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Contents

Introduction

Chapter1 TheHolocaust

Chapter2 ChoosingAuschwitz

Chapter3 BirkenauCamp

Chapter4 TheSub-Camps

Chapter5 OrganizingtheCamps

Chapter6 RunningtheCamps

Chapter7 TheTransports

Chapter8 ThePrisoners

Chapter9 LifeintheCamps

Chapter10 Escapes,ResistanceandLiberation

Chapter11 VisitingAuschwitz-Birkenau

Introduction

Between May 1940 and January 1945, Auschwitz-Birkenau grew from a small prisoncampforenemiesof theReich intoaforced labourandexterminationcampwhereoveronemillionpeoplewereworkedtodeathormurdered.

ThisisthestoryoftheHolocaustwhichspawnedthebuildingofthecamps,andthemenwhoorganized it. It includesanaccountofhowthecampswerebuiltandbywho;howtheywererunandwhobyandhowtheywereguarded;thereasonswhypeopleweresent toAuschwitz-Birkenauandhowsomeexisted thereandhowothersweremurderedthere.Therearethestoriesofthefewprisonerswhoescapedandotherbraveindividualswhotriedtoresistagainstthecruelregime.Finally,learnabouttheliberationofthecampsandwhathappenedtotheprisonersandtheirtormentorsaftertheywerefreed.

There are also instructions onhow to enjoyyour stay toKrakow, the best place tostopifyouarevisitingAuschwitz-Birkenau.Therearealsosuggestionsonhowtogetthebestoutofyourvisittothecamps.

Chapter1

TheHolocaust

GermanysJewshadbeenthevictimsofrestrictivedecreesandviolencesincetheNaziscametopowerin1933.Overthenextfiveandahalfyearstheylosttheirworkingrights,theirfinancialfreedomandtheirpersonalfreedom.TheJewsinAustriaandtheoccupiedCzechlandsalsosufferedthesamerestrictions.

ButnooneexpectedthestatesponsoredattackonJewishcommunitiesonthenightof9November1938.Kristallnacht(NightoftheBrokenGlass)wasrevengeforthemurderof Ernst vom Rath, a German diplomat in Paris, by the Jewish student HerschelGrynszpan. Around 400 Jews were killed, another 30,000 were held in concentrationcamps,over1,000synagogueswereburntdownandthousandsofJewishbusinesseswereattacked.Around450,000peoplelefttheReichinthewakeoftheattacks,aroundhalfofthemJews,butonlyafterpayingalargeamounttoescape.

BrokenwindowsfollowingKristallnacht.

On1September1939GermanyinvadedthewestsideofPolandandthentheSovietUnionenteredtheeastsideonthe17th,inaccordwiththesecretdealarrangedbetweenNaziGermanysForeignMinister,JoachimvonRibbentrop,andSovietForeignMinisterVyacheslav Molotov. In October Hitler explained how he intended to divide GermanoccupiedPolandintothreeareas;oneforethnicGermans,oneforPolesandoneforJews.Buttheplanhadseriouslogisticalflaws.HundredsofthousandsofethnicGermanswereescapingSovietheldareas,includingtheBalticStatesandnorthernRomania.Around18millionPolesandtwomillionJewshadtobemovedtomakewayforthemandtheyhadnomoneytopayfortheiremigration.

WhiletheJewswerepersecuted,therewasnoplan,asyet, toexterminatethemandAdolf Eichmann suggested moving them to the remote town of Nisko on the easternboundary of the occupied territory.While Austrian Jews were shipped to the area andhoused in appalling conditions, the plan proved to be unworkable and it was soondropped.

In October 1939mentally ill and physically disabled patients started being gassedunder theNazis ActionT4euthanasiaprogramme.Hospitalpatientswere taken intoafake shower room in Sonnenstein Castle near Danzig and asphyxiated using carbondioxide.OtherswerekilledbypumpingthegasintosealedvansandbyMay194010,000patientshadbeenmurdered.

ButtheseniorNazishatedtheunhealthyandunlawfulghettosandsawthemasonlyatemporary measure. They were also soon full to bursting. SS-Obergruppenfhrer HansFrank,headoftheGeneralGovernmentinwhathadbeenPoland,wasanxiousaboutJewsbeingdumpedinhisareaandtheReichSecurityMainOfficereduceddeportationstohisareainApril1940.AmonthlaterSSleaderHeinrichHimmlermadeitclearhewantedthePolishpeople tobe leaderless, ill-educatedslaveswhilePolishchildrendeemedsuitableforadoptionwouldbesenttoGermany.

SS-ObergruppenfhrerHansFrank.

The head of the SS went on to say he hoped to see the term Jews completelyeliminatedthroughthepossibilityofa large-scaleemigrationofallJewstoAfricaor tosomeothercolony.TheinvasionoftheSovietUnionwasonthecardsanditseemedasthoughtheGermanwarmachinewasunstoppable.Withapossibleendtothewarinsight,theideaofsendingPolishJewstoformerFrenchAfricancolonieswasproposedandhitlerapprovedofFranzRademachersForeignOfficeplantosendthemtoMadagascar.

SS-ReichsfhrerHeinrichHimmler.

At the beginning of December 1940 Himmler sent a memorandum to the FhrerentitledSomeThoughtsontheTreatmentoftheAlienPopulationoftheEastinwhichheoutlined how he intended to deal with the problem. Polandwould be divided into twoareas with the Germans living in the western half, under Hans Franks GeneralGovernmentadministration.ButtheplanstillinvolvedmassmigrationwithhalfamillionPoles being forcibly moved out of houses and businesses to make way for a similarnumberofGermans.Meanwhile, Jewswouldbe forced intoovercrowdedghettos in thecities.

In thespringof1941,HimmleraskedReichsleiterPhilippBouhler,headofHitlersChancellery and Hitlers representative for the T4 program, about getting rid of sickprisoners in the concentration camp system. The program was extended to includeconcentrationcampsundercodenameAction14f13andaspecialcommission,includingthedirectorofSonnensteineuthanasiacentre,DrHorstSchumann,visitedAuschwitz.On28July,573sickinmateswereselected,putonatrainandtoldtheywerebeingtakentoahospital.Theywere;onlyitwasSonnensteinasylum.TheirrelativeswereinformedtheyhaddiedofnaturalcausesinAuschwitz.

Meanwhile,thewarontheEasternFrontwasgoingwellastheWehrmachtadvanceddeep into Soviet territory. Task forces (Einsatzgruppen) reinforced by SS cavalry andpolice battalionswere visiting towns and villages behind the lines and rounding up theJews.Tensofthousandsofmenwomenandchildrenwerebeingmadetodigtheirgravesbeforetheywerestrippedandshot.

But therewas a problem.WhenHimmler visited EinsatzgruppeB inMinsk on 15August,SSandpoliceleaderforBelarusandtheUrals,SS-ObergruppenfhrerErichvondemBach-Zelewski,explainedhowtheshootingsweretraumatizinghissoldiers:Lookatthe eyes of the men in this Kommando, how deeply shaken they are! These men arefinished for the rest of their lives.What kind of followers arewe training here?Eitherneuroticsorsavages.Himmlerconcludeditwastimetofindanewwaytocommitmassmurder.

InSeptember1941SSUntersturmfhrerDrAlbertWidmannoftheCriminalPolicesTechnical Institute visited Einsatzgruppe B in Minsk to pass on his experience aboutgassing.SS-Gruppenfhrer Artur Nebe had already experimented with explosives as amurderweaponbut the bunker had collapsed, leaving bodyparts strewn about.He hadalsousedtruckexhaustfumesafterdiscoveringthatacardidnotproduceenoughcarbonmonoxidetokill.

Meanwhile,Auschwitzcamphadbeenlookingathowtomurdertherisingnumberofsick prisoners. Towards the end of August Eichmann visited Auschwitz to discuss the

imminent deportations of Jews from the ghettos.He toowanted to improve the killingfacilitiesandsuggestedexperimentingon theSovietPOWs.As themobilegaschambervans were too expensive, Auschwitz commandant SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Rudolf Hssdecidedtotrythepesticideusedtofumigatethecamp.ZyklonBwasacrystallizedprussicacid(hydrogencyanide)whichcameintinsofblue-greengranules.ItwasproducedbytheGermanCorporationforPestControl,DeutscheGesellschaft frSchdlingsbekmpfung,DEGESCH,anddistributedtotheconcentrationcampsbyTeschundStabenow(TESTA).

Hssandhisdeputy,KarlFritzsch,madeoneofthecellarsinblock11airtightatthebeginningofSeptember1941and thengatheredagroupofsickSovietprisoners inside.Insufficient ZyklonBwas used and thosewho survived the gassing had to be shot. Alarger quantity of crystals was used two days later and this time it killed everyone.AlthoughHsshadworkedouthowtomurderprisoners,thecellarswerefarfromideal.

Fritzsch suggested converting the mortuary in the camps crematorium into a gaschamber.TheprisonerscouldbepushedintotheairtightroomandtheZyklonBcouldbedroppedthroughahatchintheceiling.Theventilationsystemwouldextractthepoisonousgas and the corpses only had to be dragged into the adjacent crematorium. On 16Septemberaround900Sovietsoldiersweresuccessfullygassed.

WhileHssnowhadanefficientmethodofmurder,keepingitasecretwasgoingtobedifficult.Whiletheyusedrevvingmotorbikeandcarenginestodrownoutthescreamsfrom the chamber, a new location was required if the gassings were going to be keptsecret.

OperationBarbarossawentbetterthanexpected,astheWehrmachtstormedacrosstheSovietUnioninthesummerandautumnof1941.ButthewinterweathersloweddowntheGermanadvanceandithadstalledatthegatesofMoscowbyNovember.NewsofaRedArmycounterattackinfrontoftheSovietcapitalon5DecemberangeredHitler.

Then,on7December1941, the JapanesebombedPearlHarborand fourdays laterHitler declared war on the United States, declaring that international Jewry wasmanipulatingPresidentRoosevelt.ThefollowingdayheremindedtheNazihierarchyofaprophecyhehadmadeon30January1939:

Iwant today tobeaprophetagain: if international financeandJewry insideand outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into aworldwar,theresultwillbenottheBolshevizationoftheearthandtherebythevictoryofJewry,buttheannihilationoftheJewishraceinEurope.

On16DecemberHansFranktoldtheGeneralGovernmentinKrakow:

ImuststatethatiftheJewishclanweretosurvivethewarinEurope,whilewe

sacrificed our best blood in the defence of Europe, then this war would onlyrepresent a partial success. With respect to the Jews, therefore, I will onlyoperateontheassumptionthattheywilldisappear,wemustexterminatetheJewswhereverwefindthem.

Himmlernotedon18December,theJewishquestiontobeexterminatedaspartisans.

While theNazishadoften considered the Jewishquestion,PearlHarbor appears tohave been the final straw. The Jews now faced extermination andAuschwitz-BirkenauwouldplayavitalpartintheFinalSolution.

While senior Nazis were stating theirmurderous plans, the SS had already startedcarrying them out, albeit in a smallway. The city of Lodi had a ghetto crammedwith164,000 starving Jewsand theGauleiter,ArthurGreiser, and theSSandPoliceLeader,WilhelmKoppe,wanted toget ridof them.Theonlywaywas tomurder themandSS-HauptsturmfhrerChristianWirthusedhisexperienceoftheadulteuthanasiaprogrammeto build stationary gas chambers which again used vehicle engines to produce carbonmonoxidegas.

SS-HauptsturmfhrerHerbertLangestartedkillingsmallgroupsofJewsatChelmno,fiftymilesnorthwestofthecity,on8December1941.Theywereundressedandledintoadarkened room, which was the back of a van, and then killed with bottled carbonmonoxide.Othersweredrivenintothewoodsandmurderedwiththevansexhaustfumes.

But the decision to send all Jews to theEastmeant that gassing toowas too slow.Nearly60,000Jewswere transportedEastover thewinterof1941-42and firingsquadshadtobeusedtomakespaceforthem.ThentheGermansstartedclearingtheLodzghettoon 16 January 1942 and the Jewish Council of Elders, under Mordechai ChaimRumkowski, had to choose who went first. By May over 55,000 had been taken toChelmnoandgassed.Rumkowskiwouldbeputonthelasttransport.

TheLodzGhetto,Jewishneighbourhood.EntryForbidden.

SS-Gruppenfhrer Reinhard Heydrich summoned government state secretaries to avillainWannsee,nearBerlin,on20January1942.Themeetinghadbeenpostponedfrom9Decemberdue to theJapaneseattackonPearlHarborbut itwouldbe thekey turningpointintheFinalSolution.AftermonthsofarbitrarykillingbytheEinsatzgruppen,theexterminationoftheJewswasgoingtobeorganizedonanindustrialscale.

InJuly1941HermannGring,inhiscapacityasheadoftheNazisFourYearPlanauthorizedHeydrichandtheSStocoordinatethegovernmentsvariousdepartments:

Iherebychargeyoutosubmitacomprehensiveblueprintoftheorganizational,subject-related and material preparatory measures for the execution of theintendedFinalSolutionoftheJewishquestion.

SS-GruppenfhrerReinhardHeydrich

AtthemeetingHeydrich,aidedbyAdolfEichmann,explainedthattherewouldbenoJewishemigrationtotheEast,theywouldbeevacuated;aeuphemismformurder.Anothereuphemism for murder was Sonderbehandlung or Special Treatment and theabbreviation SB would often be written in the camp records. While the fit would beworkedtodeath,theyoung,elderlyandsickwouldbekilledimmediately.ThegroupalsodiscussedhowtodefineaJew,thecurrentmethodsofevacuation,andfuturesolutions.

WhilethemeetingwasadecisivepointintheHolocaust,itisimportanttorememberthatthedecisionhadbeenmadebyHeydrichssuperiors.Themeetingwascalledtomakesure thestatedepartmentheadsknewtheywerenowworkingunder theSStoeliminateEuropesJews.

On 17 July 1942 Himmler visited Auschwitz and two days later he announced Iherewith order that the resettlement of the entire Jewish population of the GeneralGovernment be carried out and completed byDecember 31. Therewould be nomoresendingJewstoholdingghettos,theywouldbetakenstraighttothecampsandmurdered.Themassacre of Polands Jewswould be calledOperationReinhard, inmemory of themurderedHeydrich.

Auschwitzplayedonlyaminorpart in thekillingofPolish Jewsduring1942.Thesick,elderlyandyoungwereputontrainsandtakentofakelabourcampshiddenintheforests.Theywereunloadedatarailwaystationandthenallgassedinbuildingsdesignedtolooklikeshowerblocks.Thelabourcampsdidnotexist;therewereonlyexterminationcamps. Belzec began gassing operations inMarch 1942 in southeast Poland under thecommandofSS-HauptsturmfhrerChristianWirth.

TheareaofthecampwastinyanditonlyneededtwentyGermanguardstooperate.Around one hundredUkrainian guards supervised Jewswho buried bodies, cleaned thegas chambers and sorted the belongings; the work parties were killed every few days.Sobibor to the north opened inMay under Commandant Franz Stangl. Then TreblinkanortheastofWarsaw,openedinJulyunderSS-ObersturmfhrerIrmfriedEberl.

But not everything went to plan as the trains were left waiting, luggage was leftunsorted, the crematoria broke down and bodieswere left to rot.Then in autumn1943therewasabreakoutatSobibor.LieutenantAlexanderPechersky(nicknameSasha)andLeonFeldhendlerstruckon14October.OnebyonetheguardswerekilledwithmakeshiftweaponsandtheneightySovietPOWspusheddownthefenceandranacrossaminefield.Aroundhalfofthe600prisonersescapedbutfewsurvivedthewar.Himmlerwasfuriousand on 3 November 43,000 people were murdered inMajdanek camp and all its sub-camps.ThemassacrewascodenamedHarvestFestival.

Over chaoticmonths that followedBelzecmurdered600,000,Sobibor 250,000 and

Treblinka850,000.Bythetimetheyshutdown,mostofPolandsJewishcommunitiesnolongerexisted.NowitwastheturnoftherestofEuropesJewryandBirkenauwasreadyforthem.

TherampatBirkenaucamptoday.

Chapter2

ChoosingAuschwitz

Oswiecim is inUpperSilesia, thirty-fivemileswest ofKrakow, inwhat is nowaquietcorner of south west Poland. The town is surrounded by the foothills of the TatraMountains,anditstandsclosetowheretheRiverSolaflowsintotheRiverVistula.

Oswiecim was in the Austrian Empire when a camp to house work-seekingimmigrants was built on the south side of the town in 1916. Poland gained itsindependenceaftertheFirstWorldWarandtherewerearound4,000refugeeslivinginthebarrackstyleblocks.TheyweresoonmovedonandwhilethePolishTobaccoMonopolyoccupiedpartofthesite,thePolisharmytookovertherest.

There were around 12,000 Poles living in Oswiecim (nearly 5,000 of them Jews)whenGermantroopsinvadedPolandon1September1939.GeneralWilhelmLists14thArmyenteredthetownthreedayslaterandwithinamatterofhoursthewarhadmovedonfromOswiecim.Buttherewerebigchangesahead.ThetownwasrenamedAuschwitz,themainsquarebecameAdolf-HitlerPlatz,thestreetsweregivenGermannamesandPolishsignswerereplacedwithGermanones.Thenon26OctoberthebordersofUpperSilesiawerere-drawn,bringingAuschwitzintotheGermanReich.

Towards the end of 1939 SS-Oberfhrer Richard Glcks, Concentration CampsInspector, wanted to open a camp in Silesia. On 21 February 1940, he recommendedAuschwitzbarracksasasuitablesiteforanewconcentrationcamptotheSSleadership.HeinrichHimmlergavethego-aheadon27AprilandthreedayslaterRudolfHssvisitedAuschwitz to inspect the abandoned artillery barracks. He found fourteen single-storeyand six two-storey barrack blocks surrounding a parade square; the site also had twoadministrationblocks.FourdayslaterHsswasappointedcommandantofoneofthefirstconcentrationcamps inPolandandhadabudgetof twomillionReichsmarks tobuildacampfor10,000prisoners.

Thefirst thirtyprisonersweredeliveredfromSachsenhausenconcentrationcampinMay1940.TheyweretoughGermancriminalswhowouldcontrolthePolishprisonersonbehalf of the guards. The first train load of 728 Polish political prisoners arrived from

Tarnowprisonon14June1940.Sixdayslateranother313arrivedfromNowyWisniczandKrakowprisons,followedbyanother271menfromSosnowiectransitcamp.TobeginwiththeprisonerswereheldintheTobaccoMonopolybuildingsandtheywerekeptbusywithpenalexercisesuntilthebarracksitehadbeensecured.TadeuszWiejowskiescapedfromthe first transportwhichhadbeensentdirectly to thecampon6July.Anineteen-hour rollcall followedandDawidWongczewskicollapsedduring the longwait;hewasthefirstprisonertodieinAuschwitz.

BuildingAuschwitzCamp

Families were evicted from nearby houses and around 1,200 unemployed Poles wereexpelled from the adjacent camp. Around 300 Jews from the town were put to workcollecting second hand barbed wire and wooden posts to make the barracks secure.Auschwitzs first sub-camp opened at Sosnica, near Guwiciz, in July 1940 so thirtyprisonerscouldremovewirefromanoldprisoner-of-warcamp.

AguardhousewasbuiltnexttothegatewhichhadthewordsArbeitMachtFreiorWork Will Set You Free over the top; words Hss had taken from Dachau. TheblacksmithKurtMllerdesigneditandJanLiwaczmadeit.1

To beginwith, simple towers,made from fourwooden posts supporting a coveredobservationplatform,werebuiltaroundthecampperimeters.Asingleguardoperatedthemachinegunduringthedaywhileasecondguardmannedasearchlightatnight.

ThesignWorkMakesYouFreeaboveAuschwitzsgate.

On21JunealltheprisonersweretransferredintothebarracksandAuschwitzprisoncamp came into operation. Some prisoners were put to work turning the single-storeybarracks intodouble-storeyprisonswhileothersbuiltnewblockson theparadeground.Therewereeventuallytwenty-eightbarracksinsidethefence,eachholdingbetween750and1,200men.

Meanwhile,CommandantHssandhisfamilylivedinalargevillaatthenorth-eastcornerofthecampanditwassurroundedbyaconcretefenceandtreestomaintaintheirprivacy.Everymorninghewalkedtheshortdistancetotheadministrationbuildingsohecouldspeaktohisstaff,dopaperworkandholdmeetings.Heoftentookworkhomeandworked in his study.Hsswas assisted by deputy and camp commander (Lagerfhrer)KarlFritzschandhisadjutantandreportcommander(Rapportfhrer)GerhardPalitzsch.The administration building housed the camp staff, the camp records and the armoury.Sickguardswerecaredforintheadjacenthospitalbuilding.

While most of the buildings were accommodation blocks, a few had a specialpurpose. The camp had a registration building, a disinfection room, showers and aphotographicstudiotoprocessnewprisoners.Ithadkitchens,utilityroomsandacanteentodealwiththeprisonersdailyneeds.Thecamphadalibraryandamusichallinblock24but their functionwas limited. In 1943 a numberofwater pitsweredug around thecamp so the camp fire brigade had a supply of water. While Commandant ArthurLiebehenschel allowed privileged prisoners to swim in the pool next to Birch Alley,CommandantRichardBaerbannedtheactivity.

Intheautumnof1943acampbrothel,knownasthePuffwasopenedonthesecondfloorofblock24.Hardworkingprisonerswere rewardedwith tokens theycoulduse tovisit one of the twenty women after evening roll call. A bell was rung after fifteenminutes,signifyingachangeover,andthedoorshadpeepholessotheguardscouldkeeporder.

Woodenstructureswerebuiltfortheshowers,laundryandpostoffice.Aninductionbuilding and an office block were built just outside the wire. Garages, workshops, abuildersyardandatimberyardwerealsobuiltoutsidethecamp.

Thecommandantshousewasnexttothecamp.

Key

aEntrance

bGaschamberandcrematorium

cBlock11,punishmentblock

dDeathwall

eResearchblock

fTreatmentroomforlethalinjections

gGroupgallows

hWritingroom

iKitchens

kSSlaundry

lBlockleadersbarracks

mProtectivecustodyoffice

nGestapooffice

oAdmissionsbuilding(1944)

pTheatre

qSSinfirmary

rAdministration

sCommandantsoffice

tGuardsoffice

uCommandantshouse

vexecutionsites

PIPrisonersinfirmary

TheshadedlinedenotestheSovietprisoncamp

Theblacksquaresdenotethewatchtowers

AplanofAuschwitzI.

TheTobaccoMonopolybuildingsacrosstheroadwereturnedintooffices,storeandbarracks.Fifteenwarehouseswerebuiltclosetotherailwayplatformonthewestsideofthecampandprisonershad tounloadbuildingmaterialsand load recycledmaterials.Ablacksmith,aworkshop,garagesandapetrolstationwerebuiltinthecomplex.

TheroadrunningpastthecampwasnamedBarrackStreetwhiletheavenuefromthemaingatewasnicknamedHurry-HurryStreet;itledtoBirchAvenuewhichrandowntheeastperimeterofthecamp.

Planswereeventuallydrawnuptoaddanotherfiftytwo-storeybarrackblocksonthenorthsideofthecampbutonlytwentywereeverbuilt.

Someof thebuildingswereused for experimentingonprisonerswhile otherswereused topunishandexecute them. InApril1943,DrCarlClaubergopenedanoperatingtheatreinblock10.Sterilizationexperimentswerecarriedouton400Jewishwomenandwhilesomedied,othersweremurderedsoautopsiescouldbecarriedout.ThetheatrewasmovedintothecampextensioninMay1944.

Block11(originallyblock13)wasaplace tobefearedbecauseithousedthepenalkommando.SS-UntersturmfhrerMaxGrabnerrantheinterrogationroomsandprisonershad toendurewater tortureandburningwith red-hot ironsorpetrol.Polehangingsandfloggingswereeithercarriedoutintheblockorintheadjacentyard.Policeprisonerswerealso held in the block and SS-Obersturmbannfhrer Dr Rudolf Mildners local PoliceSummaryCourttookoveraground-floorroomonbehalfoftheGestapoin1943.

Prisoners were held in the basement cells and some were left to starve, includingFatherMaksymilianKolbewho had offered to die in place of another prisoner.Othersweremadetocrawlthroughanarrowgaponthefloorintooneofthefourtinystandingcells called the Bunker. Theywere left inside all night,with no space to sit down orcrouchandonlyatinyairventtobreathethrough.EarlyinSeptember1941someofthebasementcellsweremadeairtightandthefirstgassingwithZyklonBwascarriedouton600SovietPOWsand250sickPolishprisoners.

EveryweekGrabnerreducedthenumberofprisonersbycarryingoutwhathecalleddusting out the bunker. Prisoners were stripped in the ground floor washroom andescorted into thecourtyard.Somewerehangedonaportablescaffoldwhileotherswereshotintheneckinfrontofthedeathwall(alsoknownasthescreen),awallofrailwaysleepers,paintedblackandbackedbysand.Thewallwasbuiltintheautumnof1941anddemolishedintheautumnof1943;whatweseetodaywasrebuiltin1946.Block10hadthe windows overlooking the courtyard bricked up, so the prisoners could not see theexecutions.

AuschwitzIblockswereinitiallyfilledwithPolishpoliticalprisonersandtheywerelaterjoinedbySovietprisonersofwar.

Every day, corpses were collected on carts and stacked in the sick bay cellars, inblock28.TobeginwithlorriestookthemtoGliwicescrematorium,over30milesaway.But a small crematorium and mortuary was opened in August 1940 in the barracksammunition bunker. The mortuary was converted into an airtight gas chamber inSeptember 1941 and early gassings were carried out there. The gas chamber andcrematoriumwereconvertedintoanairraidshelterfortheSShospitalinSeptember1944.

TheGermancriminalsusedtheirbatonstokeeptheprisonersinlineastheybuiltthecamp by hand, using second handmaterials salvaged from the town and nearby farms.Theyhad todemolishbuildingsand transport thebuildings to thecampatabreak-neckspeed; and they were encouraged to steal from each other, resulting in arguments andbeatings. There were few tools and no protective equipment, resulting in injuries andaccidents.

Hsshiredlocaltradesmentosupervisethetechnicalworkwhiletheprisonersdidthedemolishing, digging and carrying. The supervisors were issued pass cards and greenarmbands,andwhileafewpassedfoodandmedicinetoprisonersandtookmessages,thepenaltyforbeingcaughtwasimprisonmentinthecamp.

By the endof the summerof1940Auschwitz campwasa fully functioningprisoncampcapableofholdingupto30,000prisonersinacrampedarea.Thewoodenpostshadbeen replaced by 3.3m high concrete posts while SierszaWodna power plant suppliedelectricitytoBabicesubstationso400voltsranthroughthefence.Lampsilluminatedtheperimeter and a concrete slabwas installed under the fence to prevent anyone diggingunderneath.

TheprisonershadbuilttheirownjailandithadcosttheReichverylittle.AvisitbySS-ObergruppenfhrerOswaldPohl,headoftheSSMainEconomicandAdministrationOffice, in September resulted in Auschwitz being changed to a slave labour camp. Hewanted to bring the local sand and gravel pits under the SS-ownedGerman Earth andStoneWorks (DESt). Twomonths later Himmler and Hss discussed how to establishlaboratories,plantcultivationcentresandcattlefarmsinthearea.

GermanizingAuschwitzTown

With the camp established, steps were taken to further Germanize Auschwitz town, tomakeitraciallyvaluable.ThefirstJewsweredeportedon3AprilandthenewGermanimmigrantslinedthestreetstowatchthemgo.TheyweresenttoSosnowiec,Bedzin,andChrzanowghettos, andwhile the fitwere senton to labourcamps, theelderly, sickandyoungwouldbeeventuallymurdered.

TherewereplanstoturnAuschwitzintoamodeltownusingmoneyprovidedbythe

ReichandIGFarben.TheUpperSilesiaCommunityPlanningDepartmentcommissionedHansStosbergtobeginworkingongrandplansforAuschwitzasearlyasDecember1940.He worked alongside Gewoge, IG Farbens planning department, to design a marketgardenstyletownwith1,600modernhouses.

EscortingJewstoAuschwitzrailwaystationfordeportation.

Newroads,shops,schoolsandsportsfacilitieswereplanned,whiletheJewishquarterwouldbedemolishedtomakewayfornewhousing;eventheJewishcemeterywouldbebuilton.WhileStosbergconstantlyarguedwiththeSSoverthedetailsoftownplanningitdidnotbotherhimthatthenewtownwouldbenexttoaconcentrationcamp.

SettlersfromacrosstheReichcametoAuschwitz,startingwiththecampofficialsandemployeesofIGFarben,andtheymovedinto thenewandimprovedhousing.Oncethefactorywascomplete,AuschwitzsPolishcommunitywasassessed to see if individualsfittedtheracialprofile.ThosewhopassedthetestwereenteredontheVolksliste(PeoplesList).Thosewhodidnotwerecategorizedasprotecteddependantswhohadlessrightsandweremorelikelytobedeported.

InSeptember1942Himmlermetallpartiestodecidetheboundariesofthetownandthecamp,buttheargumentscontinued.InJanuary1943adelegationvisitedBerlinwithplanstobuildanewcampfurtherawaysotheycouldimprovethetownslandscaping.Noonewasconcernedtheywerebuildingatownnexttoanexterminationcentre.

TheplanswererejectedandinJune1943theSSweregiventotalcontrolofthecampandthesurroundingarea.Bytheendoftheyeararound6,500Germanshadmovedintothe town,many looking toescape theAlliedbombingraids,and theywouldknowlittleaboutwhatwashappeninginthenearbycamp.

Chapter3

BirkenauCamp

AccordingtoHss,HimmlerspokeofgreatplansforAuschwitzduringhisfirstvisiton1March 1941. He planned to turn the town into an exemplary settlement for 40,000Germans while the camp population would be increased to 30,000. When Hsscomplainedhewasshortofstaff, timeandmaterialshewas told toemployexpertsandfind solutions.Gentlemen, the campwill be expanded.My reasons for it are farmoreimportant than your objections I want to hear nomore about difficulties. For an SSofficertherearenodifficulties.Whentheycomeup,itishisjobtogetridofthem.Howyoudothatisyourbusiness,notmine.

Hss also recalled thatHimmler discussed building a new super camp for 100,000prisoners.The prisonerswould build the camp and the accommodation for theGermanstaffandtradesmenwhowouldsupervisethework.Theywouldthenbuildnewfactoriesand an agricultural centre.However, theAuschwitz construction office did notmentionanyplansforBirkenaucampuntil12September1941.

RelevantmeetingswereheldinBerlinoverthedaysthatfollowed.HimmlerandPohldiscussed the Soviet prisoner of war situation with SS-Obergruppenfhrer ReinhardHeydrich,headoftheReichMainSecurityOffice.TheproblemrevolvedaroundthethreemillionprisonerstakenduringtheinvasionoftheSovietUnion.TheWehrmachtweredueto hand100,000officers andpolitical commissars over to theSSon25September andcampshadtobebuilttohousethem.

ThefollowingdayHimmlerorderedHansKammler,headoftheCentralSSBuildingOffice, to tell Hss to build a new super camp to house the Soviet prisoners. SS-HauptsturmfhrerKarlBischoffwasappointedheadoftheAuschwitzconstructionofficeandhewouldbeassistedbyWalterDejacoandFritzErtl.

TheareaneartheevacuatedvillageBirkenau(thePoleshadcalleditBrzezinka)hadbeenchosen,westofAuschwitz.Therewasabudgetof8.9millionReichsmarkstobuildaquarantine area for17,000newarrivals anda transit area for80,000prisoners awaitingtransfertotheReich(therewasnotalkofgaschambersorcrematoria).

Thequarantineareawouldhavethirtybarrackblocks,twokitchens,fivetoiletblocks,fivewashroomsandtwodelousingbuildings.Themainareawouldhavetwelvesectors,eachwithtwelvebarrackblocks,onekitchen,onetoiletblockandonewashroom.Itmeantthecampwouldhavea totalof174barracks,eachsubdivided intosixty-twobays,eachwith a three-tier bunk bed. Originally each block was designed to hold 550 prisoners,creatingacapacityof95,700.Whilethiswasathirdofthespaceallocatedtoaprisonerinthe German concentration camps, the number was soon increased to 744. It meant thecampcouldhousenearly130,000ifitwaseverfinished.

BuildingtheForcedLabourCamp

Thousands of Soviet prisoners began arriving in October and work started at a back-breakingpace.Theprisonersmarched to and fromBirkenaueverydayandwhile somelevelledthecampareaanddugdrainageditches,othersdemolishedthehousesbyhand.Thetimberandbrickswerethenrecycledtobuildthefirstfifteenbarracks.Theprisonersworked through terribleweather conditions and completed the quarantine camp in onlyfourteendays.

Buildingcontinuedthroughthewinterandoveronemillionbrickswerelaid infiveweeks. Prefabricated wooden huts were soon being delivered to Birkenau and a singlecarpenter could supervise thirty labourers as theyput it together.But thedeath tollwasenormous because many died of illness, malnutrition, beatings and shootings. By thespring,onlyafewhundredofthe10,000Sovietprisonerswerestillalive.

ThebrickbarracksbuiltbytheSovietprisonersofwar.

Local tradesmenmovedintoBirkenauBIacampfollowinga typhusoutbreakin thespringof1942andtheythentransferredtonewbarracksbuiltbetweenthetwocampsafewweeks later.Eventually2,000 local tradesmen,working forover twentycompanies,wereemployed.

While the Birkenau area was a logical choice for the camp, it was far from idealbecausethehighwatertableturnedtheareaintoaquagmirewhenitrainedorsnowed.Inthespringof1942thepenalcompanystartedaperimeterditch,calledtheKonigsgraben(theKingsDitch),alongtheeastsideofthecampanditdischargedintotheRiverVistula,two kilometres away. Other prisoners dug a network of ditches, sluices and bridges todrainsurfacewaterfromtherestofthecamp.Diggingditcheswasoneoftheworstjobsbecausetheprisonershadtostandinwaterastheyshovelledmudfromdawnuntildusk.An electrified fence, with 760 volts running through the wire, was built next to theperimeterditches.

The firstprisoners fromGermanyarrived inBirkenau inMarch1942while around1,200 sickprisonerswere transferred fromAuschwitz into thenewcamp.More sectorsopenedoverthenexteighteenmonthsandnumberscontinuedtoriseatatremendousrateastheblockswerefilledtothebrim.Birkenaueventuallyhadtwocompletedcamps,BIand BII; while BIII camp was only partially completed. Each camp was divided intosectors,whichweresuffixedwithletters,andeachsectorwasisolatedbybarbedwireandlockedgatessotheprisonerscouldnotmix.

Maleprisoners,includingthesurvivingSovietPOWs,weremovedintosectorBIbinMarch1942.WomenstartedarrivinginsectorBIafivemonthslater.SectorBIIopenedtothesouth inMarch1943andRomagypsieswereheld in sectorBIIeafter July.Surplusmale prisoners moved into sector BIId in August while the penal kommando and theSonderkommandowerehousedinisolationinsectorBIId.ThemensquarantinecampinsectorBIIa and the camphospital in sectorBIIf also opened inAugust 1943.AmonthlatertheJewsfromTheresienstadtghettomovedintosectorBIIb.

AsthenumberofJewsincreased,sodidtheneedforalargerluggagesortingfacilityandthenewKanadawarehousesopenedinsectorBIIginDecember1943.Thespringsawa massive influx of Hungarian Jews and while the male prisoners were distributedthroughout the camp, the female prisoners were held in sector BIIc and the partiallycompletedareaknownasBIIIcamporMexico.

By the summer of 1944 Birkenau had 30 brick barracks and around 250 woodenbarracksofvariousdesigns.Survivingrecordstellusthat19,424menand39,234womenwere registered in the camp while there were another 30,000 unregistered Jewishprisoners.

SectorBIb:TheFirstCamp

TheSovietPOWsbuiltthefirstpartofBirkenaucampandthousandsdiedconstructingamixtureofmasonryandtimberblocksoverthewinterof1941-42.InMarch1942the600survivorsweremovedintosixofthebarracks.Additionalmasonrybarracksforthepenalcompany (block 1), theSonderkommando (block 2), and for the Slovakian and FrenchJewswhohadjuststartedtoarrive,wereaddedoverthenextthreemonths.

Whilethesectorhadashowerblock,toiletsandwashrooms,atyphusepidemicstillkilled half of the 11,500 prisoners in March 1943. Over the summer the number ofprisonershadrisenbackto10,000butinJulytheyweremovedtosectorBIId.ThewomeninsectorBIawerethentransferredintosectorBIb.

Key

aGuardpostandmaingate

bCommandantsofficeandadministration

cKanadasortinghuts

dRailwaysidingforselection(1944)

eCentralshowerblock

Shadedareasdenotemassgravesandincinerationpits

Blacksquaresdenotewatchtowers

AplanofBirkenau.

SectorBIa:TheWomensCamp

InAugust1942RavensbrckconcentrationcamphandedcontrolofthefewwomenheldinAuschwitzover toCommandantHssandhe transferred them into sectorBirkenaussectorBIa.Thenumberofwomenprisonerscontinued to increaseandall themenweremovedoutofBIatomakewayfortheminJuly1943.Thewomenkepttheirchildrenwiththemuntilthegaschambersopened.

Thosemoved to sector BIawere eitherworking inside the camp,withoutwork orbeingheld in quarantine.Thoseheld in sectorBIbhad jobs outside thewire andwhilesomeworkedin theadministrationandemploymentoffices,othersworkedin theparcelofficeorthesewingworkshop.

Some of BIbs blockswere hospitals andwhile those selected to die were held inblock25,DoctorHorstSchumannbegancarryingoutsterilizationexperimentsinblock30attheendof1942.Numbersroseashighas39,000andinthespringof1944thewomenwere moved to other parts of the camp. The fit were transferred to sector BIIb (theTheresienstadtJewshadjustbeengassed)whilethesickweremovedtosectorBIIe(thegypsieshadjustbeengassed);therestweremovedtoAuschwitzl.

Electricfencesandlockedgateskeptdifferentcategoriesofprisonersapart.

SectorBIIa:TheSickCamp

AmensquarantinecampopenedinAugust1943.Prisonerswereheldinthesectoruntilthey were ready to be moved to sector BIId. There were fifteen barracks, three toiletblocks,threewashroomsandaclinic,butthenumberofprisonersvariedwildlyaccordingtothenumberoftransports.InApril1944sickprisonersweremovedintothesectorandthey were soon joined by exhausted prisoners transferred from the recently closedMajdanek concentration camp, near Lublin. Eventually most of the barracks wereoccupiedbythesickandtheyweremovedtothehospitalcamp(BIIf)whenitclosedinNovember1944;thefewfitprisonersweremovedtotheworkerscamp(BIId).

SectorBIIb:TheTheresienstadtCamp

The first group of 5,000 prisoners from theTheresienstadt ghetto arrived in September1943.TheplanwastogivetheimpressionthatAuschwitzwasaworkingcampwheretheJewswouldbesafe.PrisonershadtosendheavilycensoredlettersbacktoTheresienstadtghettotodispelrumoursaboutexterminationcampsintheEast.

Around46,000peoplewereeventuallysenttosectorBIIbandwhilemanydiedfromdiseaseandmalnutrition,3,800sickandelderlyweregassedinMarch1944tomakewayformore transports. Around 7,000 prisonerswere gassed in July 1944 and 3,000weretransferred to other camps, just in time to house women transferred from Warsawfollowingtheuprising.

SectorBIIc:TheHungarianWomensCamp

In May 1944 sector BIIc was opened as a transit camp for Jewish women who wereselected as fit enough towork from the daily transports arriving fromHungary. Thoseunfitforworkweresentstraighttothegaschambers.ThecampwasclosedinOctoberandthewomenweremovedintoothersectors.

SectorBIId:TheWorkingMensCamp

Around10,000menmovedhere fromBIb camp in July1943.Twenty-fiveof the fortywooden blocks housed prisoners, while the rest housed offices, kitchens, stores,workshops,washroomsandtoilets.AuschwitzlEmploymentDepartmenthadanofficeinthesectoranditsstaffchosewhichprisonersdidwhatwork.Thepenalcompanylivedinblock11andtheSonderkommandowerehousedinblock13forawhile,inisolationfromtheotherprisoners.

SectorBIIe:TheGypsyCamp

RomagypsiesbeganarrivinginFebruary1943and1,700Romaweregassedamonthlaterfollowingatyphoidoutbreak.Ithadtwenty-fouraccommodationbarracks,fourofficeand

storageblocks, twokitchens, sixwashroomsand six toilet blocks. It originallyhad twohospital blocks but more had to be converted into sick bays as the number of sickincreased.Block31was a nursery andblock29was a pre-school areabut the childrenwerenotsafe.DrJosefMengeleusedpartofthebuildingnexttoblock32toperformhisexperimentsonthem.

ByMay1943thenumberofgypsieshadrisentoover14,000andtheywereallowedtoliveinfamilygroups,wearcivilianclothingandkeeptheirhairlong;onlyafewweremadetowork.Butmorethanhalfhaddiedofmalnutritionanddiseasewhenthedecisionwastakentoliquidatethecampinthesummerof1944.Therewereterriblescenesonthenightof2/3August1944as theguardsfought toget thegypsies into thegaschambers.Over3,000men,women,andchildrenweregassedinjustafewhours.

Rebuilttimberbarracksremindusofthecrampedlivingconditions.

SectorBIIf:TheHospitalCamp

Thehospitalcampopenedwithseventeenblocks inJuly1943andSSphysiciansHeinzThiloandJosefMengelewerebasedinblock1.Doctors,nursesandauxiliarypersonnelhad to care for between1,750 and2,750prisonerswith limited stocks ofmedicine andsupplies.Theyalsoranoperatingrooms,acampdentistandadietetickitchen.Thenurseslivedinblock13whileprisonersdestinedforthegaschamberswereheldinblock12.

SectorBIIg:Kanada

KanadawastheprisonersnicknameforthewarehousesusedtostorepropertytakenfromtheJews.Itwasconsideredtobealandofplentywherefoodandvaluablesfoundintheluggagecouldbestolenandtraded.Theguardssoonbeganusingthename.

KanadaIhadopenedontheGermanEquipmentWorks(DAW)siteclosetotheJewsRamp,halfwaybetweenAuschwitzandBirkenau,inthesummerof1942.Thesixwoodenbarrackswereprotectedbybarbedwireandguard towerswhileclothing takenfromtheluggagewascleanedinadisinfectionchamber.

A much larger Kanada camp opened in December 1943 between sector BIIg andCrematoriumIV.Prisonersloadedtheluggageleftontherailwayrampsontolorriessoitcould be driven to the sheds.Up to 2,000 prisonersworked in the thirtywooden huts,sortingandstoringclothes,valuablesandpersonalitems.Nothingwaswastedandwhileshoesandleathergoodsweretakentothetannery,clothingwasexported.

SectorBIII:Mexico(Meksyk)

Work started in the summerof1943ona third camp for60,000prisoners.By the timeworkstoppedinMarch1944only32barrackshadbeenfinishedand35werehalfbuiltoutofthe188plannedblocks.HungarianJewishwomenweremovedintothecampstartinginMay but therewere no kitchens,washrooms or toilets; hence the nameMexico, a landshortofeverything.Somebarrackshadnobunksandtherewasashortageofclothingandblankets.ThecampwasclosedinOctober1944andtheprisonersweremovedbyrailtoGross-Rosenconcentrationcamp.

TheExterminationCamp

Starting in February 1942 plans were put in place to turn Birkenau into a centre toexterminateEuropesJews.Frommakeshiftbeginningsthecampwasmadeintoafactoryofdeathcapableofmurderingthousandsofpeopleaweekanddisposingofthebodiesinsuchafashiontherewouldbenoevidence.

TheLittleRedHouseandLittleWhiteHouse

Following theWannseeConference,Himmlermade it clear that theconcentrationcampsystemwouldsoonbereceiving150,000Jewsfromghettos.Thefirst transport to reachAuschwitz arrived on 15 February and while the elderly were gassed in the campscrematorium,Hsswasdissatisfiedwiththearrangement.ThecampneededmuchlargerfacilitiestodealwiththeproposedinfluxofJews.Hemethisarchitect,KarlBischoff,andheadoftheCentralSSBuildingsOffice,HansKammler,on27FebruaryandtheydecideditwouldbeeasiesttobuildanewgaschambernearBirkenaucamp.

An isolated house outside Birkenaus wire was chosen and two undressing roomswerebuiltcloseby.Thehousedoorsandwindowswerebrickeduptocreatetwosealedrooms,hatcheswereputinthewallsandsignssayingTotheDisinfectionwereputoverthedoors.WhilethebuildingsofficialnameswereBathingFacilityforSpecialActionsandBunkerNumber1,theredbrickwallsgaveitthenicknametheLittleRedHouse.

TrainssteamedthroughtheGateofDeathintothecentreofBirkenau.

The facilitywas tested on 20March 1942 and six days later a group of Slovakianwomen were gassed. The Sonderkommando loaded the bodies onto a narrow-gaugerailway and lorries and then buried them in a nearby field. Throughout the spring andearlysummerof1942JewsfromUpperSilesiaandSlovakiaweregassedinsidethehouse,800atatime.

Asecondcottagewasconvertedintofoursmallergaschamberswhichwereeasiertoventilate.BunkerNumber2couldmurder1,200atatimeanditsplasteredwallsresultedinthenickname,theLittleWhiteHouse.

On the night of 4 July, 638 peoplewere escorted to the new bunker and gatheredinside.SS-UnterscharfhrerOttoMoll,dressed inawhiteprotective suit andgasmask,droppedtheZyklonBthroughvents.Everyonewassoondeadandagainthebodieswereburiedinthenearbyfield.

TensofthousandsofJewishmen,women,andchildrenfromFrance,theNetherlands,Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Bohemia, Slovakia, Norway, Yugoslavia, and Polandwere gassed in the two cottages. They closed when the first two purpose-built gaschamberswereopenedattheendofApril1943.

WhiletheLittleRedHousewasdemolished,theLittleWhiteHousewasusedagaininMay1944whenthegaschamberscouldnotcopewiththeHungariantransports.Newburningpitswereduginanearbyfieldwhiletwowoodenbarrackswereerectedtostoreluggagein.TheLittleWhiteHousewasdemolishedattheendoftheautumn.Whilethefoundationswereburied,theyhavebeenunearthedinrecentyears.

DisposingoftheCorpses

While thegassingwasprogressingata tremendous rate, themassgraveswereposingaseriousproblemby the timeHimmlermadehis secondvisit in July1942.The summerweatherhadturnedthemakeshiftgraveyardintoaserioushealthhazard.Ahorriblestenchfilledtheairwhilethecontaminatedgroundwaterwaspoisoningthenearbyfishfarm.Aplagueofratsandatyphusepidemicwerealsosweepingthecamp.

Anew1,400 strongSonderkommandowas put towork destroying the evidence onHimmlers orders. SS-Unterscharfhrer Franz Hssler supervised the ghastly task ofexhuming and burning the bodies on pyres. Wood taken from demolished houses andbrushcollectedfromthePszczynaforestswasusedbutitrarelygeneratedenoughheatfortheoutdoorcremations.

InSeptemberHssvisitedChelmno(Kulmhof)exterminationcamp,nearLodz,toseehowCommandantSS-StandartenfhrerPaulBlobelbuiltincinerationpits.Holesweredugandgrillswereinstalled.Thebodiesandwoodwerethenstackedinalternatelayersand

burntusingpetrolormethanol.

BytheendofNovembermostofthe100,000corpseshadbeendisposedofwhentheSonderkommando tried to escape, worried they were going to be executed. They wereright.Theyweremurderedon9Decemberandreplacedbyfitmenselectedfromthenexttransport.

From time to time the Sonderkommando used the incineration pits when thecrematoriacouldnotcopeorhadtobeclosedforrepairs.TheywerealsousedduringthefrenziedkillingsoftheHungarianJewsandwhentheLitzmannstadtghettowasclosed.

BuildingNewCrematoriaandGasChambers

The Little Red and Little White Houses were fully operational when the campadministrationdiscussedhowtoincreasethesizeofBirkenauto200,000prisonersintheautumn of 1942. They decided to build two new crematoria numbered II and III(AuschwitzcrematoriumwasnumberI).

WhileKarlBitschoffdrewup theoriginalplans,SSarchitectWalterDejacoalteredthemintoacombinedgassingandcremationfacility,disguisedasdelousingshowers.Partoftheundergroundmortuarywouldbeanundressingandstorageareawhiletherestofthebasementwasturnedintoagaschamber.Ithadanairtightdoorwhichswungout(toavoidthebodiesblockingthedoors)andhadaspyholesotheguardscouldwatchthegassing.HatcheswereaddedintheroofsotheZyklonBcouldbedroppedinside.

Stairs replaced the corpse chute down to the basementwhile a liftwould hoist thecorpsestothegroundfloorcrematorium.Thefivetriplemufflefurnacesineachbuildingcouldburn720corpseseverytwenty-fourhours.Forthefirsttimethekillinganddisposaloperationwouldbecarriedoutunderoneroof,makingitfarmoreefficient.

ThreemorecrematoriawereplannedbutonlyCrematoriumIVandCrematoriumVwere built and they were a different design. They were large brick buildings witheverythingonthegroundlevel,removingtheneedtohaulthecorpsesupstairs.HatchesinthewallsallowedtheSSorderliestodroptheZyklonBintothegaschambers.Nextdoorwere two quadruple muffle furnaces which could burn 768 bodies every twenty-fourhours.

Construction started in September and around 125 prisoners worked on each site,supervisedbyaSpecialLeader(Sonderfhrer).Whiletheprisonersdidthemanualwork,privatecontractorssupervisedtheirelementsoftheconstruction.OnceLenzandCohadlevelled each site,KarlFalckofGleiwitz andTritonofKatowice installed thedrainageandVedagofBreslauwaterproofedtheundergroundrooms.HutaofKattowitzandReidel& Son of Bielitz built the walls while Konrad Segnitz installed the roof and Robert

KoehlerofMyslowitzbuiltthechimneys.Topf&SonsofErfurtmadethefurnaceswhilelosefKlugeofGleiwitzinstalledthem.

CrematoriaIVandVhadtheirchangingroom,gaschamberandfurnacehallonthegroundfloor.

BytheendofFebruary1943CrematoriumIIwasreadyfortesting.On4MarchKurtPrfer,chiefengineerofTopf&Sons,watchedas forty-fivemenweregassedand theircorpses were cremated in Crematorium II. The test was a success and the engineerscompletedthegaschamberventilationsystemwhilethestokerskeptthefurnacesburningfortendaystodrythemout.

The architect signed off Crematorium IV on 22March and the following evening1,492elderlyandwomenandchildrenfromKrakowweregassed.Thegassingscontinuedbuttheincineratorkeptoverheatinguntiliteventuallycracked.WhiletheinstallationteamblamedtheSonderkommandofordamagingthefurnaceliningwiththeirfireirons,Topf&Sonswereforcedtocarryoutremedialworkbetween24Apriland8May.

CrematoriumIIwasreadyon31March,CrematoriumVwasoperationalon22AprilandCrematorium III was handed over on 24 June. Experience showed that around sixkilogramsofZyklonBcouldkill1,500peopleinaroundfifteenminutes(atleasttwenty-fivetonswouldbedeliveredtoAuschwitzbetween1942and1944).Itwasestimatedthatwith the four crematoria they couldgas 4,700people anddisposeof their bodies everyday.Thatwas a staggering 150,000murders amonth.Birkenau had been turned into afactoryofdeath.

Chapter4

TheSub-Camps

Birkenau was a transit camp for forced labour. A large number of prisoners wereemployed on the twenty-eight sub-camps in the surrounding area while others weretransferredtoworkcampsacrosstheThirdReich.

TheAuschwitzZoneofInterest

AsAuschwitzcampgrew,thedecisionwastakentocreateaConcentrationCampZoneofInterest, an area covering forty square kilometres. TheGermans began evicting peoplefrom the town and eight nearby villages in March and April 1941. The village ofMonowice (Monowitz) to theeastwasevacuated tomakeway for the IGFarbenplant.Dozensoffarmswerealsoclearedandtheanimalswereconfiscatedwhile the landwasplantedwithcropstogrowfoodforthecamp.

Over twoyears 8,500Polesweremoved from theAuschwitz area and replacedbyGermans. Some were employed by the camps; some were employed by the factories;while others came from northern Bukovina, as part of the Nazis living space policy(Lebensraum)ofre-population.Over1,000housesweredemolishedtobuildbarracksinBirkenau while larger houses were built in Musterstadt Auschwitz, or Model TownAuschwitz. Workers from German occupied territory were housed in temporaryaccommodationontheeastsideofthetown.

Bythespring1943Auschwitzwastheonlycampintheconcentrationcampsystemachieving the threeNazi objectives:working the fit on site, transferring the fit to otherlabourcampsandmurderingtheunfit.Thegaschamberswerealsousedtokillprisonersnolongerabletowork.

Tobeginwiththeprisonerswereeithermarchedtotheirplaceofworkorhousedinnearby houses, factories and halls until they built their barracks.While the larger sub-camps had their own administration and facilities with fences and guard towers, thesmallersub-campsoftenhadnomore thana fewdozenprisonerswhowere locked inastoreroomor cellarsovernight.TheywereguardedbyamixtureofSSguards, soldiers,

policeofficersandfactoryguardswhiletheirfoodwasdeliveredfromthemaincamp.

Frommakeshiftbeginnings, theAuschwitzZoneof Interestgrew intoahugeworkcamp.The industrial sub-camps reported toAuschwitz IIIafter thecampadministrationwasreorganizedbyArthurLiebehenschelinNovember1943.BythetimethecampswereevacuatedinJanuary1945,thesub-campsemployedover35,000prisoners,comparedtothe32,000prisonersinthemaincamps.

IGFarbenandMonowitz

NaziGermanywasshortofrubberandfuelforitswareffortanditneededchemicalplantstomakesynthetic substitutes.Synthetic rubberwasmadebypassinghydrogengasovercoal at high temperature, a process called hydrogenation.The productwas code-namedBuna, (Bu for the butadiene-based synthetic rubber and Na the chemical symbol forsodium).

IG Farben was contracted to produce the synthetic materials and the head of thecompanys chemical division, Dr Otto Ambros, wanted to relocate its synthetic-rubberproductiontoSilesia.Auschwitzwasidealbecauseithadraillinksandnaturalresources,includingcoal,lime,saltandwater.

Himmlerdiscussed thefactoryduringhisvisit toAuschwitzon1March1941.ThecompanyhadboughtlandatMonowitzfromtheReichforasubsidizedrateanditneededlabour. Hss met IG Farben representatives on 27 March and eleven days later thecompany representative held their first meeting.While the agreed day rates were fourReichsmarksperskilledworkerandthreeReichsmarksperunskilledworker,theworkersreceivednothing; themoneywaspaid to theSS.The rates for the rawmaterialswhichwould be extracted from the surrounding mines by slave labour were also agreed.Siemens-SchuckertelectricalengineersandthearmsmanufacturerKruppwouldalsohavemanufacturingfacilitiesintheMonowitzarea.

Monowitz-BunaorAuschwitzIIIgrewtobethelargestsub-campintheAuschwitzzoneofinterest.TheworkershadtowalkthefourmilesfromAuschwitzcampuntilaraillinewasbuilt,soatraincouldtakethemtowork.Workwassuspendedinthesummersof1941and1942duetotyphusoutbreaksandover3,000prisonersweretransferredtotheon-sitebarracksthefollowingwinter.Theplanthaddoubledinareaanddoubleditsworkforcebythesummerof1943.

TheprisonersworkedslowerthanGermanworkersandSS-ObersturmfhrerVinzenzSchttl took steps to improve their efficiency.ALabourEducationCampwas set up toteachnon-Jewishprisonershowtoworkmoreefficiently,morekaposwereemployedanda reward systemwas introduced; even a brothelwas opened.But the prisonersworked

slowerbecausetheywereunderfedandmistreated.SlavelabourwasnotasprofitableasIGFarbenhadexpected.

SlavelabourbuiltIGFarbenshugefactoryatMonowitz.

While conditionswere a little better than the other two camps, prisonerswere stillbeaten and executed. Life expectancywas three to fourmonths, compared to only onemonthinthenearbymines;unfitprisonersweresenttothemaincampstobegassed.

By November 1943 Auschwitz III (the official name forMonowitz) was the thirdlargest synthetic rubber and liquid fuel plant in the Third Reich. It was made into aseparate camp and the new commandant, SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Heinrich Schwarz, had400 staff and guards supervising 11,000 prisoners living in sixty barracks; hewas alsoresponsiblefornineothersub-camps.

AmericanbombersfirsthitthelGFarbenpetro-chemicalinstallationsatMonowitzonthenightof4May1943.FoggiaairfieldinItalywascapturedbytheAlliesinthespringof 1944, bringing Auschwitz in range and reconnaissance aircraft were soonphotographing the area. Raids were carried out by 127 B-17 Flying Fortresses on 20August,96B-24Liberatorson3September,47B-24sand2B-17son18Decemberand95B-24son26December.Betweenthemtheydropped770tonsofbombsandseriouslydamagedtheplant;theyalsokilledaround120prisoners.

AuschwitzIIIcontinuedoperationsuntil18January1945whenthefitprisonersweremarched to Gliwice and then taken by trains into Germany. Those left behind wereliberatedbytheRedArmyon27January.

Monowitz was not the only synthetics factory in Silesia. Blechhammer sub-camp(later Auschwitz IV) was opened next to Oberschlesische Hydrierwerke synthetic fuelplantsinApril1942.Tobeginwiththeprisonersdugfoundations,constructedroadsandbuilt air-raid shelters but after the June 1944 raids many were put to work removingunexplodedbombs.InJanuary1945over4,000workerswereevacuatedwhilearound800sickprisonersweremurdered.

AssemblyandRecyclingPlants

Ten assembly plants were opened between 1941 and 1944 and while some made newproducts,otherssalvagedorrecycledmaterial.Theyemployedover10,000prisonersandsomewereengagedinhazardousworkinvolvingdangerousmachineryandmoltenmetal.

TheGermanEquipmentWorks(DAW)arrivedintheAuschwitzareain1941and700prisonersbuiltacarpentersworkshoptomakebarrackcomponents, furnitureandcratesforshells.Newworkshopswerebuilt torenovateammunitioncartsandarmyskiswhilewomenturnedre-cycledscrapmaterialintostring,ropeandbeltsinweavingsheds.Thecompanyalsoranageneralsalvageyardanditeventuallyemployedover3,000prisoners.

In the spring of 1943 Eintracht mill opened near Swietochlowice, north-west of

Katowice,and1,300prisonersbeganmanufacturingpartsforanti-aircraftguns.WeichselUnion Metallwerke had been evacuated from the Ukraine to the Auschwitz area inOctober 1943 and over 1,000 prisoners were put to work making artillery fuses. ByNovemberaonekilometre longbarbedwirepath,called theLionsCorridorhadbeenbuiltbetweenthecampandthefactorytostopprisonersescapingduringthedarkwinternights.

AmilitaryaircraftsalvageyardopenedsouthofBirkenauinOctober1943.Luftwaffepersonnel supervised 1,300 prisoners and they worked in 100-stong groups, salvagingplaneparts,fuelandammunitionfromGermanandAlliedaircraft.

BombingraidsforcedanelectricmotorcompanytomoveintoanoldfertilizerfactoryinBobrek,northofAuschwitz,inthespringof1944.The200prisonersweretreatedwithadegreeofrespectbecausetheywereexpertsintheirfield.

Lauramillopenedwith900prisonersinSiemianowiceSlaskie,northofKatowice,inApril1944.AsimilarnumberstartedworkatSosnowitzmill,eastof the town,amonthlater.Theybothproducedgunbarrelsandartilleryshells.

TheHindenburgmillopenedinZabrze,north-westofKatowiceinAugust1944andwhile 350 female prisoners made artillery shells and grenades, around 70 men wereengagedinmanualwork.Another200prisonerswereputtoworkonBismarckhuttesteelmill at Chorzow, also north-west of the town, amonth later andwhile some unloadedbuildingmaterialanddugditches,othersmadeparts foranti-aircraftweapons.Hubertusmillwas the last one to open inDecember, inLagiewniki, northof the town,with200prisoners.

CoalMines,PowerStations

TheAuschwitzareahadrichcoaldepositsandwhileexistingmineswereexpanded,newoneswere opened betweenAugust 1942 andFebruary 1944.Theworkwas exhaustinganddangerousandtheminersreachedtheirlimitofenduranceafteronlyafewweeks.

Jawiszowiceminewasthefirsttoopen,south-westofAuschwitz,inAugust1942andit was soon employing 2,500 prisoners. Work on Neu-Dachs mine on the outskirts ofJaworzno,northofthecamp,beganinJune1943and3,600prisonersweresoondiggingin old and new tunnels. The guards at Janina coal mine, north-east of Auschwitz, hadexperienced trouble with the British prisoners of war who were more interested insabotage than work. Around 400 prisoners replaced them in September 1943 and thenumber had soon doubled. A similar number were employed at Frsten mine, east ofKatowice.

AkommandodigsadrainageditchalongBirkenausperimeterfence.

In September 1943 prisoners began building an electric power station in Lagischa,nearBedzin,north-eastofKatowice.However,theschemewasdroppedayearlaterand500prisonersstartedworkonanewpowerstationsiteatAlthammer,westofKatowice.In February 1944work started on a camp to house prisoners forGnther coalmine inLedziny,northofAuschwitz.ThefollowingSeptemberanother1,000wereputtoworkonCharlottemineandtheadjacentpowerstation.

InAugust 1944 800 prisonersweremoved toTrzebiniaRefinery,west ofKrakow,wheretheylaidrailtracks,dugditches,drainsandfoundations.Followinganairraidtheyinstalled air-raid shelters and removed unexploded bombs. The same sort of dangerouswork was carried out at Tschechowitz Refinery. Golleschau quarry, near Cieszyn,employedup to500prisoners laying train tracks andbreaking rocks.A similar numberwereemployedinthenearbycementfactory.

FarmingandForestryCamps

Thefirst livestocksub-campopenedin theAuschwitzarea in1941.Bytheendof1944SS-ObersturmbannfhrerDrJoachimCaesarhadsixfarmswith2,000prisoners,mostofthemwomen,tendinglivestockandgrowingfoodforthecamp.Rubberproducingplantswerealsocultivatedononefarm.

PrisonersbuiltbarracksonthesiteofRaiskovillage,southofthecamp,inthespring1941.Over300prisonerswerethenputtoworkgardeningandtendingindoorplants.TheproducewassoldtotheSSmenandcivilianworkers.

The farm also cultivated anAsian plant called kok saghyz which contained rubberproducingcaoutchouc.Many of the employeeswerewomenwith relevant degrees andtheyworkedinbetterconditionsbecausetheplantingareahadtobekeptclean.

Over thewinter of 1941-42 two small barrackswere built on the site ofBudy andHarmense villages, south-west of the camp.More barrackswere added and therewereover1,000womenworkingonthetwofarmsbytheendof1944.

Babicefarmopenednorth-eastofthecampwith360prisonersinthespringof1943,followedbyBirkenaufarmwith200prisoners in thesummer. In thespringof1944 thearmytookthehorsesfromBabicefarmandwomenhadtopulltheploughs.Thefinalfarmopenedfor340prisonersatPlawy,southofthecamp,inthespringof1944.

To begin with dead bodies were buried in the fields near Birkenau but they soonbecameahealthhazard.Thedecisionwastakentodigthemupandburnthemonoutdoorpyres.Foursub-campsproducingtimberweresetupinthePszczynaforestoverthewinterof1942-43andwhilethehandsawntrunksweresenttotheforestryservice,thebranches

wastakentoBirkenautouseonthepyres.Radostowitz,AltdorfandMesersitzsub-campsonlyhadafewdozenprisonersandtheyclosedinthespringof1943,whenthecrematoriabeganworking.ButKobiersub-campcontinuedproducingtimberuntilthesummer.

SmallCamps

Therewere a number of other small camps in theAuschwitz area. Chelmek sub-campemployed150prisonerscleaningthepondsservingtheBatashoefactory,startingintheautumn of 1942. Sosnowiec sub-camp housed 100 prisoners, re-forming the KatowiceCouncilofJewishEldersofficesintheautumnof1943.Around400womenstartedworkinNeustadttextilemillinSeptember1944.

In September 1944, 500 prisoners were placed on a train and taken to south-westGermany,torepairbombdamageinKarlsruhe.Theprisonerswerethenmovedaroundthecountrysotheycouldclearrubbleinbombdamagedcities.

TheCzechBorderCamps

Three sub-camps were opened across the border, in the Protectorate of Bohemia andMoravia,intheautumnof1943.MenerectedbuildingsandunloadedequipmentattheSSand Police Technical Academy in Brno while 600 women were set to work atLichtewerdenthreadfactoryandEmerichMacholdtextilemillinFreudenthal.On6May1945theguardschangedintocivilianclothesandfled.

BetweenMarchandJuly1944foursub-campswerebuilt in theGleiwitzarea,neartheCzechborder.CampIemployed1,300prisonersrepairingdamagedrollingstockbuttheyweremadetocarrystonesbackandforwardiftherewasashortageofwork.CampIIhad over 1,000 women working with lampblack, an unhealthy filler used in rubberproducts. Camp III had 600 prisoners making steel products, including artillery shells.CampIVhad450prisonersconvertingtruckenginestorunonwoodgas.

Chapter5

OrganizingtheCamps

Auschwitz-Birkenau was part of the Third Reichs concentration camp system and itworkedwithtwoorganizations,theReichMainSecurityOffice(RSHA)andtheSSMainEconomic and Administration Office (WVHA). The RSHA was created in September1939 to bring together the work of the Security Service (SD), the Secret State Police(Gestapo) and the Criminal Police, (Kripo). The Chiefs of Security and SDworked toimprison and eliminate all enemies of the Reich. The WVHA was established inFebruary1942tocoordinateSSenterprises.Auschwitz-BirkenaureportedtoOfficeD,theConcentration Camp Inspectorate. The office financed the building of the camps,employedtheguards,puttheprisonerstoworkandalsoputthemtodeath.

WhilemanywereinvolvedinimplementingtheHolocaust,fivemenareresponsiblefor organizing the rounding up, transportation, exploitation and murder of tens ofthousandsofvictimsincampssuchasAuschwitz-Birkenau.

TheOrganizers

SS-ReichsfhrerHeinrichHimmler(1900-1945)wasafailedchickenfarmerandanearlymemberoftheNazimovementwhoparticipatedinthefailedMunichcoupinNovember1923.HejoinedtheSchutzstaffel(SS)twoyearslaterandorganizedprotectionteamsfortheNazileaders.HebecameheadoftheSSin1929anddirecteditsexpansionintoahuge,eliteorganizationwhichcoveredstatesecurity,militaryunitsandbusinessventures,allinthepursuitoffurtheringtheobjectivesoftheThirdReich.AftertheNazisseizedpower,HimmlerbecameheadoftheGermanpoliceandMinisteroftheInterior.TheSScreatedtheconcentrationcampsystemtoholdenemiesoftheStateoutsidethejudicialsystemandtouseprisonersasforcedlabour.ItwouldgoontoorganizethedeportationofEuropesJewstotheexterminationcamps.

HimmlervisitedAuschwitzforthefirsttimeinMarch1941anddiscussedexpandingthecampanditssub-campsinthezoneof interest.Auschwitzwasturnedfromaprisoncampintoaforcedlabourandtransitcamp.FourmonthslaterhemadeasecondvisitandobservedthemurderofJewsbygassingintheLittleWhiteHouse.

Towardstheendof thewarHimmlercontactedRedCrossofficials inanattempt tonegotiate a separate peace, but theWesternAllies refused tomake any deals.HimmlerthendisguisedhimselfasaregularsoldierandhandedhimselfintoBritishtroops;hewasrecognizedandcommittedsuicideon23May1945.

SS-ObergruppenfhrerReinhardHeydrich(1904-1942)wasdismissedfromtheNavyin1931afteranaffairwithayounglady.HejoinedtheSSin1932andhiswifeintroducedhim toHimmler.The tall,blond,athleticman rosequickly through the ranksof theSS,due to Himmlers mentoring. In June 1936 he was appointed combined chief of theSecurityPoliceandtheSecurityServiceandinSeptember1939hewasappointedheadoftheReichMainSecurityOffice(RSHA).

HeydrichbecameactingReichProtectorofBohemiaandMoraviainSeptember1941implementing Nazi measures across the area, while exploiting the Protectorates workforce. In May 1942 he was assassinated by Czech and Slovak soldiers sent by theCzechoslovakiangovernment-in-exile.HimmlerheldHeydrichsofficeforthenexteightmonths.

SS-Obergruppenfhrer ErnstKaltenbrunner (1903-1946)was a tallmanwith facialscarsandabadtemper.Heworkedbrieflyasa lawyerbefore joiningtheNSDAP(NaziParty) and in 1932 he joined the Austrian SS. He was imprisoned twice for politicalactivities, including suspicion of being involved with the assassination of the AustrianChancellor,EngelbertDollfuss.Bythesummerof1935KaltenbrunnerwastheleaderoftheAustrianSSandheassistedintheUnion(Anschluss)withGermany.Herosethroughthe ranksof theSS and thepolice andon30 January1943was appointedChief of theReich Main Security Office. Following the assassination attempt on Hitler on 20 July1944,KaltenbrunnertriedandexecutedtheaccusedofplottingagainstHitler.HehimselfwastriedintheNurembergTrialsandwashangedinOctober1946.

SS-ObergruppenfhrerErnstKaltenbrunner.

SS-ObersturmbannfhrerAdolfEichmann.

AdolphEichmann(1906-1962)wasasalesmanwhojoinedtheAustrianNSDAPandSSin1932.WhenthepartywasoutlawedhemovedtoGermanyandin1934transferredtotheSecurityService(SD)wherehegatheredinformationonJewishorganizations.HespecializedinJewishemigrationandmovedtoViennatocontinuehisworkfollowingtheUnion(Anschluss)betweenGermanyandAustria.

Eichmann eventually became head of the Jewish Department in the Reich MainSecurityOffice.HehelpedorganisetheWannseeconferenceforHeydrichandplannedthetransports which took the Jews to the East. He talked over the technical aspects ofexterminationduringavisit toAuschwitz in thesecondhalfof1941.HealsodiscussedthegaschambersinBirkenauduringhissecondvisitayearlater.HeplayedakeypartinorganizingthedeportationofHungarysJewstoAuschwitz.

Eichmann escaped to Argentina after the war but he was tracked down and takenhostagebyMossad,theIsraeliintelligenceservicesin1960.HewassentencedtodeathinJerusalemandexecutedin1962.Themildmanneredclerkwasdescribedasepitomizingthebanalityofevil.Soordinarybutsocriminal.

SS-ObergruppenfhrerOswaldPohl(1892-1951)becameamemberoftheNSDAPin1923 andhe then joined theSABrownShirts.He switched to theSS in1934 andwasmade chief of its administrative office. InFebruary 1942hewas appointed headof thenew SS Main Economic and Administration Office (WVHA), and the ConcentrationCamps Inspectorate was one of his departments. He visited Auschwitz-Birkenau inSeptember 1942 and June 1944 to see how it was progressing. Pohl was sentenced todeathduringtheNurembergtrialsandhunginJune1951.

SS-ObergruppenfhrerOswaldPohl.

SS-GruppenfhrerRichardGlcks(1889-1945)wasaveteranoftheFirstWorldWarandFreikorpsbeforejoiningtheNSDAPin1930andtheSStwoyearslater.HewasanableadministratorandbureaucratandinApril1936hebecamechiefofstaffforTheodorEicke, then Concentration Camps Inspector and head of the SS Deaths Headconcentration camp guard units (SS-Totenkopfverbnde). Glcks was promoted toConcentrationCampsInspectorwhenEickewaspromotedtocommandtheSSTotenkopfDivision.

InMarch 1942 he continued hiswork as head of the newSSMainEconomic andAdministration Departments Office D, responsible for the concentration camp system.From 1942 on he was involved in the implementation of the Final Solution andmadeseveralvisitstoAuschwitz-Birkenau.Glcksisbelievedtohavecommittedsuicideon10May1945butthereisstillspeculationabouthisultimatefate.

SS-GruppenfhrerRichardGlcks.

RunningtheCamps

Therewasarigidsystemofcommandfromthecampcommandant,throughhisstaffandtheguardsdowntotheprisonerswhowerecoercedintomaintainingdiscipline.Thestaffran thecampthroughanumberofdepartmentswhichorganizedadministration,securityandlogistics.

TheCampCommandantsandAdministrators

Thecommandantfulfilledtwofunctions.Hewasthecampcommandantinchargeoftherunningofthecamp,andthegarrisoncommanderinchargeoftheadministrationstaffandtheguards.RudolfHsswasthefirst,andtheonemostconnectedwiththecamp.Hehada longandchequeredcareer,startingwith theparamilitaryFreikorps in theearly1920s.He was imprisoned for his part in a murder in 1923 and was released in 1928. Aftergettingmarriedandsettlingdown toa lifeof farming,hewas invited to join theSSbyHimmlerinJune1934.

SS-ObersturmbannfhrerRudolfHss.

InNovember1934hewasposted toDachauconcentrationcampandwoulduse itsregimeasamodelforAuschwitz.HeservedasCommandantTheodorEickesassistantinthe summer of 1936 before he was promoted and transferred to Sachsenhausenconcentrationcamp.

Hss was again promoted when he took command of the new Auschwitzconcentrationcampinthespringof1940andhesawitgrowintoahugecomplexoverthenext three years. Hss was appointed deputy inspector of concentration camps inNovember 1943 but was back in Auschwitz in May 1944, in time for SonderaktionUngarn,thegassingoftheHungarianJews.

SS-ObersturmbannfhrerArthurLiebehenschelreplacedHss.HehadjoinedtheSSin1931andafterservingatLichtenburgcampwasappointed inspectorofconcentrationcampsin1937.HewasheadoftheconcentrationcampsofficeintheSSMainEconomicand Administration Office before he was transferred to Auschwitz. Liebehenschelreorganized theAuschwitzZoneof Interest into three camps (Auschwitz,Birkenau andMonowitz)eachwithitsowncommandant.AsheadoftheSSgarrisonheeasedthecampregime and stopped selections of regular prisoners, but tens of thousands of Jewsweregassed in nearbyBirkenauwhile hewas in command.Hewas transferred toMajdanekcampwhenHssreturnedtoAuschwitzinMay1944.

SS-ObersturmbannfhrerArthurLiebehenschel.

SS-SturmbannfhrerRichardBaerbecameAuschwitz Is final commandant inMay1944.Hewas appointed SS garrison commander in July and then head ofBirkenau inNovember.AftersupervisingtheevacuationandliquidationofAuschwitzinJanuary1945hebecamethecommandantoftheMittelbau-Doracamp.

Whilethecampcommandantsarewellknown,manyofthemenwhodealtwiththeday-to-dayrunningofthecampshavefadedintoobscurity.

SS-HauptsturmfhrerKarlFritzschwascampdirectorandHsssdeputyduringtheearlymonths and he oftenmet newprisoners off the trainwith awelcome speech.SS-HauptsturmfhrerJosefKramerwasHsssadjutantduringthesameperiodandhehelpedFritzsch to develop the harsh camp regime. Maximilian Grabner was the head of thePolitical Department, responsible for many interrogations, tortures, punishments andexecutions.SS-HauptscharfhrerGerhardPalitzschsupervisedmanyoftheexecutionsinfrontoftheDeathWall.

SS-SturmbannfhrerRichardBaer.

SS-HauptsturmfhrerHansAumeierwas camp director untilAugust 1943 andwasresponsiblefortheexploitation,punishmentandexecutionofprisoners.Hewentontorunother camps but was sentenced during the Auschwitz garrison trial after the war andhanged in 1948. SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Heinrich SchwarzwasAumeiers deputy and helater replacedhim.Hewenton tobecomecommandantofAuschwitz lll, theMonowitzcamp,andeventuallybecamecommandantoftheNatzweilercamp.

SS-SturmbannfhrerFritzHartjensteinwasappointedcommanderofBirkenauguardgarrisoninSeptember1942andwasthenpromotedtocommandBirkenauinNovember1943.HetransferredtoNatzweilerconcentrationcampinFranceinMay1944.

Three men were recalled to Auschwitz in time to supervise the gassing of theHungarian Jews, starting in May 1944. Hss returned as overall commandant whileKramerreturnedasBirkenauscommandant.KramerlaterbecamecommandantofBelsenand earned the nickname the Beast ofBelsen.Theywere helped by another returnee,OttoMoll;heranthecrematoria.

SS-HauptsturmfhrerJosefKramer.

TheCampAdministration

TheCommandantsDepartment, orDepartment I, ran the campadministration.While astaff sergeant supervised thework,anadjutantdealtwithcorrespondenceandpersonnelmattersonthecommandantsbehalf.Someofthemanyelementsofthedepartmentwerethe weapons section, the service section and vehicle pool, the post office, the judicialsectionandthejail.JosefKramerandKarlHockerweretwoofthecampadjutants.

SS-HauptscharfhrerOttoMoll.

The Political Department, or Department II ran the induction office, it created theregister of prisoners and maintained prisoner files; it also had to write up the deathcertificates.Itsstaffinterrogatedprisonersonbehalfofthepolice,investigatedresistanceactivities and scrutinized guards accused of violating regulations. The department alsocarriedoutexecutions,ranthecrematoriaandcontrolledtheexterminationoftheJews.

TheGestapoestablishedasummarycourtinKatowiceinthesummerof1942todealwith enemies of the state. While the department was subordinate to the campcommandantandgarrisoncommander, itsofficersalsoworkedfor theGestapoandtheycouldappealtotheirsuperiorsinKatowice.SS-UntersturmfhrerHansSchurztookoverthedepartmentafterMaximilianGrabnerwasarrestedin1943.

Civilians accused of anything from damaging property to fraud, from theft tohandlingstolengoods,andfromlisteningtoforeignradiotohelpingtheresistance,couldbetried.TobeginwithprisonerswereheldatMyslowiceprison,nearKatowice,untiltheirtrial.Truckswould thendrive themtoAuschwitzwhere theywereexecuted in theyardnext to block 11. Following a typhus outbreak in Myslowice in 1943, prisoners weretransferredtoAuschwitzwheretheywereheldinblock2aandlaterinblock11.

Thecondemnedwerebroughtfromblock11ontherightandshotinfrontoftheDeathWall.Noteblock10swindowswereblockedup.

Thecourtvisitedthecampeveryfewweeksandprisonerswereinitiallyshotinfrontof the Death Wall; after the spring of 1944 they were taken to one of Birkenauscrematoriatobeexecuted.Noonewasacquittedandfewweregivenprisonsentences.Itisestimatedthataround4,000peoplewereexecutedbythedepartment.

TheCampDirectorateDepartment,orDepartmentIII,wasinchargeofmanagingtheprisoners.KarlFritzschandHansAumeierweredepartmentheadsandtheytookchargeofthe camp when the commandant was absent. They monitored prisoner behaviour andsubmitted requests for formal sentencing, sending representatives to anyexecutions andpunishments.Thedepartmentalsorecordedblocktransfersandrollcalls.Additionalcampdirectorsandreportofficerswereappointedasthecampgrew.

The Employment Department, Department IIIa, became independent of the CampDirectorateinSeptember1942withSS-UntersturmfhrerHeinrichSchwarzatitshead;hewasreplacedbySS-ObersturmfhrerMaximilianSellinNovember1943.Thedepartmentaccepted work assignments and allocated prisoners and guards to work parties. It alsocompiledinvoicesforworkcompletedbyoutsidecompanies.

TheAdministrativeDepartment,DepartmentIV,wasrunbySS-ObersturmbannfhrerKarlMckel andSS-SturmbannfhrerWilliBurger. It organizedmany things, includingtheprisoners foodandkitchens, clothingand laundry, thebathhouses and theprintingpress. It ran the SS farms in the early days. The department was also responsible forprisonerproperty,includingthetensofthousandsofsuitcasestakenofftheJewswhoweregassed.Thedepartment eventuallyhad threeoffices andnine sections to administer thecollectionofitems.

TheHealthServiceDepartment,DepartmentV,wasresponsibleforthehealthoftheguardsandtheprisoners.Thegarrisondoctorwashelpedbytheguarddoctors,thecampdoctors,dentists,chemists,orderliesandmedicalpersonnel.Whilethereweresixgarrisondoctors, only the final one, Doctor Eduard Wirths made any attempt to improve thesanitary conditions. But he did so while thousands of Jews were being murdered inBirkenausgaschambers.

Birkenausadministrationbuilding.

TheSSdoctorsdidlittlemorethanoverseethehospitalandcheckthepaperwork,alotofitfalsified.Insteadofworkingtoimprovethehealthofpatients,theyconcentratedoncarryingoutmedicalandsurgicalexperimentsontheprisoners.Prisonerdoctorswereallowedtoworkwhentheworkload increasedbut therewerefewmedicinesorsuppliesavailable.TheSSdoctorsbecame involved in the selectionprocessearly in1942.Theygreetedthetrainsandselectedwhowouldliveandwhowoulddiewithnothingmorethanacursoryglanceandaflickoftheirthumb.

The Welfare and Training Department, Department VI, was headed by SS-Oberscharfhrer Kurt Knittel after the spring of 1942 and he was responsible forsupportingthecampguardsandtheirfamilies.Thedepartmentputonconcerts,playsandfilms,andorganizedactivities includingteamsports.Italsoarrangedtrainingcourses toimproveefficiencyandsocialeveningstoimproveteamwork.

SS-UntersturmfhrerAugustSchlachterheadedtheConcentrationCampConstructionBoard when it was renamed the New Construction Board. At the end of 1941 SS-SturmbannfhrerKarlBischoff tookoverwhatwas thencalled theCentralConstructionBoard of the Waffen SS and Auschwitz Police. He was responsible for most of thedevelopments in the Birkenau camp. SS-Obersturmfhrer Werner Jothan took over inNovember1943andhesupervisedthefinalstagesofconstruction.

Thedepartmenthadmorethanadozensub-departmentsdealingwithdesign,finance,inspection,transport,surveying,purchasingandstorage.ThedesignofficewasheadedbySS-ObersturmfhrerWalterDejacoandthedraughtsmenturnedhisoutlinesketches intodetailedplans,sometimeswiththehelpofoutsidecontractors.

BischoffandDejacodesignedandsupervisedtheconstructionofthecrematoriaandgas chambers, with Kurt Prfer, an engineer from the Topf und Shne Company. Thedepartment planned a huge commandants headquarters and a residential area for theguardsbuttheywereneverbuilt.

Chapter6

RunningtheCamps

Amixofmaleandfemaleguardswerehelpedbydogsastheyworkedtokeepthecampsfunctioning.Butmostofthedisciplinewasmaintainedbyprivilegedprisonerswhodealtoutpunishmentsinexchangeforfavours.

TheCampGuards

Acommandantwas in chargeof eachcampandhehad subordinates runningeach sub-camp. Their squad leaders organized several work parties or barrackswhilework dutyleadersorganizedtheguards.Blockleaderssupervisedthebarrackblocks.Eachworkdutyleaderandblockleaderhadareportleadertodotheirpaperwork.

Guardswere instructed in theBerlinSSeconomicofficesandwhile theywere toldnot to talkabout their topsecretwork, theywerenot toldwhat itwasbefore theyweresenttoAuschwitz.Theywerealsoremindedabouttheiroath,Myloyaltyismyhonour.

ThenumberofguardsincreasedasAuschwitz,Birkenauandthesub-campsgrewinsize.Therewere700guardsinMarch1941,2,000inJune1942and3,000by1944.Theywereorganizedintocampbattalionswithtensentrycompanies,twostaffcompaniesandthedogcompany.Thegarrisonwasincreasedto4,480inJanuary1945,tohelpsupervisetheevacuationofthecamps.

Three out of four guards looked after the prisoners and they were armed with amixture of old German bolt-actionMauser 98k rifles, sub-machine guns and capturedweapons,includingSoviet,ItalianandYugoslavianmodels.Duringthemorningrollcallanoutercordonwasestablishedaroundtheareawheretheworkpartieswereduetogo.Ittook around100guards to coverAuschwitz I and around270 to coverBirkenau.Extraguardsjoinedworkpartiesheadingoutsidethecordonwhiletherestofthecampbattalionprovided security for the sub-camps. Once the work parties had returned to camp, theoutercordonreturnedtotheirbarrackswhilethenightshiftmovedintotheguardtowers.ItonlyneededfifteenguardstocoverAuschwitzIandanothertwenty-eighttowatchoverBirkenau.

Aguardtowerlooksdownonahaltsignwhichwarnsagainstapproachingtheelectricfence.

Early in 1944 larger, prefabricated towers complete with enclosed platforms andwindows were erected to make the guards more comfortable. The corner towers were4.5m4.5mand11.6mhighwhiletheintermediatetowersmeasured3m3mandwere7mhigh.Internaltowersbuilttotheolddesignwereerectedoverlookingthenewrailwayramp inside Birkenau. Additional ones were built to cover the camp extension andbuildingstoresadjacenttoAuschwitzI.Anumberofconcreteair-raidshelterswerebuiltalong the fenceso theguardscouldcovergaps in the fence if itwasdamagedduringabombingraid.

A five-metrewide Neutral Zone delineated by small concrete posts connected bywire was just inside the perimeter fence. The area was covered by gravel, to make itdifficulttocrossquietlyatnight.WarningsignsmarkedwithaskullandcrossbonesandthewordsHalt!andCaution!HighVoltage!DangerofDeath!warnedprisonersnottoenter.Thespacesbetween thedouble rowsof fencingdelineatingBirkenaussub-campswerealsono-goareas.

AsmallworkpartykepttheNeutralZonecleanbutanyonewasliabletobeshotdeadiftheyenteredthearea.Thesentryresponsiblewascitedinthecampordersofthedayandrewardedwith leave.Afewprisonerswhohadlost thewill to liveranacross thegraveland threw themselves on the electric fence, amethod of committing suicide known asgoing to the wire. Only two prisoners, Roman Cieliczko and Jerzy Tabeau, escapedthroughthewire.

From time to timeprisonerswere confined to barrackswhen selectionswerebeingmade or the sickwere being taken to the gas chambers.Movementwas also restrictedduringepidemics,suchasthetyphusoutbreakinthesummerof1942.

Occasionally therewere full scale lock downs so the guards could be re-deployed,suchaswhen theTheresienstadtcampand thegypsycampwere liquidated.TherewerealsoemergencylockdownsduringtheSonderkommandomutinyandtheAlliedbombingoftheBuna-Werkechemicalplant.

FemaleGuards

WomencouldnotjointheSSbuttheycouldjoinitsauxiliaryorganizationandbecomeanSS-Aufseherin,oroverseer.Manychose toserve inaconcentrationcampand theyweretrainedatRavensbrckwomenscamp.Theyworea jacketandskirt,acape,abrimlesscap and high boots. They were armed with a pistol and used a cane or riding crop toadministerbeatings.

IrmaGrese.

The first group of overseers arrived in March 1942, when female prisoners weretransferred to Auschwitz l, and while some lived in houses in Zasole village, the reststayedinbarracks.JohannaLagenfeldwastheirfirstsupervisorandshewasreplacedbyMariaMandl inOctober 1942. Therewas a recruitment drive for female auxiliaries in1942 because of a shortage of male guards and around 180 female supervisors wouldeventuallyworkinAuschwitzandBirkenau.

Irma Grese was one infamous female overseer who arrived in Birkenau inMarch1943.Aftersupervisingseveralworkpartiesshewaspromotedtoblockleaderandthentoreportsupervisor.HergoodlooksbeliedherbrutalbehaviourandshewasnicknamedtheBeautifulBeast.ShewasevacuatedtoRavensbrckcampandthenBergen-Belsen;shewashangedinDecember1945.

TheDogCompany

Himmlerrecommendedusingdogstopatrolconcentrationcampswhenitbecamedifficulttorecruitguards.Around150guardsjoinedthecaninecompanyinthesummerof1942and the kennels were located next to Birkenaus barracks.Wachtmeister Josef Bailertaught dog handling until he was replaced by SS-Obersturmfhrer HansMerbach. Theguardshadnoqualmsaboutsettingtheirdogsontheprisoners.

TheUkrainianGuardCompany

SS-UntersturmfhrerTheodorLangeorganized150Ukrainians intoaguardcompany inthespringof1943.EachmanwaspairedwithaGermanguard.Somepatrolledtheoutercordon,othersescortedworkpartiestotheirsites.Butsomebecameworriedabouttheirfateandfifteendesertedonthenightof3July.Theyweretrackeddownandwhileeightwerekilled andonewasbadly injured, threeSSguardsdied in thegunbattle.The restweresenttoconcentrationcampsacrossGermany.

TheGuardsRelax

The officers lived with their families in houses in Auschwitz and they had prisoners,usually German Jehovahs Witnesses, working as domestic servants. The officersfrequentedalargebaroppositetherailwaystationandthereweremanydrunkenevenings.VisitingdignitarieswereoftenentertainedatthebarandwhileHimmlerhadaflatnearby,he rarely visited the camp. The rank and file living in barracks had access to messfacilities,a recreationcentreandashootingrange.Theyoftenenjoyedgoodfood,drinkandcigarsduringeveningfeastsandtherewasahospitaliftheyfellsick.

Solahtteretreat.

Starting in 1940 Franz Hssler supervised the building of a large rustic recreationcentre at Solahtte, twelve miles south of Auschwitz. It was built overlooking theMiedzybrodzkie reservoir, upstream along the Sola River and was completed in 1942.Busestookthestaffandtheirfamiliestotheresortsotheycouldenjoyhunting,hikingandexcursions.Guardsattendedtrainingcourses,while theirwivesservedafternoonteaandheld evening dinner parties. Male prisoners cleaned and did maintenance tasks, whilefemaleprisonersworkedinthekitchen.

PrivilegedPrisoners

The SS used hardened criminals to keep order and discipline in the camps. Theyweregivenextraprivileges,includingtheirownroomwithabedandwardrobe,extrafoodandwarmclothes,butonlyiftheydidtheirjobwell.Theyweresackediftheyfailedandtherestoftheprisonerswouldthenseektheirrevenge.

A stuben was responsible for keeping a barrack room clean and the occupantsdisciplined,with thehelpof their favourites.Theycontrolled theprisonersfromthe lastrollcalluntilthefirstrollcallandreportedtotheblockleader,whointurnreportedtoacampelder.Theyalsodistributedthefoodandoftenkeptextrarationsforthemselvesandtheirfavourites.Somestubenandblockleadershadteenageboyscalledpipelswaitingon themand theyweresometimesencouraged togivesexualservices in returnfor theirprotection.

Akapocontrolledaworkparty,orkommando,andtheylivedtogether,awayfromtherestoftheprisoners.Akapogatheredhiskommandoafterthemorningrollcall,tookthemtotheirworksiteandmadetheprisonersworkwhileaguardlookedon.Attheendoftheshifttheyreturnedtheprisonerstotheparadegroundandhandedthemover,thelivingandthedead.Theguardsalsoemployedtrusties,usuallyGermanprisoners,whoweregivenadegreeoffreedomtocarryoutsettasks.

Kommandos could be as small as a handful of prisoners or as large as severalhundred.Thelargerkommandoswererunbyanoverkapo(berKapo)whosupervisedanumberofkapos,eachcontrollingaround100prisoners.Theyinturnhadunderkapos(unterKapo)lookingaftersmallgroupsofaroundtenprisoners.

The first kapos and stubenwereGerman criminals and theywore civilian clothes,bootsandarmbands;somewereallowedtogrowtheirhairlongtodistinguishthemfromthe rest of the prisoners.They carried a club or a stick as a sign of their authority andwouldmaketheprisonersworkatthedoubleandpunishanywhofailedtokeepup.

ThefirstkaposandstubenwereGermancriminalsandtheyshowedcontemptforthePolishandSovietprisonersundertheircharge.TheyoftenbeattheprisonerswhiletheSS

guards lookedon and evenmurdered some for attempting to undermine their authority.The Polish and Jewish block elders who took over later were usually easier on theprisoners.

The camp administrationwas keen on paperwork and each kapo and stuben had ascribe,who spokeandwroteGerman,working for them.Theykeptdaily recordsabouteach block and kommando, documenting all aspects of every prisoners life and death.The stuben scribes also distributed the mail while the kapo scribes ordered tools andmaterials.

A few scribes were employed by the camp administration to type up and copydocuments.Whilesomewereabletosmuggleoutstolenorcopieddocuments,otherswerekilledaftertheyhadcopiedsensitivematerial.

BrunoBrodniewitschwasAuschwitzsprisonernumber1.Hewasatrustedmanuntilprisonersleftanotetellingtheguardswherehewashidingstolenvaluables.Afterbeingheldinacell insideblock11,hewasappointedcampelder in thegypsycampandthenservedhistimeinseveralsub-camps.ErnstKrankemannwasanearlykapoofthepenalcompany.Hewasahugemanwholedtheteamwhichpushedtheroadrolleraroundthecamp.HetoowascaughtstealingvaluablesandwasexecutedormurderedinJuly1941.

The prisoners nicknamed the kapos and block elders according to their attitude.FranciszekKarasiewiczandMieczyslawKatarzynskiwerebothknownasBloody;AlojzyStahlerwasknownastheStrangler;LeoWietschorekwasnicknamedtheTerrible;AdekRosenbergwascalledNasty.

Bureaucracy

Everyprisonerhadanumber(nameswereforgottenonarrival)andhismovementsfromarrivaluntildeparture,oftenthroughdeath,wererecorded.Eachprisonerhadafilewhichrecorded their arrival, their transfer dates, their release date and, in many cases, theirdeath.Convictionrecordsandimprisonmentorderswereaddedtoaprisonersfiles.

Thescribesofficemaintainedrecordsfor thewholecamp,notingarrivals, transfersand deaths on thousands of card files, logged in both alphabetical and numerical order.Eachblock leader andkommandokapohad a scribe to record theprisonersunder theircontrol.

The camps Employment Department compiled a list of work assignments andallocatedprisonerstothem.ThecampsHealthServicekeptarecordofprisonersstayingin the hospitals; it also noted the names of out-patients. In the early days the deceasedwerelistedinthemortuaryregister,thecrematoriumregisterandthebookofthedead.A

deathreportandadeathcertificatewerealsoissuedandthenextofkinwerenotified.

Whilerecordsweresupposedtobemeticulouslymaintained,thereweremanyerrors.A cause of death was sometimes falsified to cover up an execution or a death from abeating or torture. Some names did not appear in the registers. The