop an overheated gasolineengine. It often continues to [run onrr for some tirne af ter youhave turned of f the ign i t ion. The engine is operat ing on thediesel pr inc ip le . The overheated cy l inders and p is tons increasethe normal compression ternperature to a point high enough to ignitethe fue l mixture.

3-1- 3

The ign i t ion systen is des ignedto del iver a spark in thecombustion charnber of eachcyl inder at a speci f ic po int intha t cy l i nde r ' s cyc le o foperat ion. A typ ica l ign i t ionsystem consis ts of an ign i t ioncoi l , a nechanica l breaker , acondenser , a d is t r ibutor , asparkplug in each cy l inder , aswi tch, and the necessaryw i r i ng .

Figure 3-11. scbeHtic diaqar of ttre igition Like the dieset engine, thesyster of a gsolbe engine. gasoline engine also has a

storage bat tery , a generator ora l ternator to keep the bat tery charged, and an e lect r ic s tar ter .

There are two d is t inct c i rcu i ts in the ign i t ion systern, ca l led thepr i rnary and secondary. The pr i rnary, or 1ow vol tage c i rcu i t ,con ta ins the ba t te ry , t he i gn i t i on sw i t ch , t he i gn i t i on co i r , andthe breaker points and condenser . The secondary, or h igh-vol tagec i r cu i t , i s a l so connec ted to the i gn i t i on co i l , and i nc ludes thed is t r i bu to r and spa rk p lugs .

THE STORAGE BATTERY is usual ly the 6 or 12 vo l t type. I t issirni lar to the heavy-duty automobiLe type. one terrninat isgrounded to the engine f rame whi le the other is connected to theign i t i on sys tem.

The IGNfT fON COIL i s i n many respec ts s in i l a r t o anelect romagnet . I t consis ts of an i ron core surrounded by thepr imary and secondary co i ls . The pr imary co i l is nade up of a fewturns of heavy wi re and is connected in the pr imary c i rcu i t . Thesecondary co i l has a great many turns of f ine wi re and is connectedin the secondary c i r cu i t . f n bo th co i l s , t he w i re i s i nsu la ted ,and the co i ls are ent i re ly separate f rom each other . The onlyth ing they have in common is the i ron core.

THE BREAKER POfNTS const i tu te a mechanica l swi tch connected in thepr imary c i rcu i t . They are located in the bot tom of the d is t r ibutorand are opened by a can that is t imed to break the c i rcu i t a t theexact instant a t which each cy l inder is due to f i re . This abruptstopping of the current f lowing through the pr inary co i l induces avol tage in the secondary co i l . Because the number of turns in thesecondary co i l is rnuch greater than those in the pr inary co i l , thevol tage induced is a lso rnuch greater . Some newer engines have ane lec t ron i c i gn i t i on modu le wh ich rep laces the b reake r po in t s .

A CONDENSER is connected across the breaker points to preventa rc ing when the po in t s a re opened .

- . l r ** ,o. ** i? f t +@,&rq i t t i t

+

3 - l _ 4

THE DISTRIBUTOR, conta ins a rotor , located secondary or h ighvol tage c i rcu i t , serves as a se lector swi tch to r rd is t r ibuter f thehiqh vo l tage current to the ind iv idual spark p lugs. The same dr iveshaft operates both the breaker points and the rotor.

The SPARK PLUGS, which extendinto the conbustion chanbers ofthe cy l inders, are connected byheavy insulated wires to thedis t r ibutor . A spark p lugconsis ts essent ia t ly o f a roeta lshell that screlrs into the sparkp lug ho le i n t he cy l i nde r . (Seef i gu re 3 -12 . ) The re i s a cen te relectrode ernbedded in aporcela in cy l inder , and a groundelect rode connected to theshel l . The ground e lect rode isadjusted so that the spacebetween it and the centere lec t rode i s abou t O .O25 inch .l{hen the high voltage is sent tothe p1ug , i t r r f i r es r r . Tha t i s ,an e lect r ic spark junps acrossth is gap between the e lect rodes.

ligre 3-U. Sectioul Vier of a typical spark plttg.When the engine is running, theelectr ic current in the prirnary circuit f lows from the batterythrough the swi tch, the pr inary winding in the ign i t ion co i l , thebreaker points , and then back to the bat tery . The h igh vo l tage isproduced in the secondary winding of the ignit ion coil and f lowsthrough the distr ibutor rotor to the individual spark plugs andback to the ign i t ion co i l through the engine f rane. I t isinteresting to note that the high voltage, which junps the gap inthe spark plugs, does not come from the batt€FY, but is produced inthe i gn i t i on co i1 .

The e lect r ica l systen should requi re l i t t le care other than rout inemaintenance as speci f ied in the ordners nanual . You should keep theconnections t ightened and the battery terninals covered with aI iqht coat ing of pet ro la tum or Vasel ine. The condenser , breakerpoints ,and spark ptugs, should be changed at the in terva l speci f iedin the oh,ners manual .

A good ru le to fo l low in locat ing engine t rouble is to never makemore than one adjustment at a t ime. Stop and think how the engineoperates, and f igure out the probable cause of any i r regularoperat ion, locat ing the t rouble by e l in inat ion. Remember that thecause usual ly is a s i rnp le one, ra ther than a nyster ious andcornpl icated one.

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3 - 1 5

IXBOARD - OIIIBOARDS (I/O'sl. I /O' s have gained popularity as theengine is instal led in the stern section of the boat leaving moreunobstructed space in the boat. An outdrive goes through thetransom and down the lower unit to the propeller assembly similarto the outboard drive. However this does call for one more angleto transnit the power to the propeller and hence one more possiblesource of maintenance problems. The outdrive usually goes throughthe hull at or near the waterl ine and since the leg cannot beI j - f ted c lear of the water , in most instances, i t leaves the dr ivemechanism in the water when not in use. In sa l t water , T/Ots havetrouble with the part which is made of an al loy of aluminum whichis subiect to electrolysis. Engine operation and maintenance isthe same as for any other inboard engine.

OUTBOARDS. Outboard engines have a wide choice of horsepower andsize, ranging frorn 25 pounds to six hundred pounds in weight, andfrom 3 h.p. to 3OO h.p. in power. One engine b lock at present canbe increased to 4OO h.p. capaci ty . This great range in horseporderand weight gives a uti l i ty range for most any application you mayneed .

The advantages of the outboard are ease of access for maintenance,I ighter weight , the abi l i ty to change the t i l t o f the engine toadjust t r im of the boat , the fact that i t can be t i l ted up out o fthe water when not in use saving the ravages of constantly beingimmersed, and the capaci ty to operate in water shal lower thanconvent ional inboard boats.

A wide se l -ect ion of propel lers are avai lab le for outboards enabl inga cfose ef f ic ient ta i lor ing to the needs of get t ing the most thrustout o f the engine for the huI I type on which i t is used. Severa ltypes of corros ion f ight ing mater ia ls involv ing chromate bonding,epoxy coat ing, and acry l ic enamel f in ishes are being used to s lowdown corrosion thus making then more adaptable to salt water use.

3- t - 6

sruDv QuEsrroNs.

1. In the spark ign i t ion engine, fue l and a i r is rn ixed i .n the

2 . The fue l i n a d iese l eng ine i s i n to the cy l i nde r .

3. What ign i tes the fue l in a d iesel engine?

4. L is t the operat ions per formed by each of the four s t rokes of a

four s t roke cyc le engine:

1 .a

3 .

4 .

5. L is t the operat ions per formed by each of the two st rokes of a

two st roke cYcle engine:

1 .

6. The exhaust va lve is open at the bot torn of the

st roke on a 2-st roke engine-

7. L is t the main work ing par ts of the pohter system that t ransrn i t

power f rorn the cy l inders to the dr ive shaf t .

B . T h e v a L v e s a r e o p e n e d b Y

9 . T h e is designed to change rotarY to

in te rm i t t en t rec ip roca t i ng mo t ion to open the va l ves .

3 - L 7

10. The lubr icat ing system in an in ternal combust ion enginedel ivers o i l to the moving par ts to and to

11. Mar ine engines are cooled by

12. what are the par ts of the induct ion ( fuer) systern of agaso l i ne eng ine?

13 . f n the gaso l i ne eng ine , t he ra t i o o f t he fue l t o a i r m ix tu re i scontro l led by the

L4 . Wha t i s a r i ch m ix tu re i n a gaso l i ne eng ine?

15 . Wha t i s a l ean m ix tu re?

1 6 . T h e prov ides a r ich mixture fors l -ow engine speeds and for s tar t ing.

17 . A t yp i ca l i gn i t i on sys te rn o f a gaso r ine eng ine cons i s t s o f

, and

18. L is t the components in the pr i rnary ign i t ion c i rcu i t o f agaso l i ne eng ine .

3 - t_8

l -9 . L is t the cornponents in the secondary ign i t ion c i rcu i t o f agaso l i ne eng ine .

2 0 . T h e h i g h v o l t a g e

produced in the

that produces the spark in the spark plug is

3 - 1 9

CHAT4IER 4

I{ARLTNSPIKE gEAURilgfiTP

+IIRO,9UgEqOql. The reading material for this lesson can be found inthe ' following pages as well as the chapter on M?r*jr+egeih,€$efuane,,hip ,- in the earlier editions of ,gFlFMn{, .P,trotiag,9eaaanship, aad SaalJ' Boat EandlinE and in Section 3, Chapter 13of the later edit ions. The study questions at the end of thislesson are based on these readings.

!-ql*g* Of, .FPPts. Today t,here are three basic t149es of, ropeavailable to boaters. They are natural rope, synthetic rope, andwire rope, However, there has been a great shift away from thenatural l lnes to the synthetic ] ines in the past few years. Oncerope is placed aboard a vessel- and/or put to us€r it is termedL ine .

NqtPraf ,Ililrp,, Until the 1.950's, there were six tlpes of naturalf iber l ine readily availabre for use. ?hese were nanila, sisaLcotton, hempr Linen, and jute. Ot these six, maniLa and cottonlines axe Just about the only ones whlch can be found in mostmarine supply gtores today. Because of this, only manila andcot ton wi l l be d iscussed here.

Manil.a line ig made from plant fibers and is fairly Etrong anddurable. I t is the most popular of natural f iber l ines. fts mainadvantages are: i t is readily available, relative inexpensive andls very durable, With proper care, manila l ine can last foryears. I t has virtual ly been replaced, however, by syntheticllne for running rigging and other light use. Compared tosynthet ic f iber l ine, mani la is fa i r ly s t i f f . I ts ch iefdisadvantage is that l t wi]. l deteriorate i f Btowed wet, oral lowed to l ie out in the sun or foul weather, rt dries easj-1y,though, and is not very hard to maintain.

Cg!!g+ l ine has only about half the strength of manila l ine. I tis most ly used by smalL boats. Unl ike urani la , iL is p l lab le andsoft to the touch, and w111 run srnoothly in bloclts. rts maindisadvantage ls that i t is susceptible to rot. I t also stret,chesquite a bit l ike some of, the syn|hetics.

FrqFhqFlc P*rr-rg. synthetic line may look like natural fiber linebut there is a world of difference between them. slmtheticsusually cogt much more than natural f iber 1in€r but thedifference in price is Eenerally well worth i t , The use ofsynthetice is vety advantageous,

synthetics can be stowed wet, and they ar6 almost irnpervious tosalt, air, waterr and anything else that could destroy naturall ine. they last an incredibly long t, ine. They are tougherand stronger size for size than Just about any other l inematerial. synthetics can do anythinE that f, iber l" ine can do anddo the better just about every t ime.

cH2

4-1

Synthetic l ine needs hardly any mad-ntenance, lo be sur€r i twiLt deteriorate when left out in the weaLherr but this rateof deter iorat lon is fa i r ly s low. I t can a lso mi ldew i f s toredwet. I f gynthet, ics are given the care that is usually givento f iber l ine, then their longevity is almost l lnit less.

All synthetics tend to un3.ay when they are cut, so care shouldbe taken when cuttinE them. After cuttlng, you shouldimmediately whip them. Heat can heJ-p you a 1ot when whippingsynthetic l ine. For instance, a soJ.dering iron heLd againstthe end of a nylon l ine wil l melt the f iberg. When the ironis taken dwalr the molten mass wil-I harden; giving you a self-contained whipping.

There are four types of synthetic J.ines in comnon use today.They are nylon, dacron, polypropylene and polyethylene.

ItIgL$gg has many characteristics that make it better thanany other t lpe of l ine. Nylon has the highest elasticity andcan absorb seven t imes the shock load of manila. For thisreason, nyJ-on is used extensively for mooring and towingrl- ines. Nylon has high abrasion resisLance arrd wil l not roteven after being left wet for lonq periods of t ine.

When comparing l ine of l ike size, nylon is twice as strongr asmanila. In other words, nylon l irre of smaller diameter canbe used when replacing natural f iber l ine. As in mostsynthetic materials, nylon line is more expensive thannatural f iber l ine, but in the Long xun it is nuch cheaper,It is soft to the touch and extremely f lexible. I t requiresno breaking in to work out any stl f fness, as reguired withmanila and other natural f iber l ines.

Elastlcity, an advantage of nylon, is al"so the maindlsadvantage of nyJ-on l lne. When it reaches the end of iEselongation, it will snap like a rubber band and becomeextrerRely dangerous to anybody or anything within its reach.

It+qh, xqn?,q+qv F;,oLJ(eqt?F,_,TippL ,(DaFfortl, like nylon, is soft to thetouch, is extremely flexible and requites no breaking in. Dacron(polyester), on the other hand, is not elastic l ike nylon yet i thas all of the other desirable qualities of nylon. Dacron linedoes npt stretch much more than manila l ine, I t has greaterstrengthr f lexibi l i ty, and higher wear resistance thanmanila. I t , too, can be stored wet and is irnpervious to rot,or salt lvater. Dacron is used a lot for al l running rigglng.In fact, i t has just about replaced cotton l ine for thispurpose. This goes hand in hand with the fact that Dacron,l ike cotton, is fair ly l ight in welght.

Are,ned Fiber (Kev1ar) . This is a new fiber that combinesensional ab i l i t ies. I t ls expensive

and used mainly by those in sai l ing competit ion.

4-2

Polyethylene and Polvpropylene are two other types of syntheticl ine in use today. They have s imi lar proper t ies and, qu i teunderstandably , s imi lar names. Compared to the other synthet ics,however, polyethylene and polypropylene l ine have severald i sadvan tages . one is low abras ion res is tance. Anotherdisadvantage is that they are not as supple as the othersyn the t i cs . They have the sane f l ex ib i l i t y as man i l a .

Both types of l ine are very popular because they f loat. They havejust about rep laced a l l o ther types of l ine as water-sk i tow l ines.

Polypropylene d i f fers f rom polyethy lene l ine in that i t is actual lys t ronger when i t is wet than when i t is dry . AIso, i t is not ass l ippery as polyethy lene.

Wire Rope. Wire rope is not used very much by smal l boaters. f tsuse is genera l ly conf ined to r igg ing on sa i lboats and anchor l inesfo r sma l l boa ts . f t s manu fac tu re i s s im i l a r t o f i be r and syn the t i cI ine. I t is made up of wound st rands of wi re, genera l ly over aco re , wh ich i s so rne t imes made o f w i re , bu t usua l l y o f f i be r . Us ingf iber for the core of wi re rope g ives i t f lex ib i f i ty and forms acushion for the wi re s t rands. This prov ides the wi re rope wi th acer ta in amount of e last ic i ty or g ive. Wire ropes are made in f iveg rades , wh ich a re re l . a t i ve to s t reng th . These g rades a re , i ndec l i n ing o rde r : improved p low s tee l , p low s tee l , m i l d p low s tee l ,t r ac t i on s tee l , and i r on .

CARE OF LINES. L ine, ho mat ter what i t is made of , needs care ata l l t i nes . Even the s t ronges t syn the t i c l i ne , i f abused , cande te r i o ra te . G iven the h igh p r i ce o f any t ype o f l i ne these days ,i t is a good idea to take care of what you have, ra ther than le t i tget run down and regui re new l ine. Here are a few basic maintenanceru les that wi t l keep your l ine in good shape i f you fo l low thernd j - l igent ly .

Do no t ove r load you r l i ne . Fo r l i nes o f a I I t ypes , assume tha tthe safe work ing s t rength is one- f i f ' th i ts breaking s t rength. Ino the r words , i f t he b reak ing s t reng th o f a l i ne i s one thousandpounds, then never subject i t to a strain of more than two hundredpounds . Wha t you a re do ing , i n e f fec t , i s sav ing those o the r f ou r -f i f ths or 8OO pounds for an emergency" I f your l ine is o1d orworn , make an a l l owance to th i s one - f i f t h ru le . f n o the r words ,make i t one - ten th .

protect your l ines against abras ion. Both the outer and innerf ibers of your l ine contr ibute equal ly to i ts s t rength. I t s tandsto reason tha t worn l i ne i s weakened l i ne . Where l i ne i s sub jec tto loca} abras ion for instance, when i t w i t l rub against a chockprotect i t w i th chaf ing gear , such as canvas wrapped t ight aroundthe l i ne .

4 -3

Avoid sudden st ra ins on your l ine. L ines of a} l types that arestrong enough to hold up to a steady strain can be broken with asudden jerk . Care when work ing wi th l ines is ext rernely i rnpor tant .

Store your } ines proper ly . Natura l f iber l ines wi I I deter ioratequick ly i f not s tored proper ly . They should only be s tored whendry, should be wel l vent i la ted, should be protected against d i rectsunl ight , and should be co i led proper ly . The same ru les apply tosynthetic l ines i f you want to get the best use out of them.Synthet ics, however , need not be g iven specia l s tor ing care otherthan keeping them out of sunlight and out of extremely hotcompartments.

Always keep your l ines c lean. Di r t acLs l ike sandpaper on bothnatura l and synthet ic l ine. I t is an abras ive and is dangerous tol ines i f i t is a l lowed to work in to the f ibers. Wash your l inesthoroughly wi th c lean water when i t becomes d i r ty . And, of course,a l low i t to dry before you put i t back in to use. Even thoughsynthet ic l ine wi I I not ro t i f s tored wet , you do not want toinduce any more moisture in to your s torage Iockers than necessary.

A1ways match your I ine to i ts use. For instance, use the r ights i ze l i ne fo r t he sheaves i n a b lock o r pu I l ey . Don ' t f o rce th i ckl ine in to a smal l chock. Misus ing your l ine in th is way can putexcess wear on i t .

Keep chern ica ls of a l l k inds away f rom your l ines. Natura l f iberl ines can be severe ly damaged by exposure to chemicals . Though theruLe books say that synthet ic f iber l ine is immune to damage f romo i l , gaso l i ne , pa in t , t u rpen t i ne , a l coho l , and mos t o the rchemica l - s , be on the sa fe s ide . Make i t a genera l ru le to keepchemica l s ah ray f rom a I I k i nds o f l i ne .

Avoid excess wear . To avoid wear , reverse your l ine end for endper iod ica l ly . This wi I I d is t r ibute the wear more evenly on yourl ine and g ive a longer l i fe . For instance, end- for -end your anchorI ine at regular in terva ls , the par t that is regular ly immersed inwater should be subst i tu ted for the par t that remains dry on deck.

Avoid k inks in your l ine. A k ink is the resul t o f a l ine that isrepeatedly turned or twis ted in one d i rect ion. I f you have a k inkin your l ine, 9et i t out immediate ly and, for cer ta in , don ' t put as t ra in on i t . A k ink i n a l i ne i s l i ke the weakes t l i nk i n acha in .

Do not run your l ines over sharp angles. Sharp bends in a l inedecrease its strength in that spot. I f you have to run your l ineove r a sha rp ang le , pad i t f o r sa fe ty .

4 - 4

LIXE USAGE, KNO{IS . HTTCHES . BErDS - Al{D SPLICES.

"Dipping the Eye" on abol lard. Most moor ing l inesused dockside have an eye splicein one end, which nakes i tconvenient to put the loop overa bollard and snub the l ine toa c leat on your deck. This wi I Iwor]< f ine unti l another boatcomes along and uses the samebol lard for a noor ing l ine. Forinstance, when you use a bollardfor your bow line and the boatahead of you uses it for hisstern l ine. I f your l ine wasthe f i rs t one on, then i t wouldappear that i t would have to bethe last one of f . In otherwords, the eye of your l ine isunder the eye of the boat aheadof you. You would have to l i f to f f the other l ine before youcou ld l i f t o f f you rs . Th i scould prove d i f f icu l t to do, butnot so i f you "d ipped the eyer ' .

The procedure is sinple. l , lerelytake the eye of your l ine, moveit up through the eye of theother l ine (you n ight have tos lacken you r l i ne to do th i s ) ,s l ide i t up over the top of thebol lard, and then pul l i t backthrough the eye of the otherI ine. You have accompl ished thejob wi thout d is turb ing the l ineo f t he o the r boa t ( f i gu re 4 -1 ) .

The SOUARE KNOT, ( f igure 4-2)or Reef Knot, is one of the mostcommon knots for joining twoI ines of equal s ize togetherwhere no great load is p laced.It jarns up t ight and is hard toundo when g iven great s t ra inand , i f one s ide i s pu l l edunevenly, rnight cause the knotto fa l l i n to two ha l f h i t ches .

Sguarc knot. Also called reef knot.

4-5

The BOWLINE ( f igure 4-3) , o f ten referred to as the r rKing ofKnotsrr, is the most used knot for naking a tenporary loop. It ismade wi th a s ing le l ine, is easy to t ie , wont s l ip under load andis eas i ty unt ied. I t may a lso be used to jo in two l ines togetherby tying the of one bowline inside the loop of the other.

Xake loop

J

Undor andovcr 1t acl j

Up ttrrough endenound back

Back dornthrough

The HALF HITCH (f igure4-4) is s imple and isused in connection withnany other knots. Whentwo half hitches areused together i t makes as l id ing knot that wi I Iset up under load int ightness in directre la t ion to the load. Around turn with two halfhitches is shown below.I t i s f as t and 'easy tot ie . I t can be used asa long term fastening tosecure a l ine to ap i l i ng .

Undcr rndOVGrIt:etfI t r { n

TI{O IIALF NITCI{ES

4-6

The CLovE HrTCH ( f igure 4-5)is a basic knot used totempora r i l y t i e a l i ne top i l i ngs , e t c . When a s t ra in i sma in ta ined , t he l i ne w i I I no ts l i p . I t w i I I se tup t i gh t andcan be hard to unt ie . When le f ts lack af ter ty ing, i t can workIoose , So wa tch i t .

The TfI-{BER HITCH is a verys imple, fast and easy way tosecure a l ine to logs and otherround objects for towing. Tot ie , pass the b i t ter end of thel ine around the object , over thestanding par t o f the l ine, andthen wrap the bitter end backaround i tse l f 3 or 4 turns. I t nay be fo l lowed by a hal f h i tch ortwo around the object to give i t al ignment with the standing partof the l ine dur ing the tow. When hal f h i tches are used, theyshould be made f i rs t .

Tlo aContlnuo ovor and under

for an addltlonal 3 or Atumu

Clove hi tcb.

ry

TIMEEN, HITCH

4 -7

The ROLLfNG HITCH, or s topper knot , can be at tached around a l ineunder s t ra in and used to rna inta in the s t ra in whi le the other l inei s be ing rnoved o r f as tened . I t can a l so be s l i d a long the l i neunder s t ra in by hand, but wi l l ho ld when load is on i t . You canbend a l ine on to a spar or another l ine at a rn id-point o f the sparor l ine. Sornet ines used when conver t ing a s ing le towl ine in to ab r i d l e .

T1e ahal:f hltch

Around agaln

cro33 0rrorflrst turnpasslngbetveontho f lrst

turn

ROIIINC HITCH

The SHEET BEND,zBECKET BEND uses either name and is used to t iedtwo l ines of unequal s ize together . Unl ike the square knot i t iseasi ly unt ied af ter s t ra in . The double becket is s imply an ext raturn again back under and through.

Back under 1tso1f oncos lng le becko t bend

Aror.rnd agaln beck rrndordoublo becket band

SHggT EENDBECKEf, /MUBLE

4 - 8

SPLfCfNG is the preferred urethod of perrnanently joining two l inestogether and to make a permanent eye in a l ine. A splice isst ronger than a knot , h i tch, or bend.

A Long SpI ice or Shor t Sp1ice can be used to jo in to I inestogether . A long sp l ice does not increase the d ianeter o f a l ineand is used when the spliced l ine nust run over the sheaves of ab lock" Whi le th is sp l ice is much neater Iook ing, i t is notdescribed here since it is harder to nake, requires considerablepract ice, and large amounts of l ine.

To start a SHORT SPLICE, unlay the end of each rope about sixinches. Secure the ends of the three strands with tape to keepthem from further unlaying. l{ i th synthetic l ine the ends of eachstrand can be fused wi th a so lder ing i ron. A lso tape the point onthe l ine where the unlay ing is to eease.

Marry the three strands from onerope to the three of the other,much I ike in ter lock ing twot r i pods . Tape o r se i ze theunion together .

Bring one strand from the rights ide over a s t rand f rom the le f trope and tuck i t ( the r ights t rand) under the next le f ts t rand. Using a f id or yourf ingers, separate a s t rand onthe main body of the l ine. Nowrun the n idd le of the threetaped strands under thisopening. Select the one to thelef t o f the middle and go overone st rand, separate the nexts t rand wi th the f id . Now pushthe second taped st rand in to andout of th is opening. The ru leto fo l l ow i s , t he nex t s t randrrgoes in" where the prev iousst rand r rcame outr r . Note the twostrands inser ted so far areinse r ted aga ins t t he l ay o f t hel i ne no t w i t h i t . A l so , d t not ime is more than one inser tedstrand coming out of the sameopen ing .

I^ Ihen the sp l ice is proper lystar ted, each of the threest rands f rom each end is securedunder a s t rand on the opposi te

Snug up on what you have done and continue the process unti l thethree strands from each side have been tucked a nininum of threet imes for mani la and f ive t imes for synthet ic l ines. Leave aboutL/4 to 3/8 inch of strand projecting. The somewhat lurnpy splicecan be reduced in dianeter by rol l ing the completed splice on theground under foot or putt ing i t under tension.

The EYE SPLICE is used when a pennanent eye is desired and nay bemade around any object such as eye splice thinble, stanchion, orsirnply made without anything in the eye. To start, tape each ofthe three strands to keep then from unlaying and unlay six inchesor more of the l ine and prevent further unlaying of the l ine atthat point by taping there.

Determine the size of the eye, keep the turn of the eye towards youand the s tanding par t o f the l ine away f rom you, wi th a f id orf ingers separate a strand on the standing part of the l ine and runthe middle of the three taped strands under this opening. Separatea strand on the standing part to the left of your f irst tuck andrepeat step number one. Renember the rule, the next strand rrgoesin: where the previous strand rrcame out'r . Tuck the third strandthrough the remaining lay on the standing part that has no strandunder i t . Repeat this process three or more t ines naking sure thatno lay on the standing part has two strands under i t .

4 - L 0

STrOIIIXG LIIIE. Stowing your line so it is ready for use can be done

in severa l ways.

Coi led. Coi l ing is descr ibed in deta i l in Chaprnans.

Flenished. Flernishing is a decorative nethod to store a short

r" i f f i-Z?line. It is usually done on the deck near a cleat or

otn6t fastening where the l ine was secured. It can stain or cause

a d iscolorat io i o f the deck i f le f t too long in the weather .

Faked. t{hen you want to lay a l ine on the deck, in i ts fuII

feigtf i , so that i t i" ready to fun out rapidly without tangling, i t

should be faked down.

Ropc Fakcd Down

Rooa hilcd Down Rope Flcmished Doilrr

4 -11

STUDY QUESTTONS.

1 . The two types o f na tura l f iber rope genera l l y ava i lab le in

marine supply stores are and

2 . The advan tages o f nan i l a l i ne a re ; i t i s

, and

3 . Man i l a l i ne w i l l

4 . Co t ton l i ne has

i f s towed wet .

the s t rength of mani la l ine.

5. The four types of synthetic l ine in cornmon use today are:

6 . Because ny lon l i ne i s so e las t i c , i t i s used fo r

and I i nes .

7. Why is ny lon dangerous at t imes?

8. What are the character is t ics of Dacron (polyester) I ine?

g. Dacron d i f fers f rom Nylon l ine in that i t is not

10. What is the d i f ference between polyethy lene and polypropylene

I i ne?

11, . Why is f iber used in the core of some wire ropes?

4 -L2

L2. What are the f ive grades of wi re l ines?

L3. L is t the ten ru les for the proper care of l ine.

L4. A Clove Hi tch can be used to make a

fas ten ing to a P i t i ng .

15. To temporar i ly jo in two I ines of d i f ferent d ianeters, you would

use a

16 . A is preferred when permanently joining two

I ines together .

L 7 . A is used when a temporary loop is desired.

18. To secure a l ine to a log for towing, YoU would use a

L9. To secure a l ine to a p i l ing ' on a long term basis , the safest

fastening to use would be a

20. Expla in uses of s topper / ro l l ing h i tch.

4-L3

21,. when laying a long l ine down on deck, where the furr rengthmust be run out fair ly rapidly, the l ine should be

22. when night i t becone necessary to dip an eye on a borrard?

2 3 . A wil l cause less reduction in l ine strength than any

24. T ie the fo l rowing knots: square knot , bowl ine, round turn andtwo harf hitches, crove hitch, doubre becket/sheet bends, andt imber h i tch.

25 . Make an eye sp l i ce .

4 - L 4

CIIAPTERS

BOATIIANDLING

F{TSODUCTIOI!. The reading material for this lesson may be found ia the chapter covering PowerCrulser Seamqtrshin in the earlier editions and in Sectiop l.,Clepteq 9 of the later editions of

The student should read this sntirech4ter paying particula attentim to the topics and sub-topics in the following study outline.

STI]DY OUTLINE

Basic,Principlpp qt Bo,qt Handliqg

Efrect of wind and Current

Rigbt and I.€ft"I{and Propellen

Howthe PnopellerActsSuction and fischarge Screw CunentsUneqrnl Blade Thrust

HowaRuderActsPropeller Cunent's Action on Rudder

Response of Boat to Rudder and hopellerNo Way On, kopellerNd TrunlngNo Way O4 hopellerTuningAheadWi& Headnay, Propelltr Tirming AbadWith Headway, hopeller Rovorsing

with Rudderto PortNo Way 04 FropellerReversingWith Stemway, Propeller Revening

Basking With Left RudderBacking With Rudder AmidshipsBacking wi& Nght RudderSteering While Backing

With Sterquay, hopeller Tuning Ahead

Turning in close QuartersBacldtgAround a T[rnBackingto Port Fron a Slip

Lcaving a MooringWhen There Is Wind or Current

Picking Up a Mooring Under Power

cH2

5"1

F9FF, rinepjgd Their ueq

Terninology

Mooring a BoatTwo Lines on One PiLeHeaving -tines and Monkey's Fists

Using Spr ing LinesGaing Ahead on a Spring

Ahead on an After SpringReversjng on a Spring

L,sa.ri nq at a, Pier

Wind or Current Paral le l to BerthLandings Downwind or With Current

When Boats Lie Ahead and AstetnUsing Wind or Current

Balancing Current Against Propeller Action

Landing on the Leeward SideBow Lina FirstIlolding with One SpringDoubJing the Spring

Landing Starboard Side to Pier

9e!tiqs. cl?+f otr a. .B€p,th

With Wlnd or Current AheadFrom a Windward BerthWith Wind or Current .A,sternBackinE AroundTurning in a Berth

Turning With PowerMake Use of Fenders

Maneuverinq at sl.ipe in Tiqht Orrarterg

A Berth Between Pi lesUsinq Springs to the Pjles

' Nproaching UpwindGett ing CLear of a Pi le

Making a Tight Turn

5-2

Handling Trrin-Screw Boats

Basic Turn ing UaneuversOne PropeTTer Going Ahead or BackingResponse to Rudder Whil-e Backing

Steer ing Wi th The Throt t lesTurning in a Boat's Length

Docking a Twin-Screw BoatUsing Spr ings Wi th Twin-Screws

Other Twin-Screw Manuevers

5 - 3

STUDY QUESTIONS

l - . The par t o f the cur ren t tha t f lows in to the prope l le r i s ca l led

2. when a r ight handed propel ler is turn ing crockwise, the boatw i l l go

3. on a motorboat, turning the steering wheel to starboard givesthe boat rudder and throws the stern toand turns the boat to

4. The stern of a s ing le screw boat wi th a le f t handed propel lertends to go to therevers ing.

when the propeLler is

5. When a boats rudder is put over , the s tern is k icked

6. when back ing an inboard, wi th a s ing le r ight hand propel ler andrudder amidship, the s tern wi l l tend to move to

7. FoUR moor ing l ines that may be at tached to the bow of aboat for dock moor inq are:

B. The four l ines that may be used as spr ings are:

9. The moor ing l ine that keeps the boat f rom going ahead is the

10 . To sp r ing i n to a dock , use a sprJ.ng,and go ahead slowly with the rudder turned

5-4

I I, Getting away from a dock, when the boat is being set into it by the wind generallyrequues usmg an

12. Backing on a forwurd quarter spring on the port side, the bow will

13. A forward quarter spring line leads forward from the ,. ,, _ to the

14. A 4 to 6 foot long plank hung horimntally on the side of the o-oat and backed withis called a

15, By going atread on one engine while the other reverses, a twin screw boat can be

16. A twin-screw boat is stopped by reversing its propellers, but uulike a single-screwvessel, this will usually not

cH25-5

This Page Left Intentionally Blank

5-6

CHAPTER 6

IINAVY WEATHER

UffSgpUpT[ON.' The reading material for this lesson can be found in the fotlowingpages as well as the section Eopt Ilandlihg Unilgr. Adver$e Cpn$itipns in the clmpteron iggqg in the emly edition of CIIAPIVIAN Pilotine.SeF4ppns.hip and Sqgllf Bpat Hnndlins and in Seqfio4 ,3. Ch.nntpr 1,1 of the later' editions. The study questions at the end of the lEsson are based oo these readings.

Tlre best advise for someone considering going out in a boat in rough weather is don't. Ifyou have a choiceo sray in a sheltered harbor until the weatlret clea$. You will neverreset it. Many boatnan, however, thmugb no fault of their owrr, do not have a choice.Along the coast and even in inland waferways, squalls can develop strddenly with little orno warning. Cruising men making long passages often find themselves faced withprolonged stormy weather and not arough time to make it to a safe refuge before a stormstrikes. Even today, when weather forecasting is faidy accurate, a sudden change inoryected weather pattiems can catch boaters offshore at the mercy of wind and wave,

Your best bet is to prepare yourself for heavy weather operations in advance, Knowingwhat to expect and the capabilities of your boat oan go a long way in an emef,gency.Self-confidence is the name of the gafr€ in bad weather, and this quality can only beobtained through knowledge and experienee.

Tlrere axe ilFrry facts about the wind, water, and yor,u boat that you can leanr. But inpractice many things can happen that are impossible to prepare for such things as sudderrshifts in the wfuid, freak waves, etc. Because of this, you must ty to keep a clear head atatl times; paoic can only compound difficult situations, corunon sense can often solve &emost complicated problems, Knowing something about the challenges you must face cangrve you confidence. That is the pu{pose of this lesson.

Ir this lessoq some of the principles of waves and wind will be covered. Beeauseboating conditions anc so variable, however, depending as they do on location, time ofyear, the 0?e of boat being used, and scores of other factors, you should study othersouroes as well to really get a feel fot what you might be up against.

W4{q }VAYS$. Nearly all waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface ofthe sea" Wind blowing over the surface of the watel will cause wav€s. The longer andsfonger the wind blows, the higher the waves. If the wind blows in the sanre direstionfor a long period oftime, the waves will tend to run in the sanre direction,

cH2

6-l

If the wind direction should change for a period of time, the watsr wiil beturbulent. Then the ditection of the wayes will begin to confonn to the newdireetionof the wind.

There are two other basic type$ of waves that are not created by wind. Theyare TIDAL waves and SEI$MIC waves. More about these later.

There are many different characteristics of waves. To fasilitate study,oceanographers have come up with what they call an "ideal w&ve.' Theanatomy of an ideal wave can be soen in figure 6-1.

f,'rgure Gl.-Measurlng this ideal wave. The lenglb lr measurcd from crest to crest andthe hcight ls mearured from trough to crest The period is tbe amount of tine lt takcs twocrcsts to pass s given polnl

As you can see, there are several ways wavcs are described. There is heightlengllr" period and slope.

The HFI9Hil is the distance from the trough to the crest measwed vertically.The maldmum height of a wave is hard to pin down. It really depends uponwhonr you talk to. Waves in excess of a hundred fu have been reported, butmost oxperts concede that about fiffy feet is more likely. It is possible thatwaves in a cross see, when two or mone wave systems sonverge from differentdirections, probably have even greater height. But the question of height isacademic for the most part; the highest wave, unless it is breaking, is no moredangerous than the third or fourth highest wave as far as a small boatrran isconcerned. A sailor used to inland waterways would probably find any waveover five feet in height fright€ning.

The I,FNGTII of a warre is the distance between two consecutive gests. Thsgreatest length that has been measued is ovpr 2,700 feet.

6-2

The PERIOD of a wave is the t irne i t takes two crests to pass thesame point. I t stands to reason that the longer the length, theIonger the per iod; but o f course, faster nov ing wave systens do notalways obey this rule. Wave speeds for the most part average about30 n .p .h .

FETCH is another inportantconsiderat ion for wind generatedwaves. The arnount of nf etch[wil l have a direct iropact on thes ize and character is t ic o f thewaves . Fetch is theuninterrupted expanse of waterover which the wind operates.The longer the fetch, the moreeffect the wind can have overthe hrater. I l lus t rated inf igure 6-2 is a body of waterwitn a passage formed by anis land to the east and one tothe wes t , 20 rn i l es apa r t . I fthe wind were blowing from theeast or the west , there wouldon ly be a fe t ch o f 20 m i les . Thewater would only be af fected bythe wind over a shor t d is tance.But i f the wind were blowingfrom the south or north, thefetch would be much greater . Thewater would be affected bY thewind over a long d is tance andthe waves couLd real ly bu i ld up.I f you added an opposing t ide toa long fe tch, You would have atough condj - t ion indeed.

The SLOPE of the lrave is theangular measure f rom the t roughto t he c res t . (See f i gu re 6 -3 . )

No<nl

€floRr rzfcH

?AAt\cf-

Fignrrr $Z-Thc frtch of r wrvc.

T\H\)3{

STORITT TIDE T{AVES, dS thCY ATE ]T?q,6'fl

genera l l y ca l l ed , a re assoc ia tedtitn tropical hurricanes. They Frgurc F3.-Thc dopc of I wrv' ' Slopr ir

are , in real ity , caused by the mcrgrred in dcgrccr'

t rop ica l s torm wind rather thanthe t ide. The wind f rom the s torm, dr iv ing the water before i t ,can bui ld up a great wal l o f h tater . When the t iC le sh i f ts , th iswal l o f water is re leased and a huge htave is formed. Every fewyears a s to rm t i da l wave w i l l des t roy many m i l l i on do l l a rs o fbeachfront proper ty in the t ine span of a couple of minutes.

CPEST

6-3

SEISUfC WAVES are sometimes incorrectly referred to as t idal waves.They are commonly cal led "Tsunamisfr. These waves are caused byear thquakes, vo lcano erupt ions, and d is locat ions under the oceanf loor . Thei r hrave lengths are usual ly very long, for instance,severa l hundred rn i les, and surpr is inq ly enough the i r he ights arealso very low. A se isn ic sea wave wi l l do very l i t t le damage toanybody out in the open ocean. When i t gets c lose to shore,trouble begins. When it reaches shallow water, the wave becomesshor t and much steeper . The c loser i t gets to shore, the h igher i tbecomes unti l i ts crest breaks and it crashes to the beach.

TIDAL WAVES are generated by the gravitat ional puII of the sun andmoon. These waves occur in places with where there is a hugedi f ference in height between h igh and low t ides. When there is arapid r ise of the t ide, an incoming wave is generated. An outgoingwave is formed wi th the rapid fa I I o f the t ide.

SWELLS are waves that were originally generated by the wind butcont inue to ex is t long af ter the wind has d ied down. fn ef fect ,swe l l s a re dy ing h laves . You w i I I gene ra l l y f i nd swe l l s i n a reaswhere there are long fe tches. They or ig ina l ly begin in a s tormarea when f ierce winds k ick up the waves. Af ter the wind < l iesdown , the waves w i l l con t i nue oD, p rov ided , o f cou rse , t ha t t heymeet no obst ruct ions. The passage of t i rne and d is tance reduceswhat once might have been huge braves in to smooth ly undulat ingswel ls . But don ' t be foo led they can be dangerous again. Whenswel l -s reach shoal water , they wi l l be t r ipped up by the bot tom andi f condi t ions are r ight they can easi ly become dangerous SURF.

SURF. Waves turn in to sur f as i t nears the shore. Contrary topopular op in ion, the par t ic les in a brave do not rea l ly move in ahor izonta l d i rect ion. Oceanographers have d iscovered that thepar t icJ-es of a wave actual ly t ravel in a c i rcu lar path orb i t ingaround the ax is of the wave. As the wave nears shore the bot tom ofthe wave begins to touch the ocean bottom. When the water depthfa l ls be l -ow approx imate ly one hal f o f the wave tength, the bot tomof the wave wil l- be slowed by the ocean bottom. At the same time,the top of the hrave continues on at the same speed the wave wasor ig ina l . ly t ravel ing. The angle of the forward s lope of the wavew i l I become g rea te r and g rea te r un t i f i t f i na l l y reaches 90degrees. The wave crest wi l l fa l l forward in to the t rough in f rontof i t and you wi l l have sur f . Breaking r r taves and sur f are muchstronger than non-breaking Idaves.

Breaking waves and sur f can be broken down in to two categor ies;p l unge rs and sp i l l e r s .

A PLTINGER is the product o f a long ground swe1l ca l led a t rochoidalwave. Trochoids are genera l ly very long and very low. They arewaves that are a long d is tance f rom the point where they wereo r ig ina l l y genera ted . On the beach , p lungers r i se up and c rashfo rward , c rea t i ng a thunderous no i se .

6 - 4

SPILLERS, on the other hand, are the resul " t o f cyc l ica l naves '

Sick-outs are shor t choppy waves that have been fa i r ly recent ly

formed by the wind. sp i t ters are just the opposi te f rom plungers '

They b reak qu ie t lY and gen t l y "

WAKES. One wave that is verydangerous for srnal1 boats is thewal<e caused bY a motorboat- I fmore peoPle etere more caref u Iabout wal<es, there would be f arfewer acc idents on the water .Power boats Produce two kinds ofwaves: the bow wave and thes te rn wave ( see f i gu re 5 -4 ) .The bow wave sPreads d iagonal lYar^ray f rom the bow. The sternwaves f o l l ow t he boa tt ransve rse lY . The ex ten t o f aboa t ' s wake i s a func t i on o f he rwa te r l i ne l eng th , d i sP lacemen t ,and sPeed. The stern t rave isthe one that is most dangerousto o the r c ra f t , bu t i t i s a l sodangerous to the boat that is

"a, r i ing i t i f that boat is in

shal low water . The water thatis between the shoaL bottom andthe bot tom of the boat wi l Ibu iLd uP on e i t he r s ide o f t hes tem. i ne s te rn w i l l t hen s inkdeeper in to the t rough and geteven c loser to the bot tom. Ina s i t ua t i on I i ke th i s , sPeedshould be reduced i runediate ly '

the amount of superst ructure of a boat ,a boa t , t he s t reng th and d i rec t i on o fand d i rec t i on o f t he cu r ren t .

Figure H.-Bow and Jtem wayct. The tt rn weve ir

dte mort dangerour of thc two.

/

\

\ , , ^

N^=

CROSS SEAS. Other types of waves that can be dangerous to small

boats are cross seas caused, by a var ie ty of forces ' A t ida l

cu r ren t , meeL ing an oppos ing wave sys ten head on , o r a t an ang le ,

can creace an " . t i f

cnop. fwo wave systerns f rom di f ferent sources

that meet at an angle can have the same ef fect . sudden shi f ts in

the wind can " t . .€"

a s i tuat ion where the wind wi l l be b lowing

aga ins t oncoming waves , t oss ing the sea i n a I l d i rec t i ons .

Both wind and

current a f fect the movement of a boat ' How rnuch is a funct ion ofthe amount of underbody of

the wind, and the s t rength

6 - 5

The arnountf la t bot tom

of e f fec tand less

wi- l l be greaterif the boat has a

i f the boatdeep d ra f t .

has a sha l l ow(F igu re 6 -5 . )

Figure &S.-Draft maker r big differcncr in regard to lccwqT. Bort A, becaur of hcr deep hult,- will notrnatr er much lecwry wfion tfrc wind ir rbcsm rr Bort B.

A strong wind blowing broadside to a boat that has low freeboardand very l i t t le superst ructure (a low-prof i le boat) wi I I not havevery much ef fect on the maneuver ing of that boat . on the otherhand, there wi l l be a considerable ef fect on a boat that has a h ighfreeboard and hi.gh superstructure. With the strong wind blowiigbroadside to , th is type of boat wi l l have considerablL d i f f icu l t i ;maneuver ing.

Current hassha l l ow boa tequa l I eng thst ronger thethe shape of

Figun &6.-Thc wind har morr rurfacr to lct on with gort A thon Bort B.Boot A will bc moru difficult to handlc in wind wtertrcr.

t he same e f fec t . A cu r ren t mov ing b roads ide to awi l l g ive that boat less dr i f t than another boat o fbu t a deep d ra f t . f t goes w i thou t say ing tha t t he

w ind o r cu r ren t , t he g rea te r i t s e f fec t , rega rd less o fthe boat .

6 -6

The d i rect ion f rom which thewind or current rneets a boata lso governs i ts e f fect : f romdead ahead, the ef fect isIess than fron the quarter,which is less than fronbroadside. The reason? Aboat heading into the windshows less Prof i le than onerunning at cross angles tothe w ind . (See f i gu re 6 -7 - \

f t is v i r tua l - lY inPossib le toIook at any boat anddetermine exactlY how nuch itw i I I be a f fec ted bYthe wind and current .by exper iment ing wi thboat in a l l condi t ionsyou be able to come uPaccurate est imates.

The ef fect o f wind andcurrent are related to eachother as wel l . A s t rong windacting on a boat f rorn onedi rect ion and a s t rongcurrent acting on a boat fromthe opposi te d i rect ion cancancel each other out - Aboa t w i t h a h i ghsuperstructure and shallowdra f t can d r i f t qu i t e a l o tin a shor t Per iod of t inre i fi t i s con f ron ted w i tn ast rong wind and a s t rongcurrent from the samed i rec t i on .

OnIyyourw i l lw i th

Figun 87.-Thc wind will hrvc mqt rffcct on Boat Crnd lrrt on Bort A bccaurc of tfic rnrount of rurfaccdrc bostr prsr.nt to drc wind. Thc arrumption ir thatBoltr A, B, end C rrr cquel in hull and:upcnrtrusuru.

Az=

6 - 7

From the foregoing, i t can be seen that the ef fect o f wind andcurrent on a boat depends upon:

1234 )5 )6 )7 )

The strength of the windThe strength of the currentThe length of the boatThe superstructure of the boatThe freeboard the boatThe draft of the boatThe d i rect ion of the wind in rerat ion to the heading ofthe boatThe d i rect ion of the current in rerat ion to the headingof the boatThe d i rect ion and st rength of the current in rerat ion tothe d i rect ion and st rength of the wind.

8 )

(e)

SURF OPERATION. As the surfers have found, al l incoming hraves arenot the same but run in a ser ies ca l led r rsetsr r . This means thatthe b ig ones have severa l smal ler ones in between. Understandingth is , is very usefur when t ry ing to operate in the sur f anapar t icu lar ly when there is a wave bui ld up to sur f condi t ions in aha rbo r channe l .

Before running in to th is condi t ion, s tand of f and count the wavesbetween sets , then t ime your operat ion to take p lace af ter the b igone and before the next b iq one. This requi res exper ience and ar imber neck, or astern rookout , as wel l as eyes in the back of yourhead to watch what is cominq up astern.

when going down the f ront o f a wave the water at your s tern isgoing towards your bow whi le the water at your bow is go ing towardyour s tern. This makes i t very easy to swing s ideways to the waveand b roach . Tha t i s , t he boa t ro l l ed ove r on i t s s ide .observat ion and exper ience wi l l show what can and what cannot bedone wi th a par t icu lar boat and g iven condi t ions. Do not t rust toIuck and bet ter yet s tay out o f sur f i t can be deadly !

HEAVY WEATHER OPERATTON. when you are caught out in hiqh windand/or seas, there are ext ra dangers you must prepare for . r f re f tt o i t s own dev i ces , a boa t w i l l no r rna r l y f a r l i n to a t rough . whenthe winds are s t rong enough and/or the seas h igh enough, th i -sact ion can cause a BRoAcH. As long as you can maneuver , you needto keep the bow point ing in to the wind/seas. Instead of runningf f head-on r r , t r y runn ing a t an ang le , o f up to 45 deg rees , t o t hewaves .

The danger comes when you can no longer mainta in headway. This iswhen a BRoAcH becomes possib le . To prevent th is , you can ut i l izea Sea Anchor as descr ibed be1ow.

6 - 8

Another scenar io is when you are ru l rn ing before the sea- As thewind/waves hit your stern, the boat has a tendency to YAW. That

is , the s tern going f rom s ide to s ide. Steer ing becornes ext rernelyAi i f icu l t . yo i . r f i ;d yoursel f turn ing the wheel f rorn s ide- to-s idet ry ing to of fset the s tern 's mot ion. I f the yawing is not keptunder contro l , the boat can again broach-

There are severa l techniques for keeping the yawing under contro l .AI I requi re cont inual change of throt t le set t ing. When running

before the sea, the best pos i t ion for the boat is on the r rback

side'r of the hrave. The speed of the boat should be adjusted to

keep the boat in that pos i t ion on the wave i f poss ib le- There are

t in l when you wi l l f ina your se l f on the f ront o f the wave. I t is

t ike raci-ng down a ni r r and a broach becomes a dist inctposs ib i l i ty . The re la t ive not ion of the water past the rudder

decreuses under these condi t ions and therefore has less ef fect .

Less rudder ef fect , the more d i f f icu l ty in keeping yawing under

con t ro l . Speed ing up the eng ine , t o i nc rease you r t rdown h i l t r un | l

and i nc rea ie rudder con t ro l , i s a poss ib i l i t y . The re i s a l so

another danger wi th th is act ion. As you reach the bot tom of the

wave, i f th ; speed is too great , the bow can d ig in and the s tern

be t i f ted up ind over by the fo l lowing btave. This end-over-end

f I ip is cal led PITCI{POLING.

To ass is t you in keeping yawing under contro l whi le running before

a sea, you can use a DROGUE as descr ibed below'

THE SEA AI{CHOR (DROGUE). The sea anchor, or drogue, is used.to

=I"* th" d . i f t o f a boat and to help contro l the boat in re la t ion

to the d i rect ion of the waves. A l though they are real ly the sane'

the term t rsea anchorr t is used when i t is connected to the bow of

the boat . when connected to the s tern, the term r rdroguef l is used-

In heavy weather , they are usefu l to sa i lboats and powerboats

a l i ke . Depend ing upon who you ta l k t o , t hese dev i ces a re h igh l y

ef fect ive or wor th noth ing. An ent i re book could be wr i t ten about

the i r l im i ta t i ons . Bu t when you a re ou t i n t he ocean in a te r r i b le

s to r rn and a l l e l se has fa i l ed , you w i l l p robab ly be w i l l i ng to t r y

one" Regard less of the i r nany detractors, sea anchors and drogues

have he lped coun t l ess sa i l o rs ove r t he yea rs . (See f i gu re 6 -8 ) '

HrscewooP

5r/lveL

S,|AALJ-

\'tc*

€hI.flSN?q 6qWI?E 6QD€

WIVEL

iRFaNlqLrN E

Figure &8. -A con ic sea anchor (d rogue) . Th is i s the mos l commonly seen type.

rcMNGUNE

-7-

6 - 9

The c lass ic sea anchor is constructed l ike a cone. The anchoritself is made of canvas or other cloth shaped l ike a bucket openat both ends. The ends are held open in c i rcres by hoops. inewide end faces toward the boat and the narrosr end faces away frornthe boat . A cabre is a t tached to the anchor by a br id le to thewide end and a tr ipping l ine is attached to the narrohr end. Thepurpose of a sea anchor so constructed is to keep the bow of the!oat-heading in to the seas. This prevents the boat f rorn fa l l inginto the t rough and poss ib ly broaching. A boat ly ing to a =" ianchor is making reeway, but not as much as she woura ir she wered r i f t i ng f r ee .

Swrve-t*-

NMrosl 6q6,l.stvAS

L t*o"..,cftgsBAr?5

Figure S9.-Crosbar.type sea anchor.

As wi th a regular anchor , a long I ine should be used wi th the seaanchor . This wi l l n in in ize any snapping as the boat surges. whenthe sea anchor is r igged, i t should be inv is ib le but not more than,sdy, 15 feet berow the sur face of the sea. chain or wi re ropeshould never be used for the sea anchor as they would s ink theanchor too low to have any ef fect a t a l l .

The theory of a sea anchor makes it seem very easy to strearn andvery easy to handle. rn pract ice, however , i t is very d i f f icu l t tohandre and i s ha rd to con t ro l . . As you can see , a t r i pp ing r i ne i sat tached to the narrow end of the cone. The purpose of th is l ineis to enable you to corJ.apse the sea anchor by pul l ing on i t . youshould then be able to pul l in the ent i re assembly. The problem isthat the t r ipp ing l ine can become tangled wi th the towing l ine andeventual ly co l lapse the sea anchor a l t by i tse l f . You could havea mess hang ing f rom you r bow tha t w i l I l ose i t s e f fec t i veness .

Somet imes an o i l bag wi l l be at tached to the cable just a f t o f thesea anchor . The ef fect o f the o i l seeping f rom the bag is tocreate a s l ick on the waves s ince o i l is l ighter than water andw i l l r i se to the su r face . The o i l s l i ck w i l r cu t down on theamount of breakinq water in f ront o f the boat .

6 - L 0

I f you do not have a regular sea anchor , you can construct one inan emergency. An o ld bucket wi l l do in a p inch, ds wi l l a largebasket ,

-deck chai rs , dD ice Chest , a wooden crate, or even a wide

board fastened to a l ine with a bridle attached to the fourcorners. Even a S$tamped d inghy, fastened secure lY, can be used fora rnakeshift Sea anchor. Just remember the purpose of the seaanchor when you are building it that is to create drag whichwiII keep the bow pointed into the seas, cut drif t and providedi rect ional s tab i l i ty for your boat .

When running before the seas, this same device is cal led a DROGUE-Again, i ts purpose is to prov ide d i rect ional s tab i l i ty , th is t ime tokeep the yawing under control. t l i th i t streamed fron the stern,the poss in i f i ty o f BROACHING or PITCHPOLING is n in in ized.

An alternative to a drogue when running before a sea is to tow affARp. A warp is a long length of heavy l ine with nothing attachedto the end. I t w i l l act as a brake, wi l l he lp keep the boatrunning s t ra ight , and wi l l he lp quiet the sea astern of the boat .I t c re i tes f r ic t ion or drag. The longer the warp, the more drag i twi l l c reate. Towing more than one warp wi l l a lso increase thedrag. I f the l ine is long enough, You could at tach both ends, oneto 6ach s ide of the boat . When you use a htarp, exper i rnent wi th i t ;Ie t more or Iess l ine out unt i l you achieve the resul ts you seek.Be sure to make the warp fast to soneth ing s t rong.

5l','1ALi-Utl,t? UNE

Figure 6-10.-The parachute-tYpe t€a anchor'

6 - 1 1

Ar tCt(

DucyI l L / F

BRIDI.ETOwrsi6

UNE

a \ \ , ^ C .l 6 L \ 7 F 9

CR NYiO\

L IKC\6/

Figure 6-11 ' -A sa i l ' t ype sea anchor . Th is type is hard te t r ip when you w ish to hau l i t in , hence the buoy ra ther thana tr ip l ine The buoy also holds the anchor at the desired depth, as the rai l- typc drogue has a tendency to ' ink.

BR\CI-E

Yyt3OAAR

,eY. t $ -

a\N

lC{ ' \C - \=

Figure 6-13.-Atr ipping l ine tot ing the end of

bucket used ar a 3c. ancho.. Anrch dro

the bottom by punching a hole and knot-

the l ine on the ins ide o f the bucket .

SWIVEL

IowrNGr r r l FLl t \ l -

6 - 1 2

Figure 6-12.-A boord u*d as a rea anchor.

STUDY QUESTTONS.

1. The height o f a wave is the d is tance measured ver t ica l ly f rornthe to the

2. The length of a wave is the d is tance between

3. The t ime i t takes two wave crests to pass the same point isknown as the

4 . Wha t i s f e t ch?

5. The angular measure f rom the t rough to the crest o f a wave isthe

6. Name two types o f non-w ind waves .

7 . Wha t i s a swe l l ?

8 . Waves tu rn i n to su r f as thev

9. The two types of breaking waves and sur f are and

1 0 . and are the two types of

waves that are caused by the passing of a motorboat. Thehrave is the most danqerous .

11. L is t three ways that a dangerous cross sea can develop.

6 - 1 3

L2 . A boa t w i th a wi l l be great ly a f fected

by s t rong winds.

L3 . A boa t w i th a wi l l be great ly a f fected by

a strong current.

14. L is t some of the e lements that the ef fect o f wind and current

upon a boat depends.

15. When running before the seas, i f poss ib le , the boat should be

mainta ined on the of the wave.

L6. What is the purpose of a sea anchor?

L7. L is t the s teps to prepare for rough weather .

18 . Wha t i s t he p i t f a l l i n us ing a t r i pp ing l i ne w i th a sea anchor?

19. L is t some i tens you can use to make an emergency sea anchor in

the absence of a readY-made one.

6 - L 4

20. What is the purpose of towing a warp?

2L. I f condi t ions get rea l ly bad, s low down and hold your bow at an

angle of about degrees to the seas.

22. In a head sea, a vessel wi tn too much weight forward wi l l

ra ther than r ise.

23. In a head sea, a vessel wi th too much weight a f t wi l l tend to

24. Thrown broadside to the swel ls , or r r in the t rough,r r can cause

the vessel to

25. When a vessel runs down a steep wave, buries her bow, and the

next crest throws her s tern over , she has

26. What happens to a vessel that is pooped?

27. The pr imary needs of safety in fog or o ther condi t ions of

reduced v is ib i l i ty are to see and be seen, and to

and be

28. One waY to be t rseenr r in

radar se ts i s to ho is t a

reduced v is ib i l i ty by vessels that have

6 - l _ 5

CIIAPTER 7

ASSISTAITCE TO BOATS trI DISTRESS AIIID DAUAOE COIVTROL

ffTRODUgilOl{. The reading material for this lesson can bepages gnd q thg se.ctioqs on

found in the followingld, or Enersqtcythe earlier editionsthe chapter on

and Sqc$op 3,editionrs. qu errd of the lesson are based on

readings.

At some time o'r another, ycru will have to render assistance to another vessel, as amember of the Auxiliary or as a private citiaen. You may even have to take 6teps tohelp yourself. How you handle yourself and your craft is of utmost importxrce. In anemergency, life and pmperty is at stake. Evefr the simplest assistance effort -- such asrightins a capsiaed sailboat in a proteeted cove -- c&n hrrn out to be dangerous. Ttresmallest leak far out at sea can equal in importance the largest leak close to shore.This lesson will touch on some of tlre techniques you should know to help others andyourself in an emergency.

FICHtSLq S, ,qAP.gIZ,4p SAILBOAI, Before approaching a capsized sailboat inanother boat to assist her, there are a few things that must be done firot. Get youranchor and gndror line out on deck and make them ready f or use. In a pinch, youmight need ttrem later. Collect all your personal flotatiorr devices and ready them foruse. Have some ready for the sarlboat crew arrd be sure to don one yourself. Thertbreak out your heaving line and towing line, and coil them for use. Try to keep all ofthis gsar separate and out of your way.

Unless there is something in your way, such as shoal water, you must decide toapproach the capsiaed sailboat either from upwind or downwind. Ttrere are two schoolsof thought on this procedure and each school has equally stf,ong points,

If you approach from upwlnd, you may blow down on the boat trapping crewman andgear between the turc vessels.

If you approaeh from downwind, you stand a chance of foulingyour prop on thesailboat gear-mast, boom, rigging and sails,

You must make your decision based on the conditions on hand. Some factors whidrmay aid you are the drift rate of both vessels (are you drifting downwind faster that thesailboat), tlre amount of gear that you see in the water, and the ability of the sailboatscrew to clear some of this gear away.

cH2

7-L

After you reach the sailboat, check on the condit ion of the crew. Ifthey are in poor condit ion, get r ight in there and render assistance.Your f irst responsibi l i ty ie to save l ives; property comes second, Ifthe crew is in good cqndition, have them st,ay in the water. They canhelp you right their boat.

The next step is to have the crew of the saiLboat haul in the sailsand running rigging. It is general ly wasted effort to try to r ight asailboat witt i her sai ls up- Odds ate that she wil l immediately capsizeagrain from the weight of the water aloft. Now to assist in r ightingthe boatr have the crew stand on the keel or centerboard and hold onto the gunwales. Their weight wil l help r ight the boat, perhaps €vendoing the job without your assi$tance, If the boat st i l1 wil l notright, maneuver carefully downwind unt,il you can grasp the end of themast. Caref,ul ly Lift the na$t from the water (sai lboats are delicateand cannot stand great ameunts of abuse). Your l i f t ing of themasthead, and the weight of the crew on the centerboard or keel,should now right the sailboat.

A11 you have left to do is get a l ine aboard the sailboat, help dewaterthe hull , and tow in the boat, l f required. Dewatering and towing arecovered later on in this lesson.

REtr'I'oArfNc A IEAPED_VESSEI,. In general, Coast Guard policy precludesoat a grounded vessel, This is considered

'Salvage", a task that Coast Guard (and Auxil iary) units are precludedfrom doing. You nay, however, have occasion to provide thie help as aprivate cit izerr. Helping a stranded vessel get, off, or gett ing yourselfoff, can be easy or hard, depending on the circumstances. Whateverhappens, always keep a clear head and think out, each marreuver beforeyou make it . Take your t ine. Unless the boat is ln danger of goingfurther aground wlthout inmediate actlon, you cannot go wrong by beingdeLiberat,e and careful. Before attempt, ing to refloat a grounded vessel,check for hull damage. If there is severe damage, it may be better toleave it aground until temporary repairs can be ntade.

One of the obvious things to consider f irst is the state of the t lde.If the boat ran agrourtd at low t ide or halfway between hiqh and lowtide' with the t, ide r islng, your best action just nigbt be no action.The rising t ide wil l ref loat the boat without your l i f t ing a hand. Insuch a situation, though you must take care. If the t ide comes in wlt,ha strong current, or the wind is unfavorable and strong, you couldeasily be driven further aground with the rislng t ide before you canget, underway.

If i t is your boat that is aground, rather than a boat you are tryingto assiat, be careful about, throwing the engine immediately intoreverse and trying to back off. You might suck sand up from astern anddeposit i t under your boat, adding more shoal beneath you. fn addit ion,sand and other debris from that bottom couLd be sucked up into yourengine.

7-2

As soon as a boat has stranded,get an anchor out to Prevent itfrom going further aground. WithIuck, you night be able to keePthe stern afloat and only the bowaground. Consider the wind and/orthe current when sett ing theanchor. By sett ing the anchorupwind or up-current, you wiI lprevent the stern from swingingand thus putting your boatbroadside to the shoal. You canthen use the anchor as a kedge;that is, when you are ready tonake your attenpt to get off, Putthe engine in reverse and haul inon the anchor l ine. I f you have awinch to help you haul , so muchthe bet ter . The thrust o f thepropel ler and pul t ing on theanchor should pul l you f ree.

Figun 7-1.-Udng a kedge to haul off a groundad boat

Widr thc cngine in reverse, haul in on the anchor l ine

Thr location of the andror herc will give thc boat min

mum rwing from the c{rrent or wind when it breal

loorc.

l l i l l * '*o *{[|J'o,ao'*

(See f i gu re 7 - I ) .

f f you are going to ass is t a s t randed boat , prepare aI I the gearyou need before you make an approach. Get personal f lotationdevices on deck and don yours. l lake ready a heaving l ine andtowing l ine. Prepare a f loat i f you wi I I be f loat ing in a l ine.Make up a br id le (and one for the other boat as wel l ) i f requi red.Get out an anchor and anchor l ine.

Consideration must also be given to the type of bottom that thedistressed vessel has grounded on. If the bottom is rocky, you maydo considerably more damage t ry ing to pul } her of f . I f the bot tomis sandy or muddy, there is l i t t le l ike l ihood of darnaging the hul lo f the d is t ressed vessel ; however you nay exper ience d i f f icu l - ty dueto bot tom suct ion or sand bui ld-up.

How you make your approach wiII depend on the wind and current. Becaretul of the shoal; you could run aground yourself trying to makean ass is t . Your judgrment on the scene wi l l te l l you whethercondi t ions are favorable for go ing in bow f i rs t to get a l ineaboard the s t randed vessel , oF whether you should go in s ternf i rs t . I f an approach is inpossib le , an a l ternat ive n ight be tof loat in a l ine, or use a d inghy to haul i t in . In the event thatone or the other of the la t ter a l ternat ives is se lected, anchoryour boat in pos i t ion before making the at tenpt . You wi l l havebet ter contro l over the s i tuat ion.

7 -3

Arways at tach your l ine to something substant iar . use thetrai ler ing stem eye or ski towing transom eyes or other securefastenings such as sampson posts. Towing puts t remendous strainson both boats, especiarry when one of the boats is aground. (seef igu re 7 -2 . )

BRIDT-E

WT AEROdN{D

A6(cxrND eoAr

Figur. 7-3.-Towing off r groundcd boat whcn wind orcurrent ir a factor. Thc towing bort ir not prercnting hcrbroadlide to the wind or currcnt, ro lcawry ir kcpt to Imin imum.

55kr'fo* /ltOt yf t

10wrNq90{r

FigureT-2.-Towing off a groundcd boat when wind or currenl ir not r factor. The direct tow, u/ith the ruainarried in the direction you vv.ntthc Arounded boat to move, ir mostcffestive.

When you begin towing thest randed boat of f , tow in adi rect ion that wi I I compensatefor the wind or current ,whichever is s t rongest . I f youdon ' t , you n igh t f i nd you rse l fbeing swept downwind or down-current , wi th the u l t inatepossib i l i ty o f go ing agroundyoursel f . Star t towing s lowlyand gradual ly bu i ld up speed asthe stranded boat begins to comef ree . (See f i g . 7 -3 )

I f the s t randed boat is s t i l ls tuck fas t a f te r a l l t h i s , she

night be stuck in the bottom by suction. Have the crerd of thestranded boat move from one side to the other, oE frorn the bow tothe s tern, thus rock ing the boat . This n ight be enough to breakthe suct ion. I f the boat is s t i l l s tuck fast , and you th ink norepower n ight do the job, have the boat set out an anchor asdescr ibed prev ious ly . Wi th you towing, and the s t randed boat go ingin reverse and haul ing in on her anchor l ine at the same t ime, oddsa re she w i l l come f ree .

CAUTfON: Have a l l c rew members of both vessels don PFD's and standc lea r o f t ow l i ne .

7 -4

/illl **""*tpv are^,r

APPROACHTNG A BURNING VESSEL. Approaching a burning vessel to takeof f the crew can be a t r icky and a dangerous operat ion. S incespeed is essent ia l , the chances of your be ing able to prepare wel lenough in advance are s l im.

As you make your approach, 9€t your gear ready. Break out personalf lo tat ion devices, f i re ext inguishers, buckets, heaving l ines, andwhatever e lse you wi l l need. I f you have the t ime, wet downthoroughly the bow or the stern, depending on whether you wil l benaking a bow-to or s tern- to approach. This wet t ing down wi I I he lpprotect your boat frorn the intense heat of the f lames.

Always approach a burning boat from upwind. If you come fromdownwind, you wi l l have to face the f lanes and smoke, which wi l l beblowing down on you. You wi I I not be able to see c lear ly and youw i l l s tand the r i sk o f ca tch ing f i r e you rse l f .

Approach s lowly and carefu l ly f rom upwind, ready to do what youcame to do - take of f people. The f i re , Do mat ter how smal l , cansoon reach an advanced stage, and there is a lways the danger of i treaching the fue l tanks. Don' t t ry to f ight i t , take of f the crewand depar t the scene inmediate ly . Keep cur ious boaters out o f areao f danger .

FIRE FIGHTING. F i res are c lass i f ied in to three basic types,accord ing to the nature of the mater ia ls fue l ing the f i re and theext inguish ing agents used to put thern out . The three c lasses areA , B , and C .

Class A f i res are those that take p lace in ord inary combust ib lessuch as bedding, c lo th ing, wood, canvas, rope, and paper . Thesef i res can be put out wi th water , though other ext inguish ing agentswi l l work as welL. Class A f i res leave ashes and ernbers that s t i l ln ight be present af ter the f lane is gone, which is why they must becooled (wi th water) before they can be considered ext inguished.

Class B f i res are those that take p lace in in f lammable l iqu ids,such as gaso l i ne , ke rosene , o i l , g rease , pa in t , and tu rpen t i ne .Mater ia l -s in a Class B f i re burn at the sur face, where vapors aregiven off. The best way to extinguish them is to smother orb lanket the burn ing l iqu id wi th such agents as foarn, COr; Halon,and d ry chen ica l .

Class c f i res take p lace in e lect r ica l equipnent . Before thesetypes of f i res can be put out , the e lect r ica l c i rcu i t must be de-energ ized. A nonconduct ing ext inguish ing agent is o f the f i rs tinpor tance. Carbon d iox ide, Halon, and dry chenica l are used topu t ou t an e lec t r i ca l f i r e .

l - )

For many years the three s idedf i re t r iangle was used todescribe the conbustion andext inguish ing theory. Recent ly ,a new theory has developed.This new theory adds nchemicalreact ionf r , as a base to thethree s ides of fue l , heat , andoxygen. The f i re t r iangle hasbecone a f ire tetrahedron whichrepresents a pyranid. Take abrayone or more of the four s ides,and the f i re wi l l go out . Forinstance, by shut t ing of f theoxygen by srnother ing a f i re , i tw i l l no longer burn. CooI thef i re and there wi l l no longer beany heat for combust ion. Takeaway the f ueI , and the f larnew i l l be gone . I n l i ke manner ,for those f i res suppor ted by achemical react ion, s top i t andthe f i r e w i I I go ou t (Seef i gu re 7 -4 )

F uel Clas: Ext inguirh ing Agcnt

Wood, c loth ing, ropc.paper

S3sg l i ne , o i l , g r l a t r ,parnt . turPent ln?

Elecrr ical rnd alcc.

t ronic aqurpmant

A

a

Warcr, CO2, loam, dry

chamicel, rnydringdr.t will smothcr

CO2, drv chcmical. fotm,

rnythirt.g thet will

snothcf

CO2, dry chcrnicrl

Figure 7-1. Tbe for:r elerents of ttre firetetrahedron necessary to supportconbrstion. Take aray one oftbese and the fire rill go out.

This tab le shows the fue ls thatfo rm th ree c lasses o f f i r e , andext inguish ing agents that can beused against the var ious types off i r es . HALON i s a l so e f fec t i ve onC lass B and C f i r es , and nay beused on sna l l C lass A f i r es .

PLUGGING AND PATCHfNG. fn an emergency situation, there are twoways that you can repai r a hole in the huI I be low the water l ine.You can use a patch or a p lug. Which one you use, wi l l depend uponthe c i rcumstances. f t w i l l be governed by the character o f thehole and the too ls and mater ia ls that you have on hand to make therepa i r .

7 -6

A plug can be used in situationswhere the hole is fa i r ly snal l andhas a rounded shape. Such a holernight be caused by an objectp ierc ing the hul l or i t could becaused by a through-hull f i t t ingbreaking. I f your smal l , roundedhole is jagged on the edges andyou can easi ly get to i t , t ry tosruooth off the edges so that yourp lug wi l l f i l f the ent i re hole.Make your plug out of a piece ofsof t wood, preferably whi te p ine.Taper i t so that you can drive i tin to the hole and i t w i I I f i tsnugly before you reach the end.(See f i gu re 7 -5 . )

A p lug is most e f fect ive whenit is driven in fron theou ts ide o f a hu I I , r a the rthan f rorn the ins ide.This is not a lways poss ib le ,

HoLEDNANK

of course, since the hole may be well below the waterl ine and outof reach. In an emergency, YoD're not going to have t ine to careenyour boat for such a job. But assuming that you can reach the holefrom the outside, drive the plug in frorn that side. The reason whyth is is done is that the water pressure wi l l he lp hold the p lug inp lace, whereas i f i t were dr iven in f roru the ins ide, the waterpressure on the outside of the hull could eventually pop the plugthrough, especia l ly i f i t is a weak PIug to begin wi th . To bedoubly sure that you wi l l get a t ight f i t , wrap some canvas orother cloth around the ptug before you drive i t hone. Be certainhowever , not to use g lue when set t ing the p lug, i f th is is to be atemporary repai r .

In the event that you can't get to the hole from the outside of thehuII, you wiII have to begin on the inside. Go through the sameprocedure as in the above repair, but one more step wil l have to beadded. Once you have your ptug in place, cut i t off f lush on theins ide of the p lank ing. Then take a p iece of wood that wi l l coverthe head of the plug and then some, and put i t over the plugagainst the p lank ing. When th is is done, na i l or screw th is woodenpitcn into place. What you have done is made a brace that wiIIlceep the water pressure fron pushing the plug back through theplanking in to your boat . (See f igure 7-6)

?ue

ligure 7-5. t terprary plug for a hole ttrat can bereached fror tie outside. Before it is driven bore,this plug can be rrapped uith canvass or clothuhich riII rake an effective qasket.

7 -7

NStOe oFFIOLEDRAIK

CIrf ftE ar/gFLuSFt f{ERe

rCH NIAILED'&ffilteD

IN RACE

flNE G. C'THTR'fi"T h,ccP

FiEre i-5 - I tenporary plug/patcb applied fror inside tle hull. Ibe patcb rill keep the plug fror beingforced out of psition by rater pressure. Cloti can also be used as a gasket.

These procedures described for wooden boats are also effective withboats of o ther rnater ia l , such as f iberg lass, s tee l , a luminum, orfer ro-cement . However , you should exerc ise caut ion in us ing a p lugon f iberglass boats. I t may cause nore darnage by spli t t ing thehul l . You wi l l a lso have to use some other means of secur ing thepatch over the plug on the inside job. What you do wil l depend onthe locat ion of the hole and the nater ia ls you have on hand. Forinstance, i f the hole is in the very bottoro of the boat, you nighttry putt ing sornething heavy on top of the protruding head of theplug, or have a crevr member hold i t in p lace. fn a s i tuat ion l iketh is , improv isat ion is your on ly sa lvat ion.

Host of the holes that you wil l have to deal with in anemergency probably wi l l not be ef fect ive ly repai red wi th a p lug.Unfor tunate ly , the hole you most l ike ly wi l l have to deal wi th wi l lnot be smal l , per fect ly shaped, and easy to get to . The holeprobably wi l l be near ly inpossib le to reach, large wi th ani r regular shape, or a long, open seatn. For these a patch is moste f fec t i ve .

7 -8

A patch can be made out of justabout anything that nay be handyat the t ime. As a nat ter o ffact , i t w i l l probably take someingenuity on your part to coneup with anything that wil l meetyour needs. Even those whocarry around in their boatpieces of wood and cloth andother nater ia ls for just such anemergency usually f ind that whatthey have, when the t ine comes,is too smal l or too large or toothick or too thin, oF for soneother reason inef fectual . Sorneof the things that have beenused in the past to make atemporary patch have includedbundles of rags or c lo thes,sa i I s , f l oo rboa rds , p ieces o fboxes , rna t t resses , b lanke ts ,fou l weather gear , PFDs, enginecovers, and many other i tems.

h&D ftrcl{

'&& ADrH

PiEre 7-7. f guick and effective teuporary patch.Tbe clotb acts as a oasket.

F?At'(e

a/ANK FaSTqVEDat& FRAhdEs

The idea is to get sornething thatwi l l f i t over the hole and stopthe i nco rn ing wa te r . (See f i gu re 7 -7 . )

Once again, the most effective way to use a patch, as when using ap lug , i s t o app ly i t f r om the ou ts ide o f t he hu I I . Th i s i sespeciar ly t rue when you are tark ing about repai r ing a large holebelow the water l ine. Anyth ing that you cover a hole wi th f ron theins ide, be low the water l ine, wi l l more than l ike ly be i rnrnediate lyd is lodged by the pressure of the water . I f the outs ide par t o f thepatch is go ing to be made of wood or some other r ig id i tern, i t isbet ter to put between th is outer patch and the huI I a p iece ofc lo th to act as a gasket . Any patch, whether appl ied f rom theins ide or the outs ide, should be considerably larger than the holethat i t w i l l cover . Patches appl ied f ron the outs ide can be e i therna i l ed , sc rewed , o r l ashed i n p Iace .

I f your patch cannot be appl ied f rorn the outs ide, then you wi I Ihave to work f ron the ins ide. Cut a p iece of wood or some otherrnater ia l that is r ig id , so that i t is b igger than the hole and wi l lf i t between frames or whatever hull members roight be in the way.Put a piece of cloth to act as a gasket between the patch and thep lank , and then fas ten the pa tch i n p lace . Here aga in , you w i l thave to use your ingenuity to come up with the best means ofhold ing i t in p lace. I f you are lucky, you n ight be abie to wedgei t in p lace as in the i l lust rat ion. Or you n ight na i l or screw i tin to the p lank ing-screws obvious ly are most ef fect ive. f f you lack

7 -9

these opt ions, which wi l l mostl ikely be the case if you aredealing with a boat made ofmaterial other than wood, youare going to have to f ind someother means. Once aEain, whatyou do will be deternined bywhat you have. Anything thatcan be used as shorinq nighthelp you out. A deck chairresting on the patch night bewedged in place againstsoureth ing e lse which is r ig id .You night have to develop anentire system of interlockingpieces of shoring to hold thatpatch in p lace. (See f igure 7-8 )

Figure 7-8. One uay to hold a patch in place rsingshoring. The brace helps bold tXe endof the sbore in place.

The leak may be slowed considerably by use of a I 'col l ision matrlwhich can be a tarpaul in or even a heavy sheet of p last ic . T iel ines to the four corners and haul i t under the boat posit ioning itover the hole, water pressure wil l make the mat conform to thehole. T ie of f the four corners to hold the mat in pos i t ion. Thiswil l give you t ine to proceed with the remedies before rnentioned onthe inside. Remember i f you proceed to get underway, i t should beat a slow speed so as not to lose the posit ion of the rnat.

For years concrete was used as a patching naterial for those shipsfar removed from repair faci l i t ies and this technigue has beenfol lowed by the boaters and yachtsmen far frorn help and on theirohrn. Aided by the epoxies we nohr have that wil l set under water i tis poss ib le to make a very endur ing patch wi th th is nater ia l . oncethe leak is under control a two part mix of epoxy can be applied tothe leak even though a small amount of water is coming in. Whenmixed, soak a towel or some sini lar naterial with the epoxy andapply to the hole, ho ld ing i t there unt i l i t hardens.

DEFATRIXG. Assurning that considerable water leaked into your boatas a resul t o f the hole or ho les you had to patch or p lug, you wi I Ineed to get r id of that water. Punping is the answer, of course,but i t night not be that sinple. There are definite procedures youshould fo l low in a nethodica l fashion i f you are going to do thejob r i gh t .

7 - L O

I f your boat is not swamped, that is, the water in the boat has notyet reached the level of the water outside the boat, You will beable to pump or baII. But your pump might not be operable i f thewater is too high and the punp operates on the engine or electricalpower-the power source night be f looded out. I f this is the case,you will have to somehow get the water down to a level where youcan repair and operate your power. Here, a portable punp, i f youhave one, or a bai ler wi I I come in handy.

Some portable pumps are not necessari ly hand operated, but nightrun on their ohrn internal engines. In nost cases, when a CoastGuard cutter or helicopter puts a punp aboard a boat in anemergency, i t wil l be powered by a gasoline engine sini lar to thaton a lawn mower. Be sure to put the punp in a secure place, andkeep it out of the water.

Before you start purnping, be sure to clean up as much of the loosedebris in the boat that you can f ind. Anything sma1l, from apackage of matches to a sock or undershirt can get caught in theintake of the pump and plug it up. Most portable pumps have ascreen around the intake, to catch objects before they can enter.If yours does, be sure to examine the screen periodical ly when thepump is running to c lear away the debr is .

ff your intake does not have a screen, and there is a lot of debristhat you can ' t get r id of , you had best dev ise a screen of yourovirn. You night take a bucket, punch it ful l of small holes al l thehray around, and punch a large hole in the botton for the intakehose to f i t into. Put the bucket in the water upside-down andinsert the hose and you have a screen. Of course, You must becertain that the bucket stays upside down, against the f loorboardsor the bottom of the boat.

Before you star t pumping, be cer ta in that the out le t is pro ject ingover the side and downwind if at al l possible. I f you are punpingin h igh winds, and have the d ischarge fac ing in to the wind, Younight f ind the water being blown right back into the boat.

Before you even star t punping, o t ba i l ing, You should t ry to p lugor patch as many holes as possible. This cannot always be done,especial ly i f there is too much water in the boat for you to work.In such a case, you wil l have to try to get ahead of the watercoming in unti l you can reach the hole to patch or plug it ; thenyou wi l l be able to f in ish get t ing r id of a I I the water .

Once you have pumped or bailed your way down to the f loorboards,the going gets a l i t t le more d i f f icu l t . I f your boat has f rames, asin a wooden boat , un less there are l inber ho les, You wi l l have topunp or bail the water out from between the frames. This wil l meanpuff ing up a lot of f loorboards" But i f your boat has l inber

7 - I L

holes, or no f rames (as in most f iberg lass boats) , the water wi l tco l lect in the lowest par t o f the b i1ge. F ind that spot , andinser t the in take hose there, once again being sure to screen i twe l l .

I f your boat was fuII of water because of a hole or holes you hadto repair temporari ly, odds are that your patches or plugs wiIIleak around the edges. This means on your way to shore you wil lhave to punp or ba i l per iod ica l ly , or even cont inuously i f theleaks a re fas t .

Pumping out a boat that is swanped, such as a sai lboat that hascapsized, is in f in i te ly more d i f f icu l t than one that on ly has waterbelow the gunwales. l tost boats, when they are swarnped, wil l l iewith the gunwales or coamings level with the sea water. I f thereare any hraves at a I I , more l ike ly than not , new water wi l l bes loshing in to the boat as fast as o ld water is ba i led out .

If you wil l be dewatering a swamped boat without the aid of anotherboat, your f irst move should be to get al l the passengers out orhave thern hang onto the gunwales or coaming. This should give theboat more buoyancy. From outside the boat, start bai l ing. Afteryou get a good quantity of water out of the boat and it starts tor ise, one person can get in i t to cont inue bai l i tg , but be carefu lnot to t ip the boat while cl inbing in. Now continue purnping and/orba i l i ng as above .

By towing a swamped boat with another boat, i t is possible to drainout quite a bit of the water. You rnust be very careful, however,because a boat becomes extremely heavy when f i l led with water.Trying to tow a water-f i l led boat with a quick burst of power canresul t in torn out c leats or b i t ts , or even a broken tow l ine.Attach the tow l ine to something that is truly sol idly aff ixed tothe boat; a true sampson post, or the trai lering stem eye. Havethe crew of the swarnped boat-sit in the stern to weigh it down, andslowly, sJ-owly s tar t towing. As the towing speed gradual lyincreases, the water in the swanped boat wil l run out over thelowered stern. You wi l l reach a point , however , when, Do nat terhow fast you tow the boat, no more water wil l run out. Then is thet ine to s tar t ba i l ing and punping.

7 -L2

STUDY QI'ESTIONS.

1 . To ass is t in r igh t ing a sa i lboat , the c rew shou ld

2. In prepar ing to ref loat a s t randed vessel , one of the obvious

things to consider is the

3. What could happen if you throw the engine irunediately into

reverse upon going aground?

4. A s t randed boat can use an anchor as a

puI I the boat f ree.

to he lp

5. How you make an approach to a stranded boat depends on the

and

6. When at tempt ing to tow of f a s t randed boat , use the

or - , o r

other secure factenings such as

7. I f a s t randed boat is he ld in p lace by suct ion, how can that

suct ion be broken?

8. You should a lways approach a burn ing vessel f rom

9. When ass i s t i ng a bu rn ing vesse l , i s essen t i a l .

10. The four s ides of the f i re te t rahedron are

7 -L3

and

1 l - . A C lass A f i r e cons i s t s o f andshould be used to ext inguish i t .

] - 2 . A C lass B f i r e cons i s t s o f andr o r

should be used to ext inguish i t .

13 . A C lass C f i r e t akes p l ace i n and

, o f should beused to ext inguish i t .

1-4. What type of hole can be plugged?

15. Plugs and patches are most ef fect ive when appt ied f rom theo f t he hu l l .

l -6 . L is t some of the mater ia ls that can be used for an emergencypa tch .

L7 - The anchor tha t i s se t ou t immed ia te l y on g round ing i s ca l l ed; the act o f us ing i t to get the boat f ree is

c a l l e d

18. when us ing a por tabre pump, be cer ta in the out le t is

and thed i s c h a r g e i s f a c i n g

19 . r f a f i r e t ha t t akes p race i n an re ra t i ve ry con f i ned space , youshould

f rom feed ing the f l ames .to keep

7 - 1 4

CHAPTtsR T

T{AVIGATIOIT RULEIS

nqTRODpCfIOK. Ttre reading material for this lessom may be found in the chapterscovering ng$gtlgg"Eg{gt-in tlre earlier editions at Q-E.AP.WAN E letlt+q. frqw.nqn+Hp q;ni,

SmgE Fpqt Ha,n4llrro and W:tton-9. Cktp.tqr 6 ufi,f of the later editions. Ttrestudent should read all indicated chapters pa$ng particular attention to the topics andsub-topics in the following study outline.

g:fr{D}' olrTl,nrq

r{AYI9aTIOfl RIlIrEff:tIcHTS alrp paY 8I1APPS

Tbe ,Q,9. Ialaed ,Fulgr

Navigation Lights

'LiglX DefinitiotwMasthead LightSidelightsConbination Light--Sternlight

Towing LightAll-Round LightFlashing LightSpecial Flashing Light

Lights for Varying Sizeeof Power-Driven Vessels Underway

MastheadWtltsSidelightsStenilights

Lights for Varying $izesof Sailing Vessels Underway

fuilboqts Under 2O lt[etersRoutboats

Lights for Vessels at Anchor

tights for Vessels Aground

Lights forTowingTousing Alortgside or F.tshir4 Ahead

ExceptionTourittg AstcmSmatlfuatTouing

CH2

8-1

Lights for Special-Purpose VesselsFishing Vesse.l.sPi lot Vessels

Vessels With Lirnited Maneuverabil ityVesse]s JVot Ander ConmandVesseJs ReetrJcted in ManeuverabiTity

Day ShapesVesseJs Undet SaiT and. PowerVesseLs at Anchor or Aground

(Under 7 meters)(Under 20 meters)(Under 12 neters)

VesseLs Towing and Eeing TowedVessei,s Engaged 7n FishingVesseJs with Linited ManeuverabiTity

Iateraatioq?}, Rqle.s, Ptr, the F,o?S

Appl lcabi l iLy

Navigation Lights

Definit ionsLights for Power-Driven Vesse-ls UnderwayLights for Vessefs Artchored ot AgroundLights for Vessels TowingVesse-ls Const,rained by Draft

Day Shapes of the International Rules

WeDefinit ion of Terms

Whist leShort b lastProlonged bi-ast

'tPrivileged (stand an) " and rtBurdened(give way) " Vesse].s

{ba u.. s., , rgkm$ ,4qJ.q?Steer ing and Sai l ing Rules

Determining fi isk of CoJ.JisJon(A11 avai lable means)(Lookout)(Constan t bear ing)

Safe SpeedActions to Avoid ColJision

Naviaation Rules:

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8-2

Whis t l e S igna l sDanger SignaTl4aneuvering Lights

Rules for Power-Dr iven Vessels Underwayt leet ing Si tuat ion

Except ionS igna l s

Cross ing S i tua t i onExcep t ionS igna l s

Over tak ing Si tuat ionS igna l s

Use of Radio Communicat ionNarrow ChanneLs

Excep t ionDon' t f mpede Other Vesse, lsRounding Bends in a ChannefLeaving a Ber th

Ru les f o r Sa i l i ng Vesse l s Unde rwayR i s k o f c o l l i s i o n )E a c h w i t h w i n d o n a d i f f e r e n t s i d e )B o t h w i t h w i n d o n s a m e s i d e )V e s s e l w i t h w i n d o n i t s P o r t s i d e )n a 1 sq i n

J \ " 1

Encounters Between Sar-Z inq and Power Vesse- lsR i g h t o f w a y )S a i l i n g v e s s e l p r i v i l e g e d )S a i l i n g v e s s e l b u r d e n e d )

S o u n d S i g n a l s i n R e s t r i c t e d V i s i b i l i t yPower-Dr iven Vesse-Zs U nderwaY

S a i l i1 / o c c 6 .

y t-i-\ -\ c.

ExceP

Bas i c Respons ib i l i t i e s

Ru- le of Good SeananshiPLookouts

The Genera l - Prudent iaL Ru-Ze

M a k i n g w a y )U n d e r w a y b u t s t o p p e d a n d n o t m a k i n g w a y )T o w i n g o r p u s h i n g a n o t h e r v e s s e l a h e a d )V e s s e l n o t u n d e r c o m r n a n d )V e s s e l r e s t r i c t e d i n i t s a b i l i t y t o r n a n e u v e r )F i s h i n g v e s s e l )Vesse t be ing towed)nq Vessels UnderwaY- is at Anchor7s Agroundt ion for SmaLf Craf t

8 - 3

Stee r ing and Sa i l i ng Ru fesWh is t l e S ignaTs

t4aneuvering Lights

Ru fes fo r power -Dr i ven Vesse ls(Mee t ing and c ross ing )(Sound s i gna l )

Over tak ing Vesse ls( Sound s igna ls )

Use of Radro ComnunicationNarrow Channel_s

Sound S igna l s i n Res t r i c t ed V i s i b i l l t v

8 - 4

STUDY QUESTTONS

1. The U.S. fn land Navigat ion Rules are appl icable ins ide the

separating the inlandand internat ional waters.

2. A Power Dr iven vessel is I vessel propel led by machinery.

3. A sai l ing vessel using both sai l and engine simultaneously isvessel for the purposes of the

Navigat ion Rules.

4. Underway means r rA vessel not , made fast to the

,o r

5. Side l ights show an unbroken arc of the hor izon ofdegrees, fron dead ahead to

e a c h s i d e .

degrees abaft the beam on

6. A power dr iven vessel less than l -2 meters in length, whenunderway at n ight shal l exhib i t a I ight and a

I ight p lus

7. SmaI I boats propel led by oars may show the l ights of aor have handy an

or to show to prevent co l l is ion.

B. On the Western Rivers and on waters speci f ied by the Coast

G u a r d , l ights are not required for a vesselpushing ahead or towing a longside.

9. At n ight , a vessel r rnot under commandrt wi l l showver t ica l ly spaced when

they can best be seen.

10. Vessels engaged in f ish ing by day must d isp lay a shape

consis t ing of

8 -5

11 . A sho r t b las t i s a b las t o f abou t durat ion.

L2. A pro longed b last is a b last f rom to - seconds

dura t i on .

13 . The s ta te o f v i s i b i l i t y , t r a f f i c dens i t y , you r vesse l ' smaneuverabil i ty, and the state of wind, sea and current

condi t ions are factors in deterrn in ing

L4. Every vessel must use a l l avai lab le means to detern ine i f a

r i s k o f ex i s t s .

15. The Navigation Rules recognize three types of encounters

between two approaching vessels -

and

16. A vessel in doubt must g ive the danger s ignal ,

on he r wh is t l e .

17 . Under In land Ru les , 2 sho r t b las ts mean ' r I i n tend to l eave you

on my s i d e r r .

1 8 . I f t h e b e a r i n g o f a n a p p r o a c h i n g v e s s e l

apprec iab l y , a r i sk o f co l l i s i on ex i s t s .

19 . Under In land Ru les , i n a c ross ing s i t ua t i on , t he vesse l wh ich

has the other on olrn side is the burdened

vessel and must keep out o f the way of the other .

20. At n ight , the over tak ing s i tuat ion ex is ts when the vessel ahead

can no t see o f

the vessel ahead.

2L. When two sai l ing vessels are approaching one another so as to

involve the risk of col l ision and bothe have the wind on the same

s ide , t he vesse l wh ich i s t o shal l keep out o f

the way of the vessel which is to

8 - 6

22. When in or near an area of rest r ic ted v is ib i l i ty , a power

driven vessel naking htay through the water rnust sound

at intervals of not more than

minutes.

23. In an area of rest r ic ted v is ib i l i ty , a vessel a t anchor must ,

at intervals of not more that , r ing the

bel l rap id ly for about

24. The cont inuous sounding of a fog-s ignal ing apparatus would

ind i ca te a

8-7

CIIAPTIR 9

AITCITORTNG

tllTBO-.Dp, CfIOlt. Ttre reading material for this lesson nray be found tn the chaptercovering Aactprtng in the earlier editions of Ql#fi/al/t{ P|rloEna., Sea'matl{,}tlp., ar$g$all,Dq fi**fiW and 9ieetlon ,4-Chq?4et,12 of ttrc later editions. The studentshould read the entire chapter paying particular attention to the topics snd sub-topics inthe following study outline.

sfl'DY OI'TLIIYP

arrcnoFrG

Groun4 T{qkle

Tlpes of Anchors in UseLighrweightApeI'he Plow AncltrrrlTu &rure AnclwrTre Kedge AnctwrSfoclc and Stockless TgIEsOtler Anclurs

Ttre anchor lineI\ristedNgtonBraided SgrttnticLinetuIanihaLircCluinNglon-and-Clnin

Securing the rodeEgesplie, Thimble, and StuckleAnclar funds and Bou,tlines

llow Many-and How Healy?Size and.twldirq pwer

Scppe

Anchgrtne ?echdsperHow to Anchor

Approaching the AnctnrageI.€tting tJaie AnetarGoMtingtteAndtorMaking FasfIrcreasing Holding Pow*

When the anchor drags

Getting underwayClearing a Foried Arrclpr

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9-1

Using two anchorsTo Reduce YawingGuard Against Wind or Cutrent ShjftsStern AnchotsAt, Piers and Wharves

Raft ing

Some cautlonsChocks, Bitts, Cleats, and Other Fitt ings

Permanent !{oorinEe(type anchor used)

Systems Used by Typical Yacht CfubsA Multip]e-enchor SystemMoarl-ng Buoys

9-2

STUDY QUESTIONS

l- . The l ightweight type anchor is excel lent in

bottorns.

and

2. AI I gear , taken co l lect ive ly , that l ies between the boat and

i ts anchor is ca l led the

3. The most widely used mater ia l for the anchor l ine is

4. The three k inds of chains used as anchor rode are:

5. Cha in i s des ignated bY the

t h e I i n k s .

of the rnater ia l in

6. The ideal rode for most average condi t ions is a combinat ion of

and a short length

7. When anchor ing under favorable weather and sea condi t ions, and

using ny lon l ine a scope of - might be considered a

min imum.

8. When anchor ing, the anchor be lowered when

the boat has any

g. I f an anchor drags, the f i rs t s tep in t ry ing to get i t to ho ld

i s t o :

10 . When chocks , b i t t s , c l ea ts , and o the r f i t t i ngs a re used on deck

the nust be and reinforced with a

Ll-. The type anchor tradit ionally used for permanent moorlngs ls

the

9 -3

CIIAPTER I-O

DUTIES AND T{AITNERS

fff l fRODUCTfON. The study questions at the end of this lesson arebased on the readings in this chapter and not on any outsideread ing .

D{IrIES. Your vessel or the vesse} you may be invited to creht onmay have very few items to watch and operate, or i t might have manyrespons ib i l i t i es . The ope ra to r i s a lways i n cha rge and w i l l askyou to assume certain duties. I f you are not farni l iar with how to-arry them out , ASK; that is the way to learn and wi I I save you andthe operator embarrassment , i f not b ig t rouble. Wi th a smal l boator smal l crew a l l be low t is ted dut ies should be carr ied out bywhatever crehr is avai lab le. Remernber that crew is a team ef for tand each creu, member is dependent on proper coord inated act ion ofa1 l t he o the rs .

Deck Hand . The deck hand i s respons ib le fo r l i ne hand l i ng , f enderstowing, tow watch, and most anyth ing e lse that may come up, so beava i l ab le . The deck hand shou ld know mar l i nesp ike seamansh ip andbe wel l versed on towing and ass is tance and the use of moor ingI i nes . Th i s know ledge w i I I make you r j ob o f deck hand eas ie r .

Radio. As you gain exper ience you may be asked to s tand a radiowatch. Take every oppor tuni ty to sharpen your sk i l ls . Know yourrad io p rocedures i . e . how to use the m ike , t he ca I I uP , t hep ros igns such as ove r , ou t , (neve r use ove r and ou t t oge the r )roge . , w i l co , sdy aga in , a f f i rma t i ve , nega t i ve , phone t i c a lphabe t ,G r e e n w i c h t i m e a n d L o c a l t i n e .C o m m u n i c a t i o n s S p e c i a l t y c o u r s e .

In other words, take the

Nav iga to r . A good nav iga to r i s a lways we lcome and p rov ides a rea lhe lp i n cond i t i ons o f poo r v i s ib i l i t y and s t range wa te rs . Thenavigator must be able to deterrn ine posi t ion and mainta in a p lo t o fcou r ie . The Aux i l i a r y Nav iga t i on Spec ia l t y Course i s exceL len t wayto Lea rn t h i s sub jec t .

Engineer . Larger vessels may have a crewman designated as anLngineer to take care of the engines and rnachinery. Genera l ly onthe sma l l e r boa ts , however , t h i s du ty fa t l s on the ob tne r -ope ra to r .

LrqpKqUt. By law, a lookout is required at aII t ines when underway.fn iu -1"n sounds very s imple and most of the t ine i t is , unt i lneeded, and then i t can become Very inpor tant . Learn the proper

way Eo scan and repor t what you see. Scan in about ten degreesectors around the boat or in that sector to which you are assignedIookou t .

10 - 1

Repor t , i n a l oud vo i ce , t he re la t i ve bea r ing o f t he ob jec t and thedis tance to the object . The re la t ive bear ing should be g iven indegrees around the boat s tar t ing at the bow and going around,c lockwise, for 360 degrees just l ike the compass, but us ing the bowas nor th. Some use the c lock system of repor t ing us ing the twelvehour-clock face systern of giving the bearing. Be sure the helmsmananswers your repor t so you know i t was heard.

As rookout you are responsibre for your ass igned sector . Forsur face fookout d i rect your eyes just be low the hor izorr , s tar t inthe part of the boat nearest the bow in your sector and move youreyes about ten degrees every second. Do not sweep wi th your eyesas you rn ight miss an object . When your sector has been scanned,res t you r eyes fo r a few seconds .

Night l-ookouts should keep someone advised where they are and weara l i f e j acke t p re fe rab l y one equ ipped w i th a } i qh t . Remember tokeep one hand for the sh ip and one for yoursel f and don, t fa l love rboa rd . r t ' s l one l y ou t t he re a t n igh t a lone i n the wa te r .Avoid look ing at br ight r ights , and get your n ight eyes beforego ing on wa tch . The techn ique fo r n igh t scann ing i s a r i t t l ed i f ferent due to the construct ion of the cones in the eye. youw i l l use f ' o f f cen te r " v i s i on to see ob jec ts tha t you canno t see i fyou look d i rect ry at them. one good way is to scan about 5 to to< leg rees above the ho r i zon and ob jec ts on the ho r i zon and be l -ow w i l lbe seen. You may a l -so look to one s ide of the tarqet and do thesame th i ng .

B inocu l -a rs a re use fu l f o r i den t i f i ca t i on o f an ob jec t bu t no t f o rscann ing as you w i l l ge t sk ips . A good pa i r o f co lo red g rassesw i l l a l so be o f ass i s t ance i n r educ ing g l a re .

Lookouts in fog should scan s lowly and re ly to a great extent onthe i r ea rs . S tay c l ea r o f r ad io and conve rsa t i on no i se as weL l asenq ine no i se i f poss ib l e .

Genera l ru l -es fo r l ookou ts a re to :1 . unde rs tand you r du t i es ,2 . r ema in a l e r t ,3 . g i ve you r f u I1 a t t en t i on t o you r du t i es ,4 . rema in as l ookou t un t i l r e l i eved ,5 . do no t become d i s t rac ted ,6 . speak l oud ly and c lea r l y when mak ing a repo r t ,7 . be su re you r repo r t i s acknow l -edged , and8. repor t everyth ing you see.

Hel lS-nan. In tak ing over th is duty be sure you are fu l lyinst ructed as to the course, speed, operat ion of the throt t le , gearsh i f t and any spec ia r cond i t i ons tha t nay ex i s t a t t he t i r ne .Repeat the course and orders to the person you are re l iev ing, a lsoany orders to change course or speed. Let there be nomisunderstanding. The lookout is there a lso as your eyes, I is tenand acknow ledqe .

ro-2

Steering may be directed by the compass or by reference to objectsi.e. mountain, point of land, l ighthouse etc. The helmsman mustunderstand the conpass as wel l as the character is t ics in handl ingof the boat at various speeds. Know how far to turn the wheel forvar ious degrees of turns and do not s teer a z ig-zag course.Remember it takes a few moments for a boat to respond to the helnin making a turn. Be prepared for th is . AIso be prepared to s topthe turn, or trmeet herrr , so as not overshoot your neht course.

Be a ler t for any specia l inst ruct ions of course and speed,repeating al l commands given by the operator, acknowledging thesecomrnands and executing then. Rernain at the helrn unti l rel ieved andinstruct your rel ief al l instructions you are fol lowing. Everycrewmember should learn to be a competent helmsman.

Radar. Radar is another forrn of lookout and is very good givingyou re l .a t ive bear ing and d is tance to an object . Radar is a greatnavigat ional a id in t imes of darkness or reduced v is ib i l i ty . Useof th is dev ice as lookout for t ra f f ic as wel l as a va luable too lfor p i lo t ing makes for safer boat ing, but does not rep lace thelookout. Each crewmernber should learn to use the radar and irnprovesk i I l s i n i den t i f y i ng l and masses , buoys , vesse ls , j e t t i es andother ob jects in your operat ing area.

Towinq Watch. At some time you wil l probably be called upon torender ass i s tance and th i s may ca l l f o r t ow ing ano the r boa t i n .After the tow l ine is secured it becomes the duty of the towingwatch to keep the tow under constant observat ion and repor t to theopera to r any change in how the tow i s r i d ing , i . e . , i s i t i n s tep ,I i s t i ng , vee r ing , o r yaw inq . Ensu re tha t cha f i ng qea r i sprotect ing the l ines and the br id le is per for rn ing as i t should. Dono t s tand i n t i ne w i th the tow t ine i n case o f a tow l i ne fa i l u re ,s tand c lear in case of t fsnap-backr t , the towl ine breaking. Be readyto cut the tow in case of emerqency and watch af t for over tak ingvesse l s , bu i l d i ng seas , e t c .

UANNERS. Common courtesy on the water as on the highway makes l i feeas ie r and much sa fe r . The mark o f a good seaman i s read i l yapparent by your general deportment with the crew as well asneighbor ing vesseLs and envi ronment . You should be considerate andthoughtful and demonstrate safety and good seamanship.

As a boat ovtner/operator -

S low down in channe ls , you a re l eqa l l y respons ib le fo r you r wakeand any damage it may cause and that can become expensive.

f f anchor ing for the n ight near other boats, check for c learanceso you don't swing into them. Keep the noise down, Your neighbormight be t ry ing to escape the hect ic l i fe ashore. Don' t forgetto check the scope of the anchor rode, and see if the anchor isho ld i nq .

10 - 3

rn form f i rs t t ime guests what c lo th ing to br ing (keep i t warrn butminirnal, with baggage easy to stow) and any other i tems you feerwi l l add to the i r comfor t , l ike seasick remedies. Don' t forgetsunglasses and sun b lock lo t ion.

show you r gues ts the l oca t i on o f t he pFD 's ( l i f e j acke ts ) , f i r eextinguishers and other emergency equipnent. Brief guests onsafety procedures: propel ler dangers, nan overboard procedures,one hand for the boat, and f ire hazards. Also instruct guests onthe use of the head and the operat ion of any other appropr ia tegear .

As a guest

Do not go aboard a boat wi thout f i rs t ha i l ing the boat and ask ingpermiss ion, just l ike knocking on a door ashore.

Do not ask i r re levant guest ions of the operator when running at ight channel , d t n ight , or in other c i rcumstances that requi refu l l a t tent ion. Do not s tand in a manner that wi l l b lock thev iew of the hel rnsman.

Do no t smoke where i t w i l r o f f end o the rs . The re i s a b iqoutdoors and in this day and age take care not to start a l i t t lenu t i ny .

Do not h tear shoes that wi I I mark up the decks you n ight be askedto scrub the marks of f .

When arr iv ing back at the dock ask what you can do to secure theboat , Ieav ing i t c lean and ready for the next t ine you might l iketo be i nv i t ed . Any ope ra to r reaL ly app rec ia tes th i s and i t w i l lbe another learninq experience. A TIIANK YOU is always proper.

POLLUUON. A rnark of good seamanship is the increasing concern forthe waters upon which we sail . We need to insure that in thefuture we are not s imply f loat ing around in a cesspool devoid ofmar ine l i fe and covered wi th uns ight ly , and smel ly qarbage. Treatthe water the same as your l iv ing room.

I t is i l legal to d ischarge pol lu tants in to the water . The law isve ry b road . f nc luded a re i t e rns such as o i l , was te , p las t i cs , andother non-b iodegradable mater ia l .

Vessefs 26 feet and over must have a DISCHARGE OF OfL PROHIBfTEDplacard displayed in the machinery spaces as a reminder not to pumpo i l o r o i l y was te ove r t he s ide .

Vessels 26 feet and over , except those on in land lakes and so lestate waters, must a lso d isp lay, in a prominent p lace, a IBASIIDfSPOSAL placard. This is to remind al l those onboard what is notto be dumped over the side.

1 0 -4

f n add i t i on , vesse ls 40 fee t andpost a written trash managenentp lan is to be narned. The p lanwi l l be co l lected and d isposed.

over with a galley and berths mustplan. The person in charge of themust state how and where garbage

Be sure to observe a l l federa l and local laws regard ing the pumpingof holding tanks. Holding tanks are used aboard to hold theef f luent f rom the to i le t and any other dra inage that may beenvironmental ly harnful. Other methods of treating harnfulmater ia l have been recommended and legal ized f rom t i rne to t i rne suchas electr ic devices to break down the chlorine ion in the waterthereby ch lor inat ing the af f luent . Other means such as maceratorswi th chenica l p i l ls to be added have a lso been used. There wi l l beno at tempt in th is course to set a s tandard as new methods cont inueto be legal ized and recommended.

COURTESY BOARDTNG A COAST GUARD \IBSSEL. When boarding acommiss ioned U.S. Coast Guard vessel , s top at the top of thegangway , f ace the gua r te rdeck ( s te rn ) , and sa lu te the Na t iona lEnsign. Then sal -ute the OOD (of f icer o f the deck) and requestpermiss ion to come aboard. The OOD wi l l grant permiss ion. Stateyour bus iness and proceed. Remain covered (cap on) in areas otherthan the t i lardroom which is the l iv ing room and d in ing room for theship 's of f icers. Upon leav ing the sh ip, request perro iss ion f romthe OOD, sa lute the OOD, then sa lute the guar terdeck and depar t .

10 -5

STUDY QUESTTONS

1. Name two du t i es o f a deck hand .

2. The navigator must be able toand

3. The crehrrnan who takes care of the engines is cal_led the

4. What crew duty is requi red by law?

5. As a lookout , you are responsib le for your

6. FIow many degrees do you move your eyes each second when

s c a n n i n g ?

7. Do you look d i rect ly on the hor izon for n ight scanning?

8 . B inocu la rs a re used fo rf o r

and not

to your du t ies .

11. Lookouts in fog re ly to a great extent on

9. You must remain as lookout unt i l

10. Lookouts should remain

L2 . S tee r ing may be by

13 . The he l rnsman w i l l

and give

or by reference to

Lo -6

al l commands.

L4. The tern t rneet herr f , means?

15 . Radar i s

) .6 . Radar is a great nav igat ional a id in t ines ofand

L7. The tow watch must not s tand in l ine wi th thecase of i t

18 . You a re l ega l l y respons ib le fo r you r

19. When anchoring near other boats check for

20 . I t i s i l l ega l t o d i scha rge

2I . What is a hold ing tank?

22 . When boa rd

Ensign anding a Coast Guard vessel

of lookout.

in to the water .

the Nat ional

I n

f rorn the Of f icer Of the Deck.

23. Remove your cap when in the

conniss ioned Coast Guard Vessel .

o f a

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