Running head: AUTHENTIC APPLICATION 1

Final Application: Proposed Solutions

Rinda Montgomery Conwell

Walden University

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

2

Final Application: Proposed Solutions

Introduction

The problem addressed in this proposed study is the isolation of rural and remote schools

and lack of teacher participation in professional development, a professional practice accepted as

necessary (Webster-Wright, 2011). The conceptual framework behind this problem is that

teaching, as a profession, requires ongoing professional development that guides the growth,

knowledge, and abilities of the practitioner, and that without this growth, particularly in a field

that fluxuates as rapidly as education, continued student achievement is not possible (Desimone,

2009).

Rural schools have historically performed lower than urban schools (“Rural Education:

Student Achievement in Rural Schools,” n.d.). Regional service agencies are the largest provider

of professional development (Association of Educational Service Agencies, 2010). Stanley

(2005) indicated that consolidation of services is the best solution to provide for the needs of

rural districts.

Data on rural teacher job satisfaction (Huysman, 2007) revealed teacher confusion over

their roles as educators and in the community, including a suggestion that teachers might often be

considered outsiders simply because they don’t possess the needed social capital (Falk &

Kilpatrick, 2000). Huysman (2007) demonstrated rural teachers experienced role confusion

between who the individual was as a professional and as a community member. Al-Zaidiyeen,

Mei and Fook (2010) indicated there was little use by the teacher of technology options even

though their attitudes revealed a positive view of educational technology.

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

3

Eppley and Corbett (2012) addressed how rural cultures reversed the standard approach to

evidence-based practice. Rather than “I’ll believe that when I see it,” rural cultural mores

reversed the trend and stated, “I’ll see that when I believe it.” This demonstrated a significantly

different epistemology found in rural areas. The focus of attention was not on data, but on

relationship, social connection, and community investment.

Problem

The problem in the North Central Education Service District region is that despite student

achievement gaps, individual teachers and districts on the whole demonstrate little interest in

professional development which research shows can increase student performance. The data

offered in public meetings of North Central Education Service District’s (NCESD) regional

superintendents based on their district surveys indicated a 37% interest rate of teachers in

participating in school improvement activities (Lathrop, 2011, May 17). Additionally, that same

meeting indicated that only 16% of the schools wanted a full school improvement program; 67%

requested occasional on-call trainings, and 16% opted out of regional school improvement

options completely.

A report to NCESD in September 2011 (Lathrop) revealed survey results indicating 87%

of the regional staff declined participation in the state school improvement project. Statewide,

48% of the districts participated in the state school improvement project (Oregon DATA Project,

2011). Of the state’s rural districts, only 23% participated. In the NCESD region, no districts

participated in the state school improvement project. The guiding question is how can an outside

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

4

service agent foster professional communities of practice among rural teachers with an eye

toward reflection and improvement in student achievement?

The local data was obtained through the public archives of the minutes of the North

Central Education Service District Superintendents Meetings available at the main office.

Additionally, information regarding participation in the statewide school improvement project

was obtained through that project website, including a map of the state and a list of which

districts were participating. Comparing that to the Oregon Department of Education’s website-

accessed list of all the districts in the state and their student numbers, it was left then only to

calculate which percentage of smaller and larger districts participated in the project.

The initial conception of the existence of a problem came from participation in both local

and regional meetings related to school improvement, and participation in the statewide school

improvement initiative. Having direct experience with comments at these meetings, along with

multiple requests from outside the region for services that schools inside the region do not desire,

gave a clear indication that something was amiss.

Possible Solution

A possible solution to the problem of rural teachers’ isolation and lack of professional

development interests lies in addressing the needs of rural teachers in terms of their perception of

their circumstances, and providing coaching opportunities related to much-desired technology

allocations to the teachers themselves who ask to be involved in such a project. The writings of

Eppley and Corbet (2012), Huysman (2008), and Falk and Kilpatrick (2000), clearly

demonstrated that rural teachers focused on relationship and social capital, yet found themselves

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

5

confused in the multiple roles they played. In order for someone involved in professional

development to be seen as part of that community, it is imperative to be involved in those various

roles and relationships. This would move beyond school-related multiple roles into community

activities which may not even seem to touch on school issues, but do relate to the school’s towns

and rural residents, and overall goes toward enhancing the lives of all.

Bryant (2007) indicated a primary reason for a lack of quality teachers in rural areas was

the sense of cultural and professional isolation. He further indicated that the lack of funding in

rural areas which prevented advancement into 21st century technological approaches was also

having a detrimental effect on rural education. One possible way to address isolation and funding

issues is to provide opportunities for teachers to participate in technology enhanced teaching

models which would connect the rural schools within a region via video conferencing and

including class sets of mobile devices. As a voluntary activity, teachers will not feel compelled

to spend a day or a series of days in training and get nothing out of it.

Beesley (2011) noted that schools with fewer than 300 students had a higher teacher

turnover rate than larger schools. She recommended teacher mentoring programs and access to

professional learning communities to increase retention. As part of a program to address the

technology needs and isolation issues of teachers, the delivery model would be a mentoring or

coaching design. The national budget crisis hits rural schools hard, so finding a way to attach

real gains in terms of technology and improved connectivity to other schools and educational

resources would pique interest in teachers (Wei et al., 2009). The hypothesis is that with access

to up-to-date technology, coaching, and a relationship-based professional learning network,

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

6

teachers would begin to drive their own professional development focused on student

achievement data.

It is time to begin to move from a professional development approachof Positivism to

begin to accommodate an Apositivistic stance. Rural teachers are more inclined to focus first on

cultural norms and values—to be more subjective in their evaluations and judgments. The

emphasis is on relationship, personal and community, and an aspect of social action which

precedes any level of trust and openness required for successful professional development. Rural

schools have a higher teacher turnover rate which mentoring may help to resolve.

Just as current K-12 practices incorporate differentiated instruction into learning, research

indicated (Coooper, 2009 and Neuman & Cunningham, 2009) it would be wise to utilize a

personalized approach in professional development activities to accommodate different learning

styles and differing teacher learning needs (varying goals and objectives). While implementing a

coaching-based technology and video conferencing model for bringing together student learning

activities regionally, the coaching should be different for each teacher. The teacher would be

involved in designing their own goals and objectives for growth for theselves and their students.

They would also assist in designing the types of observations the coach would employ in

gathering data regarding the teacher’s progress. In this way, the teacher has the lion’s share of

responsibility for what data is collected, how, and steps to change the outcomes. This truly puts

the power of improvement for teachers and students into the hands of the teachers.

Proposed Methodology

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

7

The proposed methodology for this study is the interrupted time-series experiment. This

was chosen specifically because the target group of teachers in the ELO cohort will be part of

ongoing interventions which will change over time. In a discussion of the value of this type of

design, Biglan, Ary, and Waggenaar (2000) offered information which derailed the original

choice of the pretest-posttest control group design.

Biglan et al. (2000) demonstrated that control-group designs begin with the assumption of

the relationship to be studied, leaving out the possibility for identification of other causal

relationships. As the purpose of the ELO project is to determine how to successfully introduce a

change in pedagogy along with one-to-one mobile devices and interactive video conferencing,

and there is not enough current research on one-to-one mobile devices to identify potential

effective independent variables for that intervention, attempting a control-group design would

not yield desired results.

Control-group designs are also particularly inappropriate for community interventions

research (Biglan et al., 2000). As the purpose of the ELO grant is work with teachers within six

different school districts, this is community intervention. Additionally, as indicated by Huysman

(2008), rural teachers are more influenced by their place in rural communities, to the extent of

experiencing role confusion related to the expectations of their place in their professions and the

expectations related to their social roles in the community. Therefore, it is not possible in rural

schools to separate teachers’ roles from the expectations of their place in the community, making

interrupted time-series experiments most appropriate.

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

8

Another reason control-group studies would not be appropriate in this proposed study is

the difficulty of monitoring the influence of the community from other factors during the course

of the project (Biglan et al., 2000). The three-year grant-funded project will take place

concurrently with district-based training efforts and teacher-chosen professional development.

There would be no way to control all the variables which may affect teacher knowledge and

instructional interventions.

When using an interrupted time-series study, there is greater confidence that the use and

variation of the independent variables are responsible for the changes in the data being collected

(Biglan et al., 2000). A multiple baseline design allows for manipulation in the independent

variables, giving a stronger relationship between the introduction and manipulation of the

independent variables and their effects. Statistical analysis must be accomplished to autocorrelate

data collected in multiple events over a longer period of time. One well designed method for

transforming this data and estimating the effects is known as ARIMA, auto-regressive integrated

moving average (Biglan et al., 2000).

One ethical consideration will be whether to inform the teacher cohort of the intentional

shift to personalize not only the topic of coaching intervention—each person to identify his or her

own individual learning needs, but the style or manner in which that coaching will occur with a

greater emphasis on building a personal relationship. There is a sense of deception involved in

having previously kept a professional distance from individuals and now taking steps toward

apparent friendship involvement. Aside from that, students involved will only be reflected in

terms of data related to grades and their achievement, privacy will be maintained, accuracy will

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

9

be upheld, and all participants applied for seats on the cohort, so no further ethical considerations

arise.

Conclusion

As this paper is the result of work over a number of weeks, there has been some difficulty

maintaining a constant vision throughout. However, the process also highlighted to me an

effective approach to tackling larger projects such as that of the doctoral study. This applies not

only to the concept of breaking a large project into smaller chunks, but the order in which this

was taken on assisted me in the understanding of the entire process.

My understanding of the types of data which I could access to reveal the local problem

served to be a major stumbling block at the start. It was through the prompting to revise

discussion posts that I was guided toward adjustments that clarified my understanding, and

therefore how I communicated the initial problem. This indicates to me the need for close

communication with my advisory committee during this aspect of writing my doctoral study, and

indeed every step.

When I first began the literature research on a possible solution, it was difficult to

formulate the search parameters because I had a particular sense of what should work and was

limiting my search. When that proved unsuccessful, I began to broaden my search to generalize

terms and look to cultural factors of rural schools, and that brought to me the most significant

discoveries, quite recently published, indicating a drastic epistemological difference between

rural and urban communities, including their teachers. This completely changed my hypothesis

and further research.

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

10

Probably the greatest lessons learned from this process are to identify locally, from the

500 foot view, then back way up to the 30,000 foot view to research. I had been looking for

national trend research to demonstrate the validity of my perception of a local problem, then

assuming a solution and narrowing in too closely toward research I thought would back me up.

The results of this study would encourage social change because it could affect a quarter

of schools in the United States which are considered rural (Bryant, 2007). Evidence on bringing

about change to the social construct of these school communities and enabling I’ll-see-it-when-I-

believe-it teachers to openly look at and respond to data could revitalize rural school

achievement.

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

11

References

Al-Zaidiyeen, N. J., Mei, L. L., & Fook, F. S. (2010). Teachers' attitudes and levels of technology

use in classrooms: the case of Jordan Schools. International Education Studies, 3(2), 211-

218. Retrieved from

http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ies/article/download/5891/4664

Association of Educational Service Agencies. (2010). Improving American education through

educational service agencies. Arlington, VA: Author. Retrieved November 30, 2011,

from http://www.aesa.us/Research/AESA_White_Paper_1_2010.pdf

Beesley, A. (2011). Keeping rural schools up to full speed. THE Journal, 38(9), 26-27.

Biglan, A., Ary, D., & Wagenaar, A. C. (2000). The value of interrupted time-series experiments

for community intervention research. Prevention Science, 1(1), 31-49. Retrieved from

http://www.fivehokies.com/Evaluation/Evaluation%20and%20Analysis%20Designs/Inter

rupted%20Time%20Series%20Studies/The%20Value%20of%20Interrupted%20Time-

Series%20Experiments%20for%20Community%20Intervention%20Research.pdf

Bryant, J. A. (2007, Fall). Killing Mayberry: The crisis in rural American education. The Rural

Educator, 29(1), 7-11. Cooper, E. (2009, November). Creating a culture of professional

development: A milestone pathway tool for registered nurses. The Journal of Continuing

Educaation in Nursing, 40(11), 501-508. doi:10.3928/00220124

Desimone, L. M. (2009, April). Improving impact studies of teachers' professional development:

Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181-199.

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

12

Retrieved from

https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/proflearn/areas/sld/programs/tlsip/docs/desimone.pdf

Eppley, K., & Corbett, M. (2012). I’ll see that when I believe it: A dialogue on epistemological

difference and rural literacies. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 27(1). Retrieved

from http://jrre.psu.edu/articles/27-1.pdf.

Falk, I., & Kilpatrick, S. (2000, January). What is social capital? A study of interaction in a rural

community. Sociologia Ruralis, 1(40), 87-110. Retrieved from

http://eprints.utas.edu.au/896/1/Sociologia_Ruralis_paper.pdf

Huysman, J. T. (2007). Rural teacher satisfaction: An analysis of beliefs and attitudes of rural

teachers' job satisfaction [Doctoral Dissertation]. Retrieved from University of Central

Florida website: http://etd.fcla.edu/CF/CFE0001656/Huysman_John_T_200705_EdD.pdf

Kay, R., Knaack, L., & Petrarca, D. (2009). Exploring teachers perceptions of web-based

learning tools. Interdisciplinary Journal of E-Learning and Learning Objects, 5, 27-49.

Retrieved from http://ijello.org/Volume5/IJELLOv5p027-050Kay649.pdf

Lathrop, D. (2011, May 17). NCESD May 17 Superintendents Meeting. [Meeting Minutes].

Retrieved April 19, 2012 from the ESD Office.

Lathrop, D. (2011, September 8). NCESD April 2011 Board Meeting. [Meeting Minutes].

Retrieved April 19, 2012 from the ESD Office.

Neuman, S. B., & Cunningham, L. (2009, June). The impact of professional development and

coaching on early language and literacy instructional practices. American Educational

Research Journal, 46(2), 532-566. doi:10.3102/0002831208328088

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

13

Oregon DATA Project. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2011, from Oregon Department of Education

website: http://www.oregondataproject.org/content/regions-map

Rural education: Student achievement in rural schools. (n.d.). Retrieved April 2, 2012, from

University of Michigan website:

http://sitemaker.umich.edu/butler.356/student_achievement

Stanley, M. C. (2005). Massachusetts collaboratives: Making the most of education dollars.

Boston: Pioneer Institute for Public Policy Research. Retrieved November 30, 2011, from

http://www.pioneerinstitute.org/pdf/wp23.pdf

Webster-Wright, A. (2009, February 25). Reframing professional development through

understanding authentic professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 79, 702-

739. doi:10.3102/0034654308330970

Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., Andree, A., Ricchardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009,

February). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher

development in the U.S. and abroad. Retrieved from National Steff Development Council

website: https://www.nsdc.org/news/nsdcstudy2009.pdf

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

14

Appendix

Prensky, M. 2009. H. sapiens digital: From digital immigrants and digital natives to digital

wisdom. Innovate 5 (3). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=705

(accessed April 4, 2009)

Prensky (2009) gives an overview of the differences between digital natives and digital

immigrants, focusing on how people from different generations in the Information Age are

learning to cope with the increase of information available and the means by which we are able

to access and utilize that information. The final focus is on how to use this information to

increase our wisdom in our approach to this new era of instant media.

Sterrett, W. (2011). Insights into action: Successful school leaders share what works. Alexandria,

VA: ASCD.

Sterrett (2011) indicates the following are steps to address when overcoming challenges:

develop critical thinking skills, affirm student and staff work, use technology to communicate,

and share meaningful data. Further, Sterrett (2011) indicates these action items for turning

challenges into success: develop a crisis plan, align the organization, prioritize personal health,

find success partners, and learn to triage.

Stewart, V. (2012). A world-class education: Learning from international models of excellence

and innovation. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD.

Stewart (2012) lists the comment elements of successful systems as: vision and

leadership, ambitious standards, commitment to equity, high-quality teachers and leaders,

alignment and coherence, management and accountability, student engagement and motivation,

AUTHENTIC APPLICATION

15

and global and future orientation.alignment and coherence, management and accountability,

student engagement and motivation, and global and future orientation.