authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices 1995

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    Psychological Repo rts, 1995, 7 7, 819-8 30.

    AUTHORITATIVE, AUTHORITARIAN, AND PERMISSIVEPARENTING PRACTICES: DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW MEASURE 1

    CLYDE C. ROBINSON, BARBARA MANDLECO,SUSANNE FROST OLSEN, AND CRAIG H. HART

    Brigham Young University

    Summary . -- A 133-item parenting questionnaire was completed by 1251 parents of preschool andschool -age children. Items in this measure were reduce d using principle axes factor analyses follo wed byvarimax rotation. Three global parenting dimensions emerged consistent with Baumrinds authoritative,authoritarian, and p ermissive typologies. Internal c onsistency reliabili ty was assessed with Cronbach alphaand additional it ems were deleted. A 62-item i nstrument was retained, and th e global parenting d imensionswere subse quently analyzed to determine t heir intern al structures using principle axes factor anal ysesfollowed by oblique rotation. For each of the three global dimensions a number of specific factors wereidentified.

    Baumrinds Contribution

    Baumrinds (1971) authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive typologies are currentlywidely employed models of parenting styles. Baumrind originally conceptualized eight types of

    parents including rejecting-neglecting, nonconforming, authoritative nonconforming,authoritarian-rejecting-neglecting, etc. Baumrind (1991) later discusses sex-role traditional as anadditional type of parent. For the purposes of this paper we address the three main types of

    parenting styles commonly studied (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive). Over the past twodecades, research in the United States based on Baumrinds three major prototypes has yielded aconsistent picture of the types of parenting thought to enhance or mitigate the successfulsocialization of middle-class children. For example, authoritative parenting style has been shownto assist young children and adolescents develop instrumental competence which is characterized

    by psychosocial maturity, cooperation with peers and adults, responsible independence, andacademic success (for reviews, see Baumrind, 1971, 1989, 1991). Many methodologicalstrategies currently used to derive Baumrinds three main typologies are limited in many respects.The purpose of this report is to introduce findings regarding a new measure designed to assessempirically these typologies for parents of preschool and school-age children.

    Methodological Strategies and Limitations

    Baumrinds conceptualization encompasses parents attitudes and values about parenting,their beliefs about the nature of children as well as the specific practices they employ to socializetheir children. Baumrind used a multimethod approach to assess parenting styles that included 1 Requests for reprints should be sent to Clyde C. Robinson, Department of Marriage, Family, and HumanDevelopment, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84604.

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    820 C. C. ROBINSON, ET AL.

    parent rating scales, psychologists Q-sorts, and behavioral observations. For research on

    socialization , however, Baumrinds approach has several disadvantages. For example, becauseobservations and interviewing are extensive, fewer subjects can be included in studies. Inaddition, the cost for the approach is high in terms of special training required for data-gathering

    personnel and the time required for collecting data.A common strategy in assessing Baumrinds three main typologies has been to obtain

    adolescents reports of parents parenting styles (e.g., Buri, 1991; Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman,Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Greenberger, 1988; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Steinberg,Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Steinberg, Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991).These indirect parenting measures, completed by adolescents and used in assessing adolescentoutcomes, eliminate several disadvantages of Baumrinds approach; however, these particular methods may be unsatisfactory for use with younger children since they are designed particularly

    for adolescents reporting on how they were parented and academic-related content is often usedin the questionnaire items.

    Specifically, the challenge for preadolescent children is that they may not assess accuratelytheir parents parenting practices. Thus, a widely used parenting practices instrument, developedfor parents of young children, has been Blocks (1965) Child-rearing Practices Report, a 91-itemQ-sort. Disadvantages of this report are that it (a) contains a large number of determined factors(28 to 33) with moderate to low reliabilities, (b) it does not adequately tap Baumrinds typology,and (c) it is comprised of many items which may be outdated or inconsistent with the currentliterature. Also, items which tap the parental belief domain, e.g., ? I believe that a child should beseen and not heard, and items which tap the parental practice domain, e.g., ? I dont go out if Ihave to leave my child with a stranger, are incorporated into Blocks report withoutdistinguishing between the two domains . In addition, few items in Blocks report describeinductive reasoning, and few items can be classified into Baumrinds conceptualizations of authoritative parental behavior of child-centeredness versus parent-centeredness. Only one itemaddresses the issue of democratic give and take. Rickel and Biasatti (1982) showed that Blocksreport can be revised into a questionnaire in which a 6-point scale is employed withoutdecreasing reliability or affecting the factor structure.

    Some attempts have been made by researchers interested in socialization (Kochanska,Kuczynski, & Radke-Yarrow, 1989; Trickett & Susman, 1988) to reduce the number of factors inthe Block report and make them more consistent with Baumrinds conceptualizations (Chao,1994). In constructing their measure Kochanska, et al. (1989) incorporated from the Block original solutions only those factors which they deemed to be congruent with authoritarian andauthoritative child-rearing patterns. However, a limitation with this strategy was that they usedconceptual guidelines rather than empirical derivations. The authoritative pattern consisted of the factors, expression of affection, e.g., ? I feel a child should be given comfort andunderstanding when he/she is scared or upset, rational guidance, e.g., ? I make sure my childknows that I appreciate what he/she tries or accomplishes, encouragement of independence, e.g.,? If my child gets into trouble, I expect him/her to handle the problem mostly by him/herself.The authoritarian pattern consisted of the factors authoritarian control, e.g., ? I believe children

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    PARENTING PRACTICES, A MEASURE 821

    should not have secrets from their parents, supervision of the child, e.g., ? I believe it is unwise

    to let children play a lot by themselves without supervision from grown-ups, and control byanxiety induction, e.g., ? I teach my child that in one way or another punishment will findhim/her when he/she is bad. Unfortunately, the reliabilities of these two conceptual scales werenot reported. Trickett and Susman (1988) also conceptually grouped Blocks original factors intothree scales of enjoyment of child and parental role, encouragement of autonomy, andauthoritarian control. In examining these items the conceptual basis for these scales is not clear.

    In addition to concerns about conceptually derived inventories, another issue in developingmeasures to assess parenting typologies for young children lies in empirically identifying

    practices that comprise the typologies (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). For example, Buri andGreenbergers adolescent instruments have been modified for parents of younger children tocomplete; however, these measures are mainly designed to assess Baumrinds main global

    typologies. As Smetana (1994) pointed out, global typologies may give little information aboutways specific parenting practices are related to childrens behavior. For instance, within theauthoritative typology, it would be reasonable to assume that inductive practices would be relatedmore to childrens adaptive social cognitions and that parental warmth and involvement wouldhave stronger linkages with childrens prosocial behavior, e.g., helping, sharing, comforting. AsDarling and Steinberg (1993) suggest, different parenting practices within a typology would bemore or less important to investigate depending on the specific developmental outcome of interest.

    Therefore, the purpose of this study was not only to develop an empirical means of assessing global typologies consistent with Baumrinds main conceptualizations for parents of

    preadolescent children but also to identify specific parenting practices that occur within thecontext of the typologies (cf. Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Factor and reliability analyses wereconducted to achieve these aims.

    METHOD

    Initially, 133 questionnaire items with a 5-point scale anchored by never (1) and always (5)was developed using 80 items from Blocks report and 53 new items. The new items wereconstructed based on conceptualizations of authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive typologiesdrawn from the current literature that appeared to have face validity. Items reflecting Baumrindsother typologies were not included in this instrument. The parenting practices questionnaire wascompleted by 1,251 volunteer parents (534 fathers and 717 mothers) residing in communitieslocated in Utah. Of these participants, 32% were parents of preschool-age children fromuniversity/Head Start preschools and 68% were parents of school-age children from parochialand public elementary schools. Fathers had a mean age of 37.9 yr. (ranging from 22 to 63) andmothers had a mean age of 35.6 yr. (ranging from 20 to 57). Fathers had completed a mean of 15.3 yr. of schooling (ranging from 8 to 23), and mothers had completed a mean of 14.6 yr. of schooling (also ranging from 8 to 23). The majority of the participants were Caucasian from two-

    parent families whose median family income was approximately $30,000.

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    RESULTS

    The studys design consisted of two phases. For the first phase we planned to extract fromthe 133-item questionnaire three factors deemed to theoretically correspond with Baumrindsauthoritative, authoritarian, and permissive typologies. Initial reductions in number of items wereaccomplished by a series of principle axes factor analyses followed by varimax rotations. Itemswere retained if they (a) had a loading near or over .30 (see Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989), (b)loaded for both fathers and mothers, and (c) loaded for parents of both preschool- and school-agechildren. Seventy-seven items met this criterion. Additional items were eliminated if their correlations with the total factor score were less than .25. This resulted in 62 questions retained:the Authoritative Items consisting of 27 questions with a Cronbach alpha of .91, the

    Authoritarian Items consisting of 20 questions with a Cronbach alpha of .86, and the PermissiveItems consisting of 15 questions with a Cronbach alpha of .75. This 62-item measure included 19items (31%) retained from Blocks report and 43 new items (69%).

    For the second phase of the studys design we intended to determine the dimensions andinternal structures within the Authoritative Items, Authoritarian Items, and Permissive Items thatmay reflect specific parenting practices. Each set of items within the three global typologies wereanalyzed using principle axes factor analysis followed by oblimin rotation. Four factors witheigenvalues greater than one were extracted from the Authoritative Items accounting for 47.4%of the variance. These factors were labeled (a) Warmth and Involvement with 11 items, (b)

    Reasoning/Induction with 7 items, (c) Democratic Participation with 5 items; and (d) Good Natured/Easy Going with 4 items. Four factors with eigenvalues greater than one were extractedfrom the Authoritarian Items accounting for 46.8% of the variance. These factors were labeled(a) Verbal Hostility with 4 items, (b) Corporal Punishment with 6 items, (c) Nonreasoning,

    Punitive Strategies with 6 items, and (d) Directiveness with 4 items. Three factors witheigenvalues greater than one were extracted from the Permissive Items accounting for 40.3% of the variance. These factors were labeled (a) Lack of Follow Through with 6 items, (b) Ignoring

    Misbehavior with 4 items, and (c) Self-confidence with 5 items. Table 1 presents the means,standard deviations, factor loadings, and descriptions of items within each global typology.

    These results suggest that parenting questions consistent with Baumrinds three maintypologies can be empirically derived. Also, a number of conceptually coherent factors identifiedwithin each typology may prove to be useful in predicting differential developmental outcomes(cf. Darling & Steinberg, 1993). This measure can be used with both mothers and fathers who are

    parents of preschool and/or school-age children. A sample of the mothers form of the instrumentis found in the Appendix. The fathers form is the same except for pronoun changes. Thisinstrument can also be modified for intergenerational studies. Adults report on how they were

    parented by their mothers and/or fathers as children. Researchers must investigate thecorrelations of the factors with both child and family outcome measures to assess the validity of the inventory.

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    PARENTING PRACTICES, A MEASURE 823

    TABLE 1

    Parenting Practices Questionnaire Constructs

    Authoritative Items 1

    Item M SD Load Factor 1 (Warmth & Involvement) 3 f 4.08 .99 .72 Knows the names of childs friends.33 f 4.18 .87 .68 Aware of problems or concerns about chi ld in school. 5a 4.29 .73 .59 Gives praise when child is good.12 c 4.21 .77 .59 Gives comfort and understanding when child is upset.35 c 4.41 .79 .58 Expresses affection by hugging, kissing, and holding child.

    9e

    4.23 .77 .57 Show sympathy when child is hurt or frustrated.27 a 4.28 .76 .53 Tells child we appreciate what the child tries or accomplishes.21 f 4.10 .73 .53 Responsive to childs feelings or needs. 1d 4.03 .93 .57 Encourages child to talk about the childs troubles.46 c 3.83 .89 .44 Has warm and intimate times together with child.39h 3.79 1.02 .42 Apologizes to child when making a mistake in parenting.

    Factor 2 (Reasoning/Induction)58h 3.81 .83 .76 Explains the consequences of the childs behavior.25h 3.95 .84 .76 Gives child reasons why rules should be obeyed.62h 3.85 .91 .75 Emphasizes the reasons for rules.29h 3.67 .97 .65 Helps child to understand the impact of behavior by encouraging child to talk about the

    consequences of (his)(her) own actions.53h 3.93 .86 .65 Explains how we feel about his/her good and bad behavior.42 a 3.75 .88 .51 Talks it over and reasons with child when the child misbehaves.16h 3.49 .99 .47 Tells child our expectations regarding behavior before the child engages in an activity.

    Factor 3 (Democratic Participation)55 b 3.56 .88 .73 Takes into account childs preferences in making family plans.22h 3.40 1.05 .64 Allows child to give input into family rules.31 f 3.30 .91 .59 Takes childs desires into account before asking the child to do something.48h 3.28 1.04 .33 Encourages child to freely express (himself)(herself) even when disagreeing with parents.60h 2.99 .94 .31 Channels childs misbehavior into a more acceptable activity.

    Factor 4 (Good Natured/Easy Going)14 c 3.82 .80 .68 Is easy going and relaxed with child.18g 3.62 .71 .58 Shows patience with child. 7c 3.90 .85 .57 Jokes and plays with child.51 b 3.95 .76 .37 Shows respect for childs opinions by encouraging child to express them.1

    Alpha = .91 (27 Items), Sample = 1251

    (continued on next page) *Reverse scoring. , a Blocks Q-sort - Rational Guidance, b Blocks Q-sort - Encouragement of Independence, cBlocks Q-sort -Expression of Affect, d Blocks Q-sort - Openness to Experience, enew Demonstration of Affect, f new Child-centered Behavior,gnew Parenting Confidence, hnew Authoritative Pattern, iBlocks Q-sort - Control, jBlocks Q-sort - Nonphysical Punishment,k new Authoritarian Pattern, l Blocks Q-sort - Inconsistency, mBlocks Q-sort - Investment in Child, nnew Permissive Pattern,o new Parent Centered Behavior.

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    TABLE 1 (Contd)

    Parenting Practices Questionnaire Constructs

    Authoritarian Items 2

    Item M SD Load Factor 1 (Verb al Host ility)32 e 2.07 .75 .74 Explodes in anger towards child.13k 2.72 .90 .72 Yells or shouts when chi ld misbehaves.23 e 2.25 .79 .71 Argues with child.44o 2.45 .64 .32 Disagrees with child.

    Factor 2 (Corporal Punishment)37 i 1.89 .72 .88 Uses physical punishment as a way of disciplining our child. 6k 1.87 .75 .85 Spanks when our child is disobedient.Item M SD Load43k 1.54 .62 74 Slaps child when the child misbehaves.19k 2.19 .91 51 Grabs child when being disobedient. 2k 2.05 .82 .39 Guides child by punishment more than by reason.61k 1.30 .60 .30 Shoves child when the child is disobedient.

    Factor 3 (Non-Reasoning, Punitive Strategies)10 j 1.55 .77 .78 Punishes by taking privileges away from child with little if any explanations.28 j 1.58 .81 .73 Punishes by putting child off somewhere alone with little if any explanations .54k 1.59 .75 .58 Uses threats as punishment with little or no justification.

    47k

    2.20 .93 .48 When two children are fighting, disciplines children first and asks questions later.26o 1.93 .79 .41 Appears to be more concerned with own feelings than with childs feelings.56k 2.18 .88 .40 When child asks why (he)(she) has to conform, states: because I said so, or I am your parent and I

    want you to.

    Factor 4 (Directiveness)40o 3.22 .88 .69 Tells child what to do.59k 2.83 1.02 .67 Demands that child does/do things.17 i 1.93 .86 .64 Scolds and crit icizes to make chi ld improve.50k 2.50 .96 .51 Scolds or criticizes when childs behavior doesnt meet our expectations.

    2 Alpha = .86 (20 Items), Sample = 1251

    (continued on next page) *Reverse scoring. , a Blocks Q-sort - Rational Guidance, b Blocks Q-sort - Encouragement of Independence, cBlocks Q-sort -Expression of Affect, d Blocks Q-sort - Openness to Experience, enew Demonstration of Affect, f new Child-centered Behavior,gnew Parenting Confidence, hnew Authoritative Pattern, iBlocks Q-sort - Control, jBlocks Q-sort - Nonphysical Punishment,k new Authoritarian Pattern, l Blocks Q-sort - Inconsistency, mBlocks Q-sort - Investment in Child, nnew Permissive Pattern,o new Parent Centered Behavior.

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    TABLE 1 (Contd)

    Parenting Practices Questionnaire Constructs

    Permissive Items 3

    Item M SD Load Factor 1 (Lack of Follow Through)20n 2.06 .79 .75 States punishments to child and does not actually do them.34 l 2.61 1.02 .69 Threatens child with punishment more often than giving it.11 m 2.53 .98 .65 Spoils child.41n 1.96 .77 .42 Gives into child when (he)(she) causes a commotion about something.38n 2.37 .84 -.38* Carries out discipline after child misbehaves.

    49n

    2.17 .87 .32 Bribes child with rewards to bring about compliance.

    Factor 2 (Ignoring Misbehavior)45n 1.83 .76 .73 Allows child to interrupt others.15n 1.42 .65 .69 Allows child to annoy someone else.36n 1.73 .68 .52 Ignores childs misbehavior. 8n 2.25 .93 .43 Withholds scolding and/or criticism even when child acts contrary to our wishes.

    Factor 3 (Self Confidence)24g 2.17 .78 -.83* Appears confident about parenting abilities.57g 2.16 .79 .74 Appears unsure on how to solve chi lds misbehavior. 4 m 2.16 .95 .50 Finds it difficult to discipline child.52 i 2.45 .92 -.37* Sets strict well-established rules for child.30g 1.55 .68 .36 Is afraid that disciplining child for misbehavior will cause the child to not like his/her parents.

    3Alpha = .75 (15 Items), Sample = 1251 *Reverse scoring. , a Blocks Q-sort - Rational Guidance, b Blocks Q-sort - Encouragement of Independence, cBlocks Q-sort -Expression of Affect, d Blocks Q-sort - Openness to Experience, enew Demonstration of Affect, f new Child-centered Behavior,gnew Parenting Confidence, hnew Authoritative Pattern, iBlocks Q-sort - Control, jBlocks Q-sort - Nonphysical Punishment,k new Authoritarian Pattern, l Blocks Q-sort - Inconsistency, mBlocks Q-sort - Investment in Child, nnew Permissive Pattern,o new Parent Centered Behavior.

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    REFERENCES

    Baumrind, D. (1971) Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monographs, 4, 1-103.

    Baumrind, D. (1989) Rearing competent children. In W. Damon (Ed.), Child development today and tomorrow. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pp. 349-378.

    Baumrind, D. (1991) Effective parenting during the early adolescent transition. In P. A. Cowan& M. Hetherington (Eds.), Family transitions . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Pp. 111-163.

    Block, J. H. (1965) The child-rearing practices report: a technique for evaluating parental socialization orientations. Berkeley, CA: Univer. of California, Institute of HumanDevelopment.

    Buri, J. R. (1991) Parental Authority Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57 ,110-119.

    Chao, R. K. (1994) Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: understandingChinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65 , 1111-1119.

    Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: an integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113 , 487-496.

    Dornbusch, S. M., Ritter, P. L., Leiderman, P. O., Roberts, D. F., & Fraleigh, M. J. (1987). Therelation of parenting style to adolescent school performance. Child Development, 58 ,1244-1257.

    Greenberger, E. (1988). New measures for research on work, parenting and the socialization of children . Unpublished manuscript, U. of California, Program in Social Ecology, Irvine,CA.

    Kochanska, B., Kuczynski, L., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1989). Correspondence between mothersself-reported and observed child-rearing practices. Child Development, 60 , 56-63.

    Rickel, A. U., & Biasatti, L. L. (1982). Modification of the Block Child-rearing PracticesReport. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38 , 129-134.

    Smetana, J. G. (1994). Parenting styles and beliefs about parental authority. In J. G. Smetana(Ed.), Beliefs about parenting: origins and developmental implications . San Francisco,CA: Jossey-Bass. Pp. 21-36.

    Steinberg, L., Elmen, D. J., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocialmaturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60 , 1424-1436.

    Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: authoritative parenting, school involvement, andencouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63 , 1266-1281.

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    PARENTING PRACTICES, A MEASURE 827

    Steinberg, L., Mounts, N. S., Lamborn, S. D., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Authoritative

    parenting and adolescent adjustment across varied ecological niches. Journal of Researchon Adolescence, 1 , 19-36.Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics . New York: Harper

    Collins.Trickett, P. K., & Susman, E. J. (1988). Parental perceptions of child-rearing practices in

    physically abusive and nonabusive families. Developmental Psychology, 24 , 270-276.

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    APPENDIX

    Parenting Practices Questionnaire (Mothers Form)

    Make two ratings for each item; (1) rate how often your spouse exhibits this behavior with your child and(2) how often you exhibit this behavior with your child.

    SPOUSE EXHIBITS BEHAVIOR : I EXHIBIT THIS BEHAVIOR :1 = Never 1 = Never 2 = Once In Awhile 2 = Once In Awhile3 = About Hal f of the Time 3 = About Hal f of the Time4 = Very Often 4 = Very Often5 = Always 5 = Always

    [He] [ I ]

    1. [He encourages] [I encourage] our child to talk about the childs troubles.

    2. [He guides] [I guide] our child by punishment more than by reason.

    3. [He knows] [I know] the names of our childs friends.

    4. [He finds] [I find] it difficult to discipline our child.

    5. [He gives praise] [I give praise] when our child is good.

    6. [He spanks] [I spank] when our child is disobedient.

    7. [He jokes and plays] [I joke and play] with our child.

    8. [He withholds] [I withhold] scolding and/or criticism even when our child acts contrary to our wishes.

    9. [He shows] [I show] sympathy when our child is hurt or frustrated. 10. [He punishes] [I punish] by taking privileges away from our child with little if any explanations.

    11. [He spoils] [I spoil] our child.

    12. [He gives] [I give] comfort and understanding when our child is upset.

    13. [He yells or shouts] [I yell or shout] when our child misbehaves.

    14. [He is] [I am] easy going and relaxed with our child.

    15. [He allows] [I allow] our child to annoy someone else.

    16. [He tells] [I tell] child o ur expectations regarding behavior before the child engages in an activity.

    17. [He scolds and criticizes] [I scold and criticize] to make our child improve.

    18. [He shows] [I show] patience with our child.

    19. [He grabs] [I grab] our child when he/she is being disobedient.

    20. [He states] [I state] punishments to our child and does not actually do them.

    21. [He is] [I am] responsive to our childs feelings or needs.

    (continued on next page)

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    PARENTING PRACTICES, A MEASURE 829

    APPENDIX (Contd)

    Parenting Practices Questionnaire (Mothers Form)

    22. [He allows] [I allow] our child to give input into family rules.

    23. [He argues] [I argue] with our child.

    24. [He appears] [I appear] confident about parenting abilities.

    25. [He gives] [I give] our child reasons why rules should be obeyed.

    26. [He appears] [I appear] to be more concerned with own feelings than with our childs feelings.

    27. [He tells] [I tell] our child that we appreciate what the child tries or accomplishes.

    28. [He punishes] [I punish] by putting our child off somewhere alone with little if any explanations .

    29. [He helps] [I help] our child to understand the impact of behavior by encouraging our child to talk about the

    consequences of his/her own actions.

    30. [He is] [I am] afraid that disciplining our child for misbehavior will cause the child to not like his/her parents.

    31. [He takes] [I take] our childs desires into account before asking the child to do something.

    32. [He explodes] [I explode] in anger towards our child.

    33. [He is] [I am] aware of problems or concerns about our child in school.

    34. [He threatens] [I threaten] our child with punishment more often than actually giving it.

    35. [He expresses] [I express] affection by hugging, kissing, and holding our child. 36. [He ignores] [I ignore] our childs misbehavior.

    37. [He uses] [I use] physical punishment as a way of disciplining our child.

    38. [He carries] [I carry] out discipline after our child misbehaves.

    39. [He apologizes] [I apologize] to our child when making a mistake in parenting.

    40. [He tells] [I tell] our child what to do.

    41. [He gives] [I give] into our child when the child causes a commotion about something.

    42. [He talks it over and reasons] [I talk it over and reason] with our child when the child misbehaves.

    43. [He slaps] [I slap] our child when the child misbehaves.

    44. [He disagrees] [I disagree] with our child.

    45. [He allows] [I allow] our child to interrupt others.

    (continued on next page)

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    830 C. C. ROBINSON, ET AL.

    APPENDIX (Contd)

    Parenting Practices Questionnaire (Mothers Form)

    46. [He has] [I have] warm and intimate times together with our child.

    47. When two children are fighting, [he disciplines] [I discipline] children first and asks questions later.

    48. [He encourages] [I encourage] our child to freely express (himself)(herself) even when disagreeing with

    parents.

    49. [He bribes] [I bribe] our child with rewards to bring about compliance.

    50. [He scolds or criticizes] [I scold or criticize] when our childs behavior doesnt meet our expectations.

    51. [He shows] [I show] respect for our childs opinions by encouraging our child to express them.

    52. [He sets] [I set] strict well-established rules for our child.

    53. [He explains] [I explain] to our child how we feel about the childs good and bad behavior.

    54. [He uses] [I use] threats as punishment with little or no justification.

    55. [He takes] [I take] into account our childs preferences in making plan s for the family.

    56. When our child asks why (he)(she) has to conform, [he states] [I state]: because I said so, or I am your parent

    and I want you to.

    57. [He appears] [I appear] unsure on how to solve our childs misbehavior.

    58. [He explains] [I explain] the consequences of the childs behavior.

    59. [He demands] [I demand] that our child does/do things.

    60. [He channels] [I chan nel] our chil ds misb ehavior into a more acceptabl e activi ty.

    61. [He shoves] [I shove] our child when the child is disobedient.

    62. [He emphasizes] [I emphasize] the reasons for rules.