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Law & Policy: Author Style Sheet PRIMARY STYLE GUIDES Chicago Manual of Style, 17th ed. (Chicago) Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Merriam-Webster) The University of Chicago Manual of Legal Citation Legal citations in cases named in text and Cases or Statutes Cited generally follow the Bluebook (without periods). Please refer to Law & Policy back issues as a guide. The current style was implemented starting from 40.4. SUPPLEMENTED AS NECESSARY BY Editorial Office Wiley-Blackwell Copy Editor LENGTH Manuscript Length: Approximately 12,000 words, including abstract, notes, and references list SPELLING AND HYPHENATION Recommended spelling Merriam–Webster Word Usage: Chicago, See 5.202 [CHECK] Hyphenation Guide for Compounds, Combining Forms, and Prefixes: Chicago, See 7.89 A number of frequently used terms appear at the end of this document. PUNCTUATION Quotation marks US style: “Double” quotation marks, with closing punctuation inside marks and ‘single’ marks for quotes within quotes.

Order of parentheses in text US style: ([]) REFERENCES IN TEXT General (including books, chapters, periodicals, government publications, etc.): Citations should appear in parenthesis in the text following the material to which they refer and use the following form:

(last name of author year, page). Normally the citation will appear at the end of the sentence, before the period/full stop, or immediately after a quotation. However, the year, and page if relevant, may immediately follow the author’s name in the text. Page numbers are only required in the case of a direct quotation, not for paraphrases or summaries of the original. Page ranges should be indicated using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-). So, (Author 2000, 97–100) rather than (Author 2000, 97-100). All citations in the text must be listed in the reference list. Several counties in California are “currently on the verge of bankruptcy”

(Geissinger 1990, 15). Schwartz and Orleans (1967) found that such appeals were more effective than

fear messages. Multiple citations should be separated by a semicolon. Citations should be ordered chronologically, with the oldest citations appearing first. Multiple works by the same author are separated by a comma. Introductory signals may be included in the citation to clarify the particular reference (“e.g.,” “see,” “see generally,” “cf.,” etc.), though they should not be overused. (cf. Scriven 1975, 1977, 1978; see generally Mills 1987; Wooster 1990). When a work has two or three authors, use “and” (not &) before the final name with a preceding comma. When a work has more than three authors, abbreviate the citation to the first author followed by “et al.” Institutional authors should be cited in full on first appearance and subsequently by an appropriate abbreviation. In a multivolume book, the volume (vol.) number is provided in Arabic numbers, followed by the page number. (Jesilow, Geis, and O’Brien 1986; Welsh et al. 1990; Engel and Munger 2003).

(SEC 1989; see also U.S. Congress 1933b). (Smith and Jones 1990, vol. 2, 64). When the publication date of a printed work cannot be ascertained, the abbreviation n.d. takes the place of the year in the reference list entry and text citations. Though it follows a period in the reference list, n.d. remains lowercased to avoid conflation with the author's name; in text citations, it is preceded by a comma. A guessed-at date may be submitted (in brackets). Nano, Jasmine L. [1750?] Title of Work . . . ———. n.d. Title of Another Work . . . (Nano [1750?]) (Nano, n.d.) Cases and Legislation Use the full names or titles of cases and legislation the first time they appear. Subsequent discussion of the same case or statute should use a shortened form. (a) Cases: When citing cases in the text, use the following form: (case-name year at page). Where reference is made to specific language, indicate the page number by inserting the word “at” after the year and list the page number. For example,

first appearance: (Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dept. of Health 1990 at 279).

subsequently: (Cruzan 1990 at 283). If the case name is in the text, the citation should appear as follows:

Dinsmore-Poff v. Alvord (1999) illustrates the application of . . . (b) Legislation: Use the title and year. For reference to specific sections, insert a colon after the year and the “§” symbol followed by the section number. Examples: In the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) . . .

first appearance: In the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990) it was . . .

subsequently: … it has become apparent (ADA 1990, § 12102) that . . . REFERENCES LISTS All items on the references lists are placed under headings that are capitalized and centered as REFERENCES or CASES CITED or LAWS CITED and sometimes INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS (if there are a lot of them).

All references cited in the text must be listed in the references lists and vice versa. Authors are responsible for checking spelling and publication details. The Law & Policy editorial staff do not systematically check references for accuracy. Bibliographical information is required for the Reference list and should not be included in the endnotes. List references in alphabetical order by authors’ last names. If references are by the same author, list them in ascending date order (e.g., 1990, 1996, 2000). Unless the author used first-name initials in the source publication, supply the full name. In cases of multiple authorship, the name of the first author is inverted. List all authors of a work, regardless of the number; do not use “et al.” Use the full name of each as it appears on the title page or on the first page of the article. When a work has two or more authors, use “and” (not &) before the final name with a preceding comma. This is true for two or more editors, as well. References to multiple publications (by a single author or group of authors) appearing in the same year should be distinguished by adding letters (a, b, c, etc.) to the year. Such publications are then listed in alphabetical order by title. Case names, acts, international treaties, and other legal materials should be listed with full names in the CASES CITED and LAWS CITED sections. The appropriate abbreviations for case reporters and statutory collections can be found in The University of Chicago Manual of Legal Citation. Examples are below. When an author’s name uses initials, there should be a space between them: M. J. Koster, not M.J. Koster. Use USPS abbreviations for US states. Book and periodical titles: Use title case even where original is lower case (save for prepositions, conjunctions, or articles such as “the”). Exception: staff will not alter foreign language titles where it may not be possible to tell which words should start with a cap. Examples of References All items are hanging indent and formatted in accordance with Chicago. 1. Books Use the following form: Last Name, First Name. Year. Full Title of Book Including any Subtitle, 5th ed. City of Publication: Publisher.

Hans, Valerie P. 2000. Business on Trial: The Civil Jury and Corporate

Responsibility. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Kwoka, John E., Jr., and Lawrence J. White, eds. 1989. The Antitrust Revolution. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

American Psychological Association. 1992. Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Washington DC: APA.

Kairys, David, ed. 1990. The Politics of Law: A Progressive Critique, rev. ed. New York: Pantheon Books.

Lahiri, Jhumpa. 2016. In Other Words. Translated by Ann Goldstein. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Note: Full names (first name and last name) are preferred for authors and editors. Note: Major cities such as New York, London, and Chicago do not require state or country identifiers. Use just Cambridge when referring to the city in England. Use Cambridge, MA, when referring to publishers in Massachusetts (e.g., Harvard University Press, MIT Press). 2. Chapters in edited volumes Use the following form: Last Name, First Name. Year. “Full Chapter Title.” In Full Title of Book, edited by name of editor using first name and last name, page range. City of Publication: Publisher.

Kagan, Robert A., and William P. Nelson. 2001. “The Politics of Tobacco Regulation in the United States.” In Regulating Tobacco, edited by Robert L. Rabin and Stephen D. Sugarman. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gricar, Barbara G. 1983. “A Preliminary Theory of Compliance With

OSHA Regulations.” In Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, vol. 5, edited by Lee E. Preston. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Kunreuther, Howard. 2006. “Has the Time Come for Comprehensive Natural

Disaster Insurance?” In On Risk and Disaster: Lessons From Hurricane Katrina, edited by Ronald J. Daniels, Donald F. Kettl, and Howard Kunreuther, 175–201. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

3. Periodicals Use the following form: Last Name, First Name. Year. “Article Title.” Full Journal Title volume number (issue number or month only if each issue separately paginated): first and last page numbers.

Harding, Sarah. 2003. “Cultural Property and the Limitations of Preservation.” Law & Policy 25: 17–36.

Galbraith, John Kenneth. 1987. “The 1929 Parallel.” Atlantic Monthly 259

(January): 62–66.

UCLA Law Review. 1973. “Judicial Intervention in Corrections: The California Experience—An Empirical Study.” UCLA Law Review 20: 452–580.

Bureau of National Affairs (BNA). 1992. “United States Said Reviewing Options

for Stabilization, Reduction of Emissions.” International Environmental Reporter: Current Reports 16 (March 24):199.

Angus, Albert. 1997. “Saskatchewan Justice on Trial: The Pamela George Case.”

Saskatchewan Indian 27 (1): 5. http://www.sicc.sk.ca/saskindian. 4. News or Magazine Article Articles from newspapers or news sites, magazines, blogs, and the like are cited similarly. In the reference list, it can be helpful to repeat the year with sources that are cited also by month and day. Page numbers, if any, can be cited in the text but are omitted from a reference list entry. If you consulted the article online, include a URL or the name of the database. Reference list entries (in alphabetical order)

Manjoo, Farhad. 2017. “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural Supremacy of the Camera.” New York Times, March 8, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/08/technology/snap-makes-a-bet-on-the-cultural-supremacy-of-the-camera.html.

Mead, Rebecca. 2017. “The Prophet of Dystopia.” New Yorker, April 17, 2017.

Pai, Tanya. 2017. “The Squishy, Sugary History of Peeps.” Vox, April 11, 2017.

http://www.vox.com/culture/2017/4/11/15209084/peeps-easter.

Pegoraro, Rob. 2007. “Apple’s iPhone Is Sleek, Smart and Simple.” Washington Post, July 5, 2007. LexisNexis Academic.

In-text citation

(Manjoo 2017)

(Mead 2017, 43)

(Pai 2017)

(Pegoraro 2007)

Readers’ comments are cited in the text but omitted from a reference list. In-text citation

(Eduardo B [Los Angeles], March 9, 2017, comment on Manjoo 2017) 5. Government and international documents

Australian Accounting Research Foundation, Auditing Assurance Standards Board. 2001. Assurance Engagements. AUS 108. Melbourne: Australian Accounting Research Foundation. http://www.aarf.asn.au/publications.htm.

Office of the Auditor General. 1990. Report of the Auditor General of

Canada to the House of Commons. Hull, Quebec: Supply and Services Canada.

Great Britain. Department for Education. 1994. Code of Practice on the

Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs: A Framework for the Future. London: HMSO.

Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons. 1966. Parliamentary Debate, 5h

ser., vol. 734. London: HMSO.

Hong Kong. Social Welfare Department. 2001. An Overview of Residential Care Services for the Elderly (Chinese). Hong Kong: Social Welfare Dept.

New Zealand. Cabinet Policy Committee. 2003. Building Act Review Overview.

26 May. Wellington: Office of Minister of Commerce. http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/bus_pol/building/review/decisions/cabinet/overview/index.html.

UN Environment Programme. Ozone Secretariat. 1991. Handbook for the

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. UNEP/Ozl.Pro.3/7.

US Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Subcommittee on

Reports, Accounting, and Management. 1977. The Accounting Establishment: A Staff Study. 95th Cong, 1st Sess, S Doc 34.

US Department of Health and Human Services. Administration for

Children and Families. National Adoption Information Clearinghouse. 2002. Open Adoption. Washington DC: DHHS. http://www.calib.com/naic/pubs/s_open.cfm.

US General Accounting Office (GAO). 1989. Product Liability: Verdicts and

Case Resolution in Five States. Washington DC: GAO.

US Securities and Exchange Commission. Division of Market Regulation. 1988. The October 1987 Market Break. February. Washington DC: GAO.

World Bank Group. 2002. PovertyNet: Data on Income. Washington, DC:

World Bank Group. http://worldbank.org/poverty/data/trends/regional/htm.

6. Online materials It is often sufficient simply to describe web pages and other website content in the text (“As of May 1, 2017, Yale’s home page listed . . .”). If a more formal citation is needed, it may be styled like the examples below. For a source that does not list a date of publication or revision, use n.d. (for “no date”) in place of the year and include an access date.

New Zealand. Cabinet Policy Committee. 2003. “Building Act Review Overview.” Wellington: Office of Minister of Commerce. http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/bus_pol/building/review/decisions/cabinet/overview/index.html.

Citigroup. 2006. “Citigroup Financial Education Program: Knowledge Is Your

Greatest Asset.” http://www.citigroup.com/citigroup/financialeducation/resources.htm.

7. Miscellaneous materials (a) Unpublished dissertation

Lazarus-Black, Mindie. 1990. “Legitimate Acts and Illegal Encounters: The Development of Family Ideology and Structure in Antigua and Barbuda, West Indies.” PhD diss., University of Chicago.

(b) Papers presented

Hoberg, George. 1991. “Bargaining vs. Legalism.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 29–September 1, Washington, DC.

(c) Working papers

Shovin, John B., Scott B. Smart, and Joel Waldfogel. 1991. Real Interest Rates

and the Savings and Loan Crisis: The Moral Hazard Premium. NBER Working Paper Series, No 3754. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

(d) Unpublished manuscripts

Makkai, Toni, and Valerie Braithwaite (n.d.) “The Dialectics of Corporate Deterrence.” Unpublished paper.

(e) Forthcoming works: replace the date with “forthcoming” (f) Personal correspondence or interviews. Include in endnotes:

For correspondence, include the date and name(s) of the correspondents.

For interviews, include the name of the interviewee, the date, name of the interviewer, and location.

(g) Radio report:

ABC Radio National. 2004a. "Shepparton's Koori Court," The Law Report, 3 February. http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/lawrpt/stories/s1035995.htm.

(h) Papers in a series

Briault, Clive. 1999. “The Rationale for a Single Financial Services Regulator,” Occasional Paper Series, No 2. London: FSA.

(i) Foreign language titles

García-Villegas, Mauricio. 2011. "Ineficacia del derecho y cultura del incumplimiento de reglas en América Latina” [The inefficacy of law and disobedience in Latin America]. In El derecho in América Latina [The law in Latin America], edited by César Rodriguez, 161–183. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI

Note that, regardless of the formatting and capitalization of the foreign language title, the translated title in brackets always uses plain text and sentence-style capitalization.

(j) Translated Book

Lahiri, Jhumpa. 2016. In Other Words. Translated by Ann Goldstein. New York:

Alfred A. Knopf.

8. Legal materials Provide the reader with the information needed to locate a document and particularized items within the document the author discusses in a consistent manner. Below are a few general guidelines and generic formulae for various kinds of references. (a) Cases Provide enough information so that the reader can local the original text of an opinion. Full parallel citations are ideal, but listing of one official reporter is sufficient. Cases are not italicized in the CASES CITED list.

DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services, 489 U.S. 189 (1989).

Labatt Breweries v. A.G. Canada, [1980] 1 SCR 914, 110 D.L.R. 3d 594, (1979)

52CCC (2d) 433.

Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey, 112 S. Ct. 2791, 120 LEd 2d 674 (1992).

People v McCarty, 93 Ill App 3d 898, 418 N.E.2d 26, rev’d, 86 Ill. 2d 247, 427

N.E.2d147 (1981).

Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 408 Mich. 579, 292 N.W.2d 880 (Mich. 1980).

(b) Laws, Statutes, and Treaties

Advance Directives for Health Care Act, N.J. Stat. Ann. §§ 26:2H-53-2H-78 (West 1987 and Supp 1992).

Anti-Drug Abuse Act, Pub. L. No. 100-690, 102 Stat. 4181 (1988).

Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1985, (4th Supp.) R.S.C., c C-16.

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. §§ 301–393 (1988).

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966), GA Res 22- Annex, UN GAOR, 21st Sess (Supp. No. 16 at 52), UN Doc. A/6316; 999U.N.T.S. 171; 6 I.L.M. 368 (1966).

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, September 16,

1987, 26 I.L.M. 1541 (1987).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217A, UN GAOR, 3d Sess.

(Part I, Resolutions), UN Doc A/810 (1948).

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, March 22, 1985, T.I.A.S. No. 11097.

(c) Administrative Rules

Executive Order No. 12291, 3 C.F.R. 127 (1982).

47 Fed. Reg. 39147 (1982).

51 Fed. Reg. 17476 (1986) (codified at 21 C.F.R. § 1308.12). CONTENT-SPECIFIC STYLE POINTS, EDITOR PREFERENCES . Numbers on lists should be followed by a period. . Numbered and bulleted lists should be formatted with a hanging indent. . Embedded enumerated numbers are enclosed in parentheses (e.g., (1), (2)). If the enumeration follows a colon, separate the enumerated pieces with a semicolon. If the enumeration runs into text, separate the enumerated pieces with commas. . Numbers one through ninety-nine and common fractions should be written in full (e.g., one, thirty-three, two-thirds). Others use numerals. The same goes for ordinal numbers: “first” through “ninety-ninth” should be written in full, while the rest (100th, 101st) should use numerals. Numerals always precede the word “percent” in text. . Use § (with a space following the section symbol) in parentheses and notes, but spell out “section” in text. . Italics: Apart from normal use for emphasis, italics are used for case names in text (not references) and titles of publications. Common Latin phrases (e.g., de facto, bona fide) are not italicized. More obscure Latin phrases (e.g., doli incapax) are italicized, as are foreign language terms. . The word “Court” (note capital letter) standing alone is only used when referencing the US Supreme Court. In foreign courts, only the highest court is capitalized when not referred to by its full title. . Unless the official title of an act, bill, article, committee, conference, etc., is used, the words should be lower case (e.g., the Federal Unemployment Tax Act, but the act).

. Unless the full name of an official is used, the reference to an individual’s title is lowercase (e.g., President Clinton, but the president of the United States; the secretary of state, but Secretary of State Clinton). . The abbreviations i.e. and e.g. are only used parenthetically. In the text use “that is” or “for example.” The abbreviated and spelled-out versions are followed by a comma. . Use endnotes, not footnotes. Endnotes are in a separate section labeled with a centered heading “NOTES” following the text and before the References. Endnotes should not be used to provide citations, but should be reserved for explaining or amplifying matters discussed in the main body of the text. They should also be used for references to material not generally accessible such as field interviews and correspondence with the author. Authors are discouraged from using figures or lengthy tabulations in notes. . Biographical details: A brief paragraph of biographical details (approx 50 words) should follow the endnotes for each author. The author name should be in small capital letters, roman, and be followed by the rest of the paragraph in italics. Degrees should not be listed after the name as in “FRED BLOGGS, PhD, JD, BA, is an Associate Professor in.” Such information should be included in the text of the paragraph. Degrees do not take periods. COMMON ABBREVIATIONS THAT DO NOT NEED TO BE SPELLED OUT US EU UK UN USSR Note: All of the above are abbreviated as adjectives; as nouns they can either be abbreviated or spelled out, though ideally one noun form should be chosen and used consistently through out the manuscript. Adjective forms: US dollars, EU economic policy, UK citizens Noun forms: “Foreign nationals residing in the United States,” or, “Foreign nationals residing in the US.” “Advocates for leaving the European Union,” or, “Advocates for leaving the EU.” TABLES AND FIGURES Every figure should have a caption below it. For example:

Figure 1. Example of a Figure Caption.

Tables: Every table should have a title above it. For example:

Table 1. This Is an Example of a Table Title Column heading 1 2 3 4

First row 10.5 9.4 1.1 0.4 Second row 12.1 5.6 3.3 2.1

WORD LIST, SPELLING PREFERENCES, COMMON ACRONYMS, ETC. The following Hyphenation Table is adapted from the 17th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Category / specific term Examples Summary of rule

1. COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO CATEGORY

age terms a three- year- olda five- year- old childa fifty- five- year- old womana test for nine- to- ten- year- oldsa group of ten- and eleven- year- oldsbutseven years oldeighteen years of age

Hyphenated in both noun and adjective forms (except as in the last two examples); note the space after the first hyphen in the fifth but not the fourth example (see 7.88). The examples apply equally to ages expressed as numerals.

chemical terms sodium chloridesodium chloride solution

Open in both noun and adjective forms.

colors emerald- green tiereddish- brown flagstoneblue- green algaesnow- white dressblack- and- white printbuthis tie is emerald greenthe stone is reddish brownthe water is blue greenthe clouds are snow whitethe truth isn’t black and white

Hyphenated before but not after a noun.

compass points and directions

northeastsouthwesteast- northeasta north– south streetthe street runs north– south

Closed in noun, adjec-tive, and adverb forms unless three directions are combined, in which case a hyphen is used after the first. When from . . . to is implied, an en dash is used (see 6.78).

ethnic terms. See proper nouns and adjectives relating to geography or nation-ality in section 2.

foreign phrases. See non- English phrases

fractions, compounds formed with

a half houra half- hour sessiona quarter milea quarter- mile runan eighth note

Noun form open; adjective form hyphenated. See also number entries in this sec-tion and half in section 3.


1. COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO CATEGORY (continued)

fractions, simple one- halftwo- thirdsthree- quartersone twenty- fifthone and three- quartersa two- thirds majoritythree- quarters donea one twenty- fifth share

Hyphenated in noun, adjective, and adverb forms, except when second element is already hyphenated. See also number + noun and 9.14.

money a five- cent raisesixty- four- million- dollar questiona deal worth thirty million dollarsmultimillion- dollar dealbut$30 million loana $50– $60 million loss

For amounts with spelled- out units, hyphenate before a noun but leave open after; where units are expressed as symbols, leave open in all positions, except between number ranges. See also number + abbreviation and 9.20– 25, 9.60.

non- English phrases an a priori argumenta Sturm und Drang dramain vitro fertilizationa tête- à- tête approach

Open unless hyphens appear in the original language.

number + abbreviation

the 33 m distancea 2 kg weighta 3 ft. high walla 7 lb., 8 oz. baby

Always open. See also num-ber + noun.

number + noun a hundred- meter racea 250- page booka fifty- year projecta three- inch- high statuetteit’s three inches higha one- and- a- half- inch hemone and a half inchesa seven- pound, eight- ounce babya six- foot- two [or six- foot, two- inch]

adultsix feet two [or six feet, two inches tall]five- to- ten- minute intervals (a single

range)butfive- or ten- minute intervals (two

values)

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open. Note the space after the first number in the last example (see 7.88). See also number + abbreviation and 9.13.


1. COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO CATEGORY (continued)

number + percent 50 percenta 10 percent raisea 30– 40 percent increase

Noun and adjective forms al-ways open, except between number ranges. See also 9.18, 9.60.

number, ordinal, + noun

third- floor apartment103rd- floor viewon the third floorfifth- place contestanttwenty- first- row seatsin the twenty- first row

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open (but see numbers, spelled out). See also century in section 3.

number, ordinal, + superlative

a second- best decisionthird- largest townfourth- to- last contestanthe arrived fourth to last

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open.

numbers, spelled out twenty- eightthree hundrednineteen forty- fivefive hundred fifty- two contestantstwenty- eighththree hundredthfive hundred fifty- second contestant

Twenty- one through ninety- nine hyphenated; others open. Applies equally to cardinals and ordinals. See also fractions, simple.

relationships. See foster, grand, in- law, and step in section 3.

time at three thirtythe three- thirty traina four o’clock trainthe 5:00 p.m. news

Usually open; forms such as “three thirty,” “four twenty,” etc. are hyphenated before the noun.

2. COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO PARTS OF SPEECH

adjective + noun small- state senatorsa high- quality alkylatea middle- class neighborhoodthe neighborhood is middle class


adjective + participle tight- lipped personhigh- jumping grasshoppersopen- ended questionthe question was open ended



2. COMPOUNDS ACCORDING TO PARTS OF SPEECH (continued)

adverb ending in ly + participle or adjective

a highly paid ragpickera fully open societyhe was mildly amusing

Open whether before or after a noun.

adverb not ending in ly + participle or adjective

a much- needed additionit was much neededa very well- read childlittle- understood rulesa too- easy answerthe best- known authorthe highest- ranking officerthe worst- paid joba lesser- paid colleaguethe most efficient methoda less prolific artista more thorough exama rather boring playthe most skilled workers (most in

number)butthe most- skilled workers (most in

skill)a very much needed addition

Hyphenated before but not after a noun; certain com-pounds, including those with more, most, less, least, and very, can usually be left open unless ambiguity threatens. When the adverb rather than the compound as a whole is modified by another adverb, the entire expression is open.

combining forms electrocardiogramsocioeconomicpolitico- scientific studiesthe practico- inert

Usually closed if permanent, hyphenated if temporary. See 7.82.

gerund + noun running shoescooking classrunning- shoe store

Noun form open; adjective form hyphenated. See also noun + gerund.

noun + adjective computer- literate accountantsHIV- positive menthe stadium is fan friendlyshe is HIV positive

Hyphenated before a noun; usually open after a noun.

noun + gerund mountain climbinga mountain- climbing enthusiasttime- clock- punching employeesa Nobel Prize– winning chemist (see 6.80)

decision- makinghead- huntingbookkeepingcaregivingcopyediting

Noun form usually open; adjective form hyphenated before a noun. Some perma-nent compounds hyphen-ated or closed (see 7.82).



noun + noun, single function (first noun modifies second noun)

student nurserestaurant ownerdirectory pathtenure tracktenure- track positionhome- rule governanceshipbuildergunrunnercopyeditor

Noun form open; adjective form hyphenated before a noun. Some permanent compounds closed (see 7.82).

noun + noun, two functions (both nouns equal)

writer- directorphilosopher- kingcity- statecity- state governance

Both noun and adjective forms always hyphenated.

noun + numeral or enumerator

type Aa type A executivetype 2 diabetessize 12 slacksa page 1 headline

Both noun and adjective forms always open.

noun + participle a Wagner- burdened repertoireflower- filled gardenthe garden was flower filledbutthe room was air- conditioned

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open unless verb form hyphenated in Webster’s (see also phrases, verbal).

participle + noun chopped- liver pâtécutting- edge methodstheir approach was cutting edge

Adjective form hyphenated before but not after a noun.

participle + up, out, and similar adverbs

dressed- up childrenburned- out buildingsironed- on decalwe were dressed upthat decal is ironed onwe ironed on the decal

Adjective form hyphenated before but not after a noun. Verb form always open.

phrases, adjectival an over- the- counter druga matter- of- fact replyan up- to- date solutionsold over the counterher tone was matter of facthis equipment was up to date

Hyphenated before a noun; usually open after a noun.

phrases, noun stick- in- the- mudjack- of- all- tradesa flash in the pan

Hyphenated or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the dictionary, open.



phrases, verbal babysithandcraftair- conditionfast- talkstrong- armsucker punch

Closed, hyphenated, or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the dictionary, leave open.

proper nouns and adjectives relating to geography or nation-ality

African AmericansAfrican American presidenta Chinese AmericanFrench CanadiansSouth Asian Americansthe Scotch Irishthe North Central regionMiddle Eastern countriesbutSino- Tibetan languagesthe Franco- Prussian Warthe US- Canada borderAnglo- American cooperationAnglo- Americans

Open in both noun and adjective forms, unless the first term is a prefix or unless between is implied. See also 8.39.

3. COMPOUNDS FORMED WITH SPECIFIC TERMS

ache toothachestomachache

Always closed.

all all outall alongall overan all- out effortan all- American playerthe book is all- encompassingbutwe were all in [tired]

Adverbial phrases open; adjectival phrases usually hyphenated both before and after a noun.

book reference bookcoupon bookcheckbookcookbook

Closed or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the dictio-nary, open.

borne waterbornefood- bornemosquito- borne

Closed if listed as such in Webster’s. If not in Webster’s, hyphenated.


3. COMPOUNDS FORMED WITH SPECIFIC TERMS (continued)

century the twenty- first centuryfourteenth- century monasterytwenty- first- century historya mid- eighteenth- century poetlate nineteenth- century photographsher style was nineteenth century

Noun forms always open; adjectival compounds hyphenated before but not after a noun. See also old (below), mid (in section 4), and 7.87, 9.32.

cross a cross sectiona cross- referencecross- referencedcross- grainedcross- countrycrossbowcrossover

Many compounds formed with cross are in Webster’s (as those listed here). If not in Webster’s, leave noun forms open; hyphenate adjective, adverb, and verb forms.

e emaile- booke- commerceeBay

Hyphenated except for email (a departure from previous editions) and certain proper nouns. See also 8.154.

elect president- electvice president electmayor- electcounty assessor elect

Hyphenated unless the name of the office consists of an open compound. See also vice.

ever ever- ready helpever- recurring problemeverlastinghe was ever eager

Usually hyphenated before but not after a noun; some permanent compounds closed.

ex ex- partnerex- marineex– corporate executive

Hyphenated, but use en dash if ex- precedes an open compound (see 6.80).

fold fourfoldhundredfoldbuttwenty- five- fold150- fold

Hyphenated with hyphen-ated forms of spelled- out numbers or with numerals; otherwise closed.

foster foster motherfoster parentsa foster- family background

Noun forms open; adjective forms hyphenated.

free toll- free numberaccident- free driverthe number is toll- freethe driver is accident- free

Compounds formed with free as second element are hyphenated both before and after a noun.



full full- length mirrorthe mirror is full lengththree bags fulla suitcase full

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open. Use ful only in such permanent com-pounds as cupful, handful.

general attorney generalpostmaster generallieutenants general

Always open; in plural forms, general remains singular.

grand, great- grand grandfathergranddaughtergreat- grandmothergreat- great- grandson

Grand compounds closed; great compounds hyphen-ated.

half half- asleephalf- finisheda half sistera half houra half- hour sessionhalfwayhalfheartedwe half expected to fly

Adjective forms hyphen-ated before and after the noun; noun and verb forms open. Some permanent compounds closed, whether nouns, adjectives, or ad-verbs. Check Webster’s. See also fractions in section 1.

house schoolhousecourthousesafe houserest house

Closed or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the dictio-nary, open.

in- law sister- in- lawparents- in- law

All compounds hyphenated; only the first element takes a plural form.

like catlikechildlikeChristlikebell- likea penitentiary- like institution

Closed if listed as such in Webster’s. If not in Webster’s, hyphenated; compounds re-tain the hyphen both before and after a noun.

mid. See section 4.

near in the near terma near accidenta near- term proposala near- dead language

Noun forms open; adjective forms hyphenated.

odd a hundred- odd manuscripts350- odd books

Always hyphenated.



old a three- year- olda 105- year- old womana decade- old uniona centuries- old debatea child who is three years oldthe debate is centuries old

Noun forms hyphenated. Adjective forms hyphen-ated before a noun, open after. See also age terms in section 1.

on onlineonstageongoingon- screenon- site

Sometimes closed, some-times hyphenated. Check Webster’s and hyphenate if term is not listed. See also 7.83.

percent. See number + percent in section 1.

pseudo. See section 4.

quasi a quasi corporationa quasi- public corporationquasi- judicialquasiperiodicquasicrystal

Noun form usually open; adjective form usually hyphenated. A handful of permanent compounds are listed in Webster’s.

self self- restraintself- realizationself- sustainingself- consciousthe behavior is self- destructiveselflessunselfconscious

Both noun and adjective forms hyphenated, except where self is followed by a suffix or preceded by un.

step stepbrotherstepparentstep- granddaughterstep- great- granddaughter

Always closed except with grand and great.

style dined family- style1920s- style dancingdanced 1920s- styleChicago- style hyphenationaccording to Chicago styleheadline- style capitalizationcapitalized headline- styleuse headline style

Adjective and adverb forms hyphenated; noun form usually open.



vice vice- consulvice- chancellorvice presidentvice- presidential dutiesa speech that was vice presidentialvice admiralviceroy

Adjective forms hyphenated before the noun; noun forms sometimes hyphenated, sometimes open, occasion-ally closed. Check Webster’s and hyphenate if term is not listed.

web a websitea web pageweb- related matters

Noun form open or closed, as shown; if term is not in any dictionary, opt for open. Adjective form hyphenated. See also 7.80.

wide worldwidecitywideChicago- widethe canvass was university- wide

Closed if listed as such in Webster’s. If not in Webster’s, hyphenated; compounds re-tain the hyphen both before and after a noun.

4. WORDS FORMED WITH PREFIXES

Compounds formed with prefixes are normally closed, whether they are nouns, verbs, adjec-tives, or adverbs. A hyphen should appear, however, (1) before a capitalized word or a nu-meral, such as sub- Saharan, pre- 1950; (2) before a compound term, such as non- self- sustaining, pre– Vietnam War (before an open compound, an en dash is used; see 6.80); (3) to separate two i’s, two a’s, and other combinations of letters or syllables that might cause misreading, such as anti- intellectual, extra- alkaline, pro- life; (4) to separate the repeated terms in a double prefix, such as sub- subentry; (5) when a prefix or combining form stands alone, such as over- and underused, macro- and microeconomics. The spellings shown below conform largely to Merriam- Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Compounds formed with combining forms not listed here, such as auto, tri, and para, follow the same pattern.

ante antebellum, antenatal, antediluvian

anti antihypertensive, antihero, but anti- inflammatory, anti- Hitlerian

bi binomial, bivalent, bisexual

bio bioecology, biophysical, biosociology

cis cisgender, cissexual, cisatlantic, but cis- Victorian, cis- 2- pentene (cis in italics), cis male (cis as adjective)

co coequal, coauthor, coeditor, coordinate, cooperation, coworker, but co- op, co- opt

counter counterclockwise, counterrevolution

cyber cyberspace, cyberstore

4. WORDS FORMED WITH PREFIXES (continued)

de decompress, deconstruct, deontological, but de- emphasize, de- stress

extra extramural, extrafine, but extra- administrative

hyper hypertension, hyperactive, hypertext

infra infrasonic, infrastructure

inter interorganizational, interfaith

intra intrazonal, intramural, but intra- arterial

macro macroeconomics, macromolecular

mega megavitamin, megamall, but mega- annoyance

meta metalanguage, metaethical, but meta- analysis (not the same as metanalysis)

micro microeconomics, micromethodical

mid midthirties, a midcareer event, midcentury, but mid- July, the mid- 1990s, the mid- twentieth century, mid- twentieth- century history

mini minivan, minimarket

multi multiauthor, multiconductor, but multi- institutional

neo neonate, neoorthodox, Neoplatonism, neo- Nazi (neo lowercase or capital and hyphenated as in dictionary; lowercase and hyphenate if not in dictionary)

non nonviolent, nonevent, nonnegotiable, but non- beer- drinking

over overmagnified, overshoes, overconscientious

post postdoctoral, postmodernism, posttraumatic, but post- Vietnam, post– World War II (see 6.80)

pre premodern, preregistration, prewar, preempt, but pre- Columbian, Pre- Raphaelite (pre lowercase or capital as in dictionary; lowercase if term is not in dictionary)

pro proindustrial, promarket, but pro- life, pro- Canadian

proto protolanguage, protogalaxy, protomartyr

pseudo pseudotechnocrat, pseudomodern, but pseudo- Tudor

re reedit, reunify, reproposition, but recover, recreation (as distinct from recover, recreation)

semi semiopaque, semiconductor, but semi- invalid

sub subbasement, subzero, subcutaneous

super superannuated, supervirtuoso, superpowerful

4. WORDS FORMED WITH PREFIXES (continued)

supra supranational, suprarenal, supraorbital, but supra- American

trans transgender, transsexual, transmembrane, transcontinental, transatlantic, but trans- American, trans- 2- pentene (trans in italics), trans fat (trans as adjective)

ultra ultrasophisticated, ultraorganized, ultraevangelical

un unfunded, unneutered, but un- English, un- unionized

under underemployed, underrate, undercount

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