Automotive Handbook

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Foreword to the 10th Edition in English

Automotive engineering has become an extremely complex field over the last few years and decades. It is becoming increasingly more difficult to command an overview of the entire field and to maintain constant access to the subjects which are significant to automotive engineering. Many of these new subjects have in the meantime been covered in great detail in the wealth of available specialist literature. However, for those readers who wish to approach one of these new subjects for the first time, the available literature is neither easily manageable nor is it readable within the available timeframe.

This is where the Automotive Handbook comes in useful. It is structured in such a way as to be easily accessible even to those readers who are new to any individual subject. The most important subjects relevant to automotive engineering have been compiled in a compact, easily understandable, and practically relevant form. This is because all the content has been written by experts at Bosch and other vehicle manufacturers and suppliers who work in the very fields covered in the Handbook.

In this the 10th Edition in English many subjects have been included for the first time, completely revised or enhanced. Included for the first time among others are subjects pertaining to hybrid drives, while the drivetrain has been completely revised and sig-nificantly enhanced. The Handbook has however also been revised, expanded and updated in many other places to make the contents even more understandable to the reader. More than 200 pages have been added to this latest edition. In spite of the large number of contributing authors, every effort has been made to provide a uniform presentation and to maintain consistent classifications and nomenclature within its pages.

This individual chapters of this publication have been laid out gradually on receipt of the authors’ manuscripts. Care has been taken to ensure that the graphics where possible are positioned in such a way that they appear with the accompanying text on the same page or the facing page and consequently both are visible to the reader in a single glance. Shifting the pagination at a later stage by one page would undo this text/graphic reference. This does however mean that there are blank pages in some places.

This latest edition could not have been completed without the outstanding support of many individuals. Firstly, we would like to thank the authors of the individual articles, who, with great care and patience, have succeeded in delivering on schedule chapters of the highest substance and quality. Finally, we would like to thank all those readers who have provided useful suggestions and advice on corrections.

Friedrichshafen and Karlsruhe, September 2018,

Scientific advisory board and editorship.

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8 Contents

Wave propagation 108 Electric effects in metallic conductors 111

Electronics 118 Basic principles of semiconductor technology 118 Discrete semiconductor devices 121 Monolithic integrated circuits 137

Chemistry 138Elements 138Chemical bonds 144Substances 148Substance concentrations 150Reaction of substances 151

Electrochemistry 158 Electrolytic conduction and electrolysis 158Applications 159

Mathematics and methodsMathematics 164

Numbers 164Functions 164Equations in the plane triangle 170Complex numbers 170Coordinate systems 171Vectors 173Differential and integral calculus 175Linear differential equations 178Laplace transform 179Fourier transform 180Matrix calculus 182

Technical statistics 186Descriptive statistics 186 Probability calculus 188 Characteristic value in quality assurance and in quality management 192

Finite-element method 194Applications 194FEM examples 197

Control engineering 202Terms and definitions 202 Control-engineering transfer elements 203Designing a control task 204Adaptive controllers 206

Contents

Basic principlesQuantities and units 24

SI units 24Legal units 26Further units 33Natural constants 36Mathematical signs and symbols 37Greek alphabet 37

Basic principles of mechanics 38 Rectilinear and rotary motion 38Statics 41Calculation of strength 43Friction 45

Vibrations and oscillations 48Terms 48Equations 50Vibration reduction 51Modal analysis 52

Acoustics 54General terminology 54 Measured quantities for noise emissions 57 Measured quantities for noise immissions 58Perceived sound levels 59

Optical technology 62Electromagnetic radiation 62Geometric optics 62Wave optics 65Lighting quantities 67Laser technology 70Optical fibers/waveguides 71

Fluid mechanics 74Hydrostatics 74Flow mechanics 75

Thermodynamics 78Basic principles 78Laws of thermodynamics 80Equations of state 81Changes of state 83 Cycles and technical applications 83Heat transfer 88

Electrical engineering 94Electromagnetic fields 94Electric field 94Direct current and direct voltage 96Time-dependent current 99Magnetic field 100 Magnetic field and electric current 104

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Contents 9

MaterialsMaterials 208

Material parameters 208Material groups 220Metallic materials 221EN metallurgy standards 236Magnetic materials 240 Nonmetallic inorganic materials 253Composite materials 253Plastics 256

Heat treatment of metallic materials 278Hardness 278Heat-treatment processes 281Thermochemical treatment 287

Corrosion and corrosion protection 290Corrosion processes 290Types of corrosion 291Corrosion testing 292Corrosion protection 294

Deposits and coatings 298Deposits 298Coatings 303

Operating fluidsLubricants 304

Terms and definitions 304Engine oils 310Transmission oils 314Lubricating oils 315Lubricating greases 315

Coolants for internal-combustion engines 319

Requirements 319 Composition of coolants 319 Types of radiator protection agents 320

Brake fluids 322Requirements 322Characteristics 323Chemical composition 324

Fuels 326Overview 326Characteristics 327Gasoline (petrol) 328Diesel fuel 333Natural gas 341Liquefied petroleum gas 342Hydrogen 343e-fuels 343Ethers 344

Urea/water solution 348Refrigerants for air-conditioning systems 349

Development up to today 349Alternative possibilities 350

Machine partsTolerances 352

Form deviations 352 Geometrical Product Specifications 352

Axles and shafts 357Function and application 357Dimensioning 357Design 359

Springs 360Basic principles 360Metal springs 362

Friction bearings 368Features 368Hydrodstatic friction bearings 368 Hydrodynamic friction bearings 369 Self-lubricating bearings made of metal 372 Self-lubricating bearings made of plastic 374

Rolling bearings 376Application 376General principles 376Selection of rolling bearings 377Calculation of load capacity 380

Seals 382Seal technology 382O-ring 384Molded seal 391Flat seals 393Sealing caps 394Radial shaft seal 396Pneumatic seals 404Two-component seals 406Rod and piston sealing systems 409Elastomer materials 413

Joining and bonding techniquesDetachable connections 424

Positive or form-closed joints 424Frictional joints 428Threaded fasteners 435 Snap-on connections on plastic components 445

Permanent joints 448Welding 448Soldering 452Adhesive technologies 453Riveting 455Penetration-clinching processes 457

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10 Contents

Internal-combustion enginesInternal-combustion engines 460

Thermal engines 460Mixture formation, combustion, emissions 464

Gasoline engine 464Diesel engine 475 Mixed forms and alternative operating strategies 480

Charge cycle and supercharging 482Charge cycle 482Variable valve timing 485Supercharging processes 489Exhaust-gas recirculation 492

Reciprocating-piston engine 494Components 494 Reciprocating-piston engine types 508Crankshaft-assembly design 509Tribology and friction 517 Empirical values and data for calculation 521

Exhaust emissions 534Historic measures 534 Constituents of engine exhaust gas 534 Basic principles of catalytic exhaust-gas treatment 536 Catalytic processes for exhaust-gas treatment 537

Belt drives 538Friction belt drives 538Positive belt drives 543

Chain drives 548Overview 548Timing chains 548Sprockets 552 Chain-tensioning and chain-guide elements 552

Engine cooling 554Air cooling 554Water cooling 555 Intercooling (charge-air cooling) 561Exhaust-gas cooling 562Oil and fuel cooling 563Modularization 565Intelligent thermal management 567

Engine lubrication 568Forced-feed lubrication system 568Components 569Thermal management 571

Air-intake systems and intake manifolds 572

Overview 572Passenger-car air-intake system 573

Passenger-car intake manifolds 581Motorcycle intake manifolds 586 Commercial-vehicle air-intake system 586 Commercial-vehicle intake manifolds 589

Turbochargers and superchargers 590 Superchargers (mechanically driven) 590Pressure-wave superchargers 592Exhaust-gas turbochargers 593Complex supercharging systems 601

Exhaust-gas system 606Purpose and design 606Exhaust manifold 608Catalytic converter 608Particulate filter 609Mufflers 610Connecting elements 612Acoustic tuning devices 613 Commercial-vehicle exhaust- gas systems 614

Management for spark-ignition enginesManagement for spark-ignition engines 616

Description of the engine management system 616System overview 617 Motronic versions for passenger cars 621 Motronic versions for motorcycles 625

Cylinder charge 628Component parts 628Control of cylinder charge 629Recording of air charge 631Cylinder shutoff 633

Fuel supply 636 Fuel supply and delivery with intake-manifold injection 636 Fuel supply and delivery with gasoline direct injection 637 Evaporative-emissions control system 639Gasoline filter 641Electric fuel pump 643 High-pressure pumps for gasoline direct injection 646Fuel rail 649Fuel-pressure regulator 651Fuel-pressure attenuator 652

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Contents 11

Mixture formation 654Basic principles 654Mixture-formation systems 656Intake-manifold injection 657Gasoline direct injection 659Fuel injectors 662

Ignition 670Basic principles 670Moment of ignition 671Ignition systems 676Ignition coil 678Spark plug 681

Catalytic exhaust-gas treatment 690Catalytic converter 690λ-control 695 Particulate filter for gasoline engines 697

Motor sport 698Requirements 698Components 698ECUs 700Pure motor-sport developments 700

Alternative gasoline-engine operationLPG operation 702

Applications 702Design 703LPG systems 705Components 707

Engines fueled by natural gas 710Applications 710Design 712Components 713

Engines fueled by alcohol 716Application 716Ethanol as an alternative fuel 717 Flex-fuel concepts for the markets 719Flex-fuel components 720

Management for diesel enginesManagement for diesel engines 722

Description of the engine- management system 722Electronic Diesel Control 723

Low-pressure fuel supply 726Fuel supply and delivery 726Diesel filter 732

Common-rail injection system 734System overview 734Injectors 739High-pressure pumps 747Rail 753

Time-controlled single-cylinder pump systems 754

Unit-injector system for passenger cars 754 Unit-injector system for commercial vehicles 756 Unit-pump system for commercial vehicles 757Electronic control 757

Diesel distributor injection pumps 758 Axial-piston distributor pumps 758 Radial-piston distributor pumps 761Fuel-injection system 763

Start-assist systems for diesel engines 764

Preheating systems for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles 764 Flame start systems for commercial-vehicle diesel engines 768 Grid heater for commercial- vehicle diesel engines 771

Exhaust-gas treatment 772Catalytic oxidation 772Filtration of particulates 773 Catalytic reduction of nitrous fumes 775On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) 779

DrivetrainConventional drivetrain 780

Drivetrain elements 780Function 780Arrangement of engine 783Vibration isolation 784

Power take-up elements 786Single clutch 786Dual clutch 787Dry and wet clutches 788 Hydrodynamic torque converter 788

Transmission 791Step-up gear units 791Gear-shift elements 793Manually shifted transmissions 795Automated manual transmissions 797Dual-clutch transmissions 798Automatic planetary transmissions 799 Continuously variable transmissions 800 Commercial-vehicle transmissions 802Electronic transmission control 804

Differentials 808Final-drive differentials 808

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12 Contents

Drivetrain with hybrid drives 812Features 812 Functionalities of hybrid drives 812 Classification based on proportion of electric power 814 Classification based on drive structure 815

Drivetrain with electric drives 820 Pure battery-operated electric drive 820 Electric drive with range extender 821

Alternative drivesHybrid drives 822

Features 822Drive structures 823Control of hybrid vehicles 829Regenerative braking system 832

Boost-recuperation system 48 V 834Motivation 834 Requirements imposed on a 48 V electric machine 836 Choice of concept for the electric machine 838 Thermal situation and rating 840 Machine performance in the system network 841Overall view of the 48 V system 842

Electric machines for motor-vehicle propulsion 844

Requirements 844 Types of electric machines 847 Influencing factors on operational performance 849 Losses in electric machines 854 Cooling of the electric machine 856

Fuel cells for the vehicle drive 858Functioning principle 858 Functioning principle of the fuel-cell system 860 Functioning principle of the drivetrain 862

Emission-control and diagnosis legislationEmission-control legislation 864

Overview 864 Emission-control legislation for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles 866 Test cycles for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles 880 Emission-control legislation for heavy commercial vehicles 885 Test cycles for heavy commercial vehicles 890

Emission legislation for motorcycles 894

Exhaust-gas measuring techniques 900Exhaust-gas testing 900Exhaust-gas measuring devices 903Diesel smoke-emission test 907Evaporative-emissions test 909

Diagnostics 912Monitoring in driving mode 912On-Board Diagnostics 914OBD functions 920 OBD requirements for heavy commercial vehicles 923 On-Board Diagnostics for motorcycles 927 ECU diagnostics and Service Information System 928

Vehicle physicsBasic terms of automotive engineering 930

Basic terms of vehicle handling 930Motor-vehicle dynamics 940

Dynamics of linear motion 940Adhesion to road surface 946Accelerating and braking 947 Actions: Reaction, braking and stopping 948Passing (overtaking) 950Fuel consumption 952Dynamics of lateral motion 958 Special operating dynamics for commercial vehicles 964 Driving-dynamics test procedures as per ISO 967

Vehicle aerodynamics 974Aerodynamic forces 974 Tasks of vehicle aerodynamics 977Vehicle wind tunnels 982

Vehicle acoustics 988Legal requirements 988 Development work on vehicle acoustics 990Sources of noise 991Sound design 993

Chassis systemsChassis systems 996

Definition and design 996Basic principles 997

Suspension 1006Basic principles 1006Types of spring 1009Suspension systems 1014

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Contents 13

Shock absorbers and vibration absorbers 1018

Shock absorbers 1018 Vibration absorbers 1025

Wheel suspensions 1026Basic principles 1026 Kinematics and elastokinematics 1026 Basic categories of wheel suspensions 1028

Wheels 1034 Function and requirements 1034Structure 1034Design criteria 1039 Designation for passenger-car wheels 1039Materials for wheels 1040Manufacturing processes 1042Wheel design variations 1045 Stress and testing of wheels 1047

Tires 1050 Function and requirements 1050Tire construction 1051Tire inflation pressure 1053Tire tread 1054Force transmission 1056Tire grip 1957Rolling resistance 1060Tire designation 1062EU tire label 1065Winter tires 1066Development aims 1067Tire tests 1067Tire-pressure monitoring systems 1068 Rotary seal for tire-pressure control 1070

Steering 1072 Purpose of automotive steering systems 1072 Steering-system requirements 1073 Types of steering box 1075 Power-assisted steering systems for passenger cars 1076 Power-assisted steering systems for commercial vehicles 1083

Brake systems 1086Definitions and principles 1086Legal regulations 1091 Structure and organization of brake systems 1094

Brake systems for passenger cars and light utility vehicles 1096

Subdivision of passenger-car brake systems 1096 Components of the passenger- car brake system 1097 Electrohydraulic brake 1104

Brake systems for commercial vehicles 1106

System overview 1106 Components of commercial- vehicle brake systems 1109 Electronically controlled brake system 1118 Continuous-operation brake systems 1122

Wheel brakes 1126Disk brakes for passenger cars 1126 Disk brakes for commercial vehicles 1131Drum brakes 1132

Chassis control and active safetyWheel-slip control systems 1136

Function and requirements 1136Control systems 1137 ABS/TCS systems for passenger cars 1141 ABS/TCS systems for commercial vehicles 1145

Driving-dynamics control system 1148Function 1148Requirements 1149Operating principle 1150Typical driving maneuver 1150Structure of the overall system 1151System components 1160 Special driving-dynamics control system for commercial vehicles 1163 Automatic brake-system operations 1168

Integrated driving-dynamics control systems 1172

Overview 1172Functions 1172System architecture 1175

Passive safetyPassive safety 1178

Phases of vehicle safety 1178 System architecture, passive safety 1180 Legal regulations and consumer tests 1181

Occupant-protection systems 1182Functions 1182Retention systems and actuators 1184Occupant sensing 1188

Integral-safety systems 1190Overview 1190Solution approaches 1191Outlook 1195

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14 Contents

Vehicle bodiesVehicle bodies, passenger cars 1196

Main dimensions 1196Body design 1198Body 1199Safety 1203

Vehicle bodies, commercial vehicles 1208

Classification of commercial vehicles 1208Light utility vans 1209 Medium- and heavy-duty trucks and tractor units 1209Buses 1214 Active and passive safety in commercial vehicles 1216

Lighting equipment 1218Functions 1218 Regulations and equipment 1219Light sources 1220Main-light functions 1221 Main-light functions for Europe 1224 Main-light functions for the USA 1227Definitions and terms 1229 Technical design variations of headlamps 1230 Installation and regulations for signal lamps 1243 Technical design variations for lamps 1247Headlamp leveling control 1251Headlamp adjustment 1252

Automotive glazing 1258The material properties of glass 1258 Automotive windshield and window glass 1259Functional design glazing 1260

Windshield, rear-window and headlamp cleaning systems 1264

Windshield wiper systems 1264Rear-window wiper systems 1270 Windshield and rear-window washer systems 1271Headlamp washer systems 1271

Vehicle security systemsLocking systems 1272

Task and design 1272Access authorization 1273Lock design 1274Requirements 1276Lock layout 1276Safety functions 1280Development history 1281

Anti-theft systems 1284 Electronic vehicle immobilizer 1284Theft-alarm system 1288

Automotive electricsConventional vehicle electrical systems 1290

Electrical power supply 1290Electrical-system structures 1296Electrical-system parameters 1297Electrical energy management 1300

Vehicle electrical systems for hybrid and electric vehicles 1304

Vehicle electrical systems for mild and full hybrid vehicles 1304 Vehicle electrical systems for plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles 1307Charging strategy 1308

Starter batteries 1310Requirements 1310Battery design 1312Charging and discharging 1314Battery characteristics 1315Battery types 1316Using the battery 1319

Drive batteries 1322Requirements 1322Storage technologies 1323 Basic structure of a battery system 1324 Components of a lithium-ion battery system 1325Thermal management 1329

Electric machines 1330Energy conversion 1330 Systematics of rotating electric machines 1331 Definition of geometric quantities 1331Direct-current machines 1332Asynchronous machine 1338Synchronous machine 1340Switched reluctance motor 1345Electronic motors 1348Energy-efficiency classes 1349Three-phase current system 1350

Alternators 1354 Electric power generation 1354Voltage regulation 1359Characteristic alternator values 1361Operating conditions 1362Efficiency 1363Alternator versions 1364

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Contents 15

Starting systems 1368Starter 1368Triggering the starter 1375Start/stop system 1376

Wiring harnesses and plug-in connections 1378

Wiring harnesses 1378Plug-in connections 1380

Electromagnetic compatibility 1384Requirements 1384 Interference emission and interference immunity 1385EMC-oriented development 1388EMC measuring techniques 1389EMC test methods 1390EMC simulation 1393 Legal requirements and standards 1394

Symbols and circuit diagrams 1398Circuit symbols 1398Circuit diagrams 1405Terminal designations 1417

Automotive electronicsElectronic control unit (ECU) 1420

Functions 1420Requirements 1420 ECU components 1421Data processing 1427

Automotive software engineering 1430Motivation 1430 Design of software in motor vehicles 1431 Important standards for software in motor vehicles 1431 The development process 1434 Quality assurance in software development 1438 Workflows of software development in motor vehicles 1438 Modeling and simulation of software functions 1440 Design and implementation of software functions 1443 Integration and testing of software and ECUs 1444 Calibration of software functions 1446Outlook 1448

Automotive networking 1450Bus systems 1450Technical principles 1451

Buses in motor vehicles 1458CAN 1458FlexRay 1463

LIN 1466Ethernet 1469PSI5 1471MOST 1473Serial Wire Ring 1477

Architecture of electronic systems 1482General 1482 Development of E/E architectures 1490Summary and outlook 1496

Automotive sensors 1498Basic principles 1498 Position and angular-position sensors 1504Rpm sensors 1518Oscillation gyrometers 1523Flowmeters 1526 Acceleration and vibration sensors 1530Pressure sensors 1536Temperature sensors 1540Torque sensor 1544Force sensor 1545 Gas and concentration sensors 1546 Optoelectronic sensors 1556Ultrasonic sensor 1559Radar sensors 1560Lidar sensors 1564Video sensors 1567

Mechatronics 1572 Mechatronic systems and components 1572Development methodology 1574Outlook 1577

Comfort and conveniencePassenger-compartment climate control 1578

Climate-control requirements 1578 Design and operating principle of the A/C unit 1578 Climate-control systems 1581 Climate control for hybrid and electric vehicles 1582Cabin filters 1583Auxiliary heater systems 1584

Comfort and convenience systems in the door and roof areas 1590

Power-window systems 1590Sunroof systems 1592

Comfort and convenience functions in the passenger compartment 1594

Electrical seat adjustment 1594 Electrical steering-wheel adjustment 1595

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16 Contents

User interfaces, telematics and multimediaDisplay and control 1596

Interaction channels 1596Instrumentation 1597Display types 1601

Radio and TV reception in motor vehicles 1606

Wireless signal transmission 1606Radio tuners 1609

Traffic telematics 1613Transmission paths 1613Standardization 1613Information recording 1614

Driver-assistance systemsDriver-assistance systems 1616

Introduction – driver assistance 1616Computer vision 1624

Camera model 1624Image processing 1627

Vehicle navigation 1632Navigation systems 1632Functions of navigation 1632Digital map 1635

Night-vision systems 1636Applications 1636Far-infrared systems 1636Near-infrared systems 1637

Parking and maneuvering systems 1642Application 1642 Ultrasonic parking aid 1642 Ultrasonic parking assistant 1645 Video systems 1648

Adaptive Cruise Control 1652Function 1652Design and function 1652Control algorithms 1654 Area of application and functional expansions 1655 Current ongoing developments 1657

Lane assistance 1658Lane departure warning 1658Lane-keeping support 1659Roadworks assistant 1660Bottleneck/constriction assistant 1660

Lane-change assistant 1662Blind-spot assistant 1662Lane-change assistant 1663Further developments 1664

Emergency-braking systems 1665 Emergency brake assist and automatic emergency braking 1665

Intersection assistant 1668Motivation 1668 Intersection-assistance systems 1669

Active pedestrian protection 1671High-beam assistant 1673Future of automated driving 1674

Long-term goal – autonomous driving 1674 Obstacles to automated driving 1675 Stages on the road to autonomous driving 1676

Appendices Technical terms 1680Abbreviations 1766

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