August 1999 - No.22

EDITORIAL

When the World Aquaculture Society requestedme to prepare a keynote speech for its annual

meeting in Sydney, Australia, this year, I was bothpleased and apprehensive. The selected topic for thespeech � whether aquaculture could bridge the gapbetween projected demand and supply of fisheryproducts in the future, was a thorny one. During mymany years at FAO, I had witnessed several attemptsto deal with this topic and the results had always leftme much less than satisfied. The challenge was howto improve on past attempts. With aquacultureproducts assuming more importance in internationaltrade and food security at the national level, theanalysis of development trends and projections offuture growth of the sector are becoming moreimportant, particularly to FAO, which monitors andreports on the sector.

Initially, most approaches were based on the analysisof rather poor aquaculture production statistics and/or estimates of production. The information baseimproved as FAO began (1984) to collect statisticson aquaculture production and prices on a regularbasis, and studies of trends began to include analysisof the evolution of aquaculture production over time(evolution curves). The analysis of annual growthrates (APRs) was added later to help extend presentproduction trends and to generate possible futurescenarios. This approach was incorporated in the morerecent FAO Fisheries Circulars on the status ofaquaculture.

Despite these improvements, aquaculture trendscontinued to be reviewed in isolation; i.e. withouttaking into account externalities which influence thesector.

If we are to produce more refined and usefulprojections on the capacity of the sector to grow andsell its product, it is preferable to first derive a globalpicture from an aggregate of regional or, better still,national, assessments. Second, the regional ornational data must be examined in the context of amulti-parameter analysis. Third, informationpermitting, the analysis must be carried out in abroader context, incorporating external factors thatcan impact the sector.

Examples of key parameters for the analysis, otherthan aquaculture production and price statistics,include: (a) demographic projections by region orcountry (this information is readily available); (b)possibilities for reducing by catch and post-harvestlosses; (c) the potential for capture fisheries toincrease its contribution to fish supplies (thisinformation can be derived from assessments madeby FAO over a number of years; probably the bestcompendium available on the subject); (d) thepotential for increasing the use of natural resources;e.g. land and water, for aquaculture (this is difficultto deal with due to the limited availability ofinformation collected in a systematic manner); (e)possibilities for intensification of production (this is avery current topic, with sustainability connotations,and is still under investigation. There is need for bothan assessment of the existing ranges of productionintensities for the main species-culture systems anda definition of the criteria of sustainability which inthe medium term should become a guiding elementfor those involved in development); (f) the potentialimpact of technological innovations (g) influence ofexternal factors such as general evolution of nationaleconomies, changes in purchasing power ofconsumers, changes in national consumption habits,national development policies, evolution of fisheriestrade, etc. (Economic projections present a problem.Even institutions like the World Bank acknowledgethe lack of proper models for accurately projectingeconomic development at the regional level. Theexamination of past trends is not sufficient to forecastthe future due to the increasing globalization ofeconomies and domino effects linked to crises.)

The image of the future prospects of aquaculturewhich is generated by the addition of these elementsshould be more accurate and realistic than what canbe derived from the mere analysis of statistics ofproduction. However, the lack of models, in particularfor economic issues such as evolution of nationaleconomies or purchasing power of consumers inindividual countries, limits the validity of medium andlong term projections considerably. Once more, weare faced with a need to blend science and commonsense.

Mario PediniSenior Development Advisor (Aquaculture)

Fishery Resources Division

Aquaculture Trends and Crystal Balls

CONTENTS

Small-scale rural aquaculture in Lao PDR (part I)Provincial Aquaculture Development Project (LAO/97/007)Simon Funge-Smith 3

Observations on the integration of aquaculture andsmall-scale irrigationHenk van der Mheen 10

Changing scenarios in aquaculturedevelopment in ChinaKrishen Rana 16

Aquaculture in Africa: perspectives from theRegional Office for AfricaJohn Moehl 21

GFCM Mediterranean Aquaculture NetworksS. Hadj-Ali and M. Pedini 23

Projects and other activities 26

New FAO publications 32

No. 22

BACKGROUND

The Provincial Aquaculture DevelopmentProject (LAO/97/007) is funded as part of aUNDP country programme for ruraldevelopment. The project is governmentexecuted through the Department of Livestockand Fisheries, with technical and managementassistance provided by FAO. The projectduration is three years (November 1997 �December 2000).

LAO/97/007 follows on from previous UNDP/FAO aquaculture development projects that hadstarted aquaculture activities and establishedfeasibility. During these previous projects it wasemphasised that the capacity of thegovernment Livestock and Fisheries service toextend aquaculture on a wider scale wasextremely weak. This has been due to a varietyof reasons:

� poor accessibility of rural areas, lack ofroads and government vehicles;

� difficulty in co-ordinating and managingnational scale initiatives due to provincialautonomy;

� previous restrictions on inter-provincetravel;

Small-scalerural aquaculture

in LAO PDR(Part I)

Provincial AquacultureDevelopment Project

(LAO/97/007)

A R T I C L E S

Dr. Simon Funge-Smith FAO Aquaculture Development Advisor

(LAO/97/007)

3

No. 22

� lack of government funding for rural livestockand fisheries extension;

� insufficient staff at Provincial and districtlevel;

� lack of capacity and poor incentivisation/management of district livestock officers;and

� shortage of fish fingerlings and lack ofdistribution network during peak seasonaldemand.

LAO/97/007 is working in five provinces:Oudomxay, Sayaboury, Xieng Khouang,Savannakhet and Sekong Provinces. Withinthese provinces, there are 14 districts involvedwith a total of 37 farmer groups (440 families).The target provinces are distributed along thelength of the country and incorporate bothlowland and upland environments. The projectobjectives are to:

� improve fish fry production from governmenthatcheries through structural improvementsand training;

� encourage fish fry production by farmers/entrepreneurs through extension of simpletechniques and farmer training;

� develop the capacity of Department ofLivestock and Fisheries staff to plan andconduct extension of fish culture techniquesto farmers;

� form farmers groups and introduce them tofish culture as part of Department ofLivestock and Fisheries extension process;and

� assist farmers and hatchery entrepreneursin their activities through provision of fishfry, broodstock and access to credit facilities.

INTRODUCTION

Lao PDR has extensive water resources in theform of rivers, lakes and wetlands. Capturefisheries and the collection of aquatic animalsduring the rainy season are important activitiesin the country and provide an important part ofthe national diet. Rice cultivation (rainfed,irrigated and hill rice) is the predominantagricultural activity.

The country is a largely mountainous (80percent), requiring the terracing of rice fields.The climate is characterised by a 6 months dry

season (November � April) and an equal periodof rain (May � October).

A survey by LAO/97/007 of production andconsumption in rural households showed thatmost households surveyed were on theborderline of the World Bank defined povertythreshold (1995) of 11 472 Kip ($1 = 700 Kip in1995). Based on the survey of 5 provinces,provincial household net income year (netincome = Income � cost of goods purchased)was Kip 2,090 - 6,547 Kip per capita per month(1$ = 2 400 Kip). Adjusting theses incomefigures to include the value of home-producedand consumed goods [i.e. net income = [Incomefrom sale of goods + value of home producedgoods consumed] � [household expenditure]]yields an average theoretical net income of12 355 � 15 864 Kip per capita per month for1997-98. However, since the Lao currency in1995 was stronger than in 1997-1998, theadjusted income values were still below theWorld Bank threshold.

Lao rural families tend to be large with anaverage of 8 + 3 persons per household (rangeof provincial averages = 6.7 � 8.3). About 50percent of the members of the householdssurveyed were younger than 15 years and only10 percent were older than 51. Life expectancyis low, with an average of 51 years. About 30percent of the adult population is illiterate andper capita GDP is estimated at $350 (UNDP1996).

AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES

Consumption of aquatic products

Aquatic products form a major part of the Laodiet. During the rainy season, these productsare collected from all forms of water bodies andwetlands (rice paddies). During the dry season,there is a major effort to collect the remaininganimals trapped in shallow ponds, etc., createdby receding waters. Surplus aquatic productsproduced during the rainy season are preservedin a variety of ways according to culturalpreference and prevailing local conditions(commonly: fermenting, pickling, drying andsmoking). The preserved products (principallyfish) are then utilised throughout the dry seasonwhen food is relatively scarce.

Annual per capita fish consumption is reportedto be 7 � 10 kg. This is lower than neighbouringcountries and may reflect the extreme dryseason and rapid runoff of water (due to the

4

No. 22

mountainous topography of the country). Thesevalues are probably under-estimated sincesurveys often fail to record the consumption ofsome widely consumed aquatic products. Arecent survey of consumption by farmers intarget areas of LAO/97/007 returned fresh fishconsumption figures equal to or higher thanprevious estimates. If the contribution of driedand preserved fish and other aquatic productsis included, total consumption would be 22kg.capita-1.yr-1 (Table 1).

Fresh fish ranked second by value after rice (inhousehold consumption) in 3 out of 5 provincesand was within the top four in all five provinces

(clothing and bedding was second in the othercases). About 81 � 97 percent of householdsreported that fresh fish was consumed in somequantity during the year.

The target districts surveyed in each provincedid not return fishing as a significant activity;the principle activity of the households was ricefarming. Of the surveyed group, 315 familiesout of 373 had fishponds, although this sampleis biased since respondents to the survey weregenerally those people already interested in fishculture.

The relative proportion of aquatic products andother protein sources in the diet of surveyedfamilies is presented in Table 2. Fishconsumption reported here principally reflectsproduction from aquaculture and collection fromsmall streams and rice fields.

Fish culture in ponds and rice-fields is practisedin many areas and a variety of systems are used,according to the agro-climatic characteristics ofthe area. Government estimates of the landcurrently under aquaculture production arepresented in Table 3. There are still considerableareas of land that could be developed foraquaculture either as fish ponds or as rice-fishculture. The production figures for pond culturein Table 3 are inflated, since most small pondsdo not yield 2 500 kg per hectare due to lowinput levels and the short grow-out season. Thegovernment estimates approximately 2 400farmers were producing fish in 1996, althoughit is likely that this figure is much higher now.

)%(tcudorplaminafothgiewybnoitpmusnocegatnecreP

,kcud,nekcihCsgge,yekrutsdribrehto

deird,hsifhserFdevreserp,hsif,hsifdennit,hsif

,snaibihpmaslaminacitauqa

,feeb,kroP,olaffubdeird,taog

taem

tserof,selitpeRstcesni,emag

yaxmoduOyruobayaS

gneiXgnauohK

tehkannavaSgnokeS

819162

2112

524304

7355

832222

0261

21314

223

secnivorPllA %42 %73 %32 %51

1Source: LAO/97/007 (1998)

egarevA foegnaRlaicnivorp

segareva

hsifhserFhsifdeirD

hsifdetnemreF&laminacitauqA

snaibihpma

9237

7.21-3.65.3-8.16.5-2.17-7-4.4

citauqallAstcudorp

22 8.74-5.31

Table 1. Annual consumption(kg.capita1.yr1) of aquatic productsin LAO/97/007 target provinces

Table 2. Annual consumption per capital of animal products inLAO/97/007 target provinces

5

Source: LAO/97/007 (1998)

No. 22

Markets

Fish culture is becoming increasingly popular.Fish plays an important part in cultural activitiesof lowland Lao people and is the food of choicefor celebrations and festivals. Since fish spoilsquickly, and due to poor transport facilities andlack of ice, distribution of fish from the MekongRiver system to more remote areas is restricted.As a result, during the seasonal migrations offish up the Mekong, fish prices collapse in someareas (specifically southern Champassak), whilerelatively short distances away, markets for fishare still under-supplied.

During the dry season, fish are difficult to obtainand preserved fish are more commonlyconsumed. Peak price for fish is during the LaoNew Year festival (mid-April), which coincideswith some of the driest weather. Aquacultureprovides fish during that season, allowingfarmers to benefit from a good price for what isoften a relatively low quality product.

Survey data suggests that most fish producedform rural aquaculture is consumed in the homeor at least is not directly marketed. It is typicalfor a family to purchase fish from a neighbourin order to provide fish for celebrations.

Rural Lao fish culture requires a relatively lowentry cost (self-construction of pond, fingerlings

for stocking and occasional feeding orfertilization). Species such as common carp andtilapia are popular partly because they breed inponds with perennial water and farmers do notneed to purchase fingerlings. Productivity ofthese ponds is extremely low, but the lowfinancial risk makes this approach popular.

Importation of marine fish (from Thailand andVietnam) is common although quantities arerelatively small. Cultured fish from Thailand alsocan be found in most markets along the MekongRiver. Wild caught fish from the Mekong may belanded in Lao but due to the higher price inThailand are more likely to be sold on the Thaiside.

Land and ponds

Land availability for fishpond construction is anissue in upland areas since flat land is primarilyused for rice cultivation. The construction costof fish ponds is prohibitive to most farmers whoview aquaculture as a low investment, low riskenterprise. As such, farmers may construct ashallow pond, but are unlikely to investsignificant capital in the operation, preferringthe lower yield and financial security of a lowinput system. Tenancy of land is relatively raresince migration and re-population of areasduring and after the war have lead to evenly

Source: Fisheries Division (1997)

*(Note: Not all rice production area produces fish, especially in case of hill rice.)

Table 3. Government estimates of total fish(aquaculture and fisheries) production (1996)

aerA)ah(

noitcudorP)tm(

ytivitcudorP)ah/gk(

sreviRsdnoPhsiF

sdnoplarutan,sekaLsdnalteW

segaChsif-eciR

ecirdefniaRecirdetagirrI

)noitagirrI(sriovreseRsriovreseR

)cirtcele-ordyH(

0004526103910792072-3654000314743310844369184

68961045773731185718454546459860601

76005223503-021)51(*)4(*2202

latoT - 45083 -

6

No. 22

sized land packages. Previously, large familyland holdings were divided amongst childrenahead of time due to the concern thatgovernment requisition might ensue.

Good agricultural land and land suitable for wetrice cultivation is at a premium. Rice-fish cultureis currently restricted to one or two provinceswith a cultural heritage of rice-fish culture and/or where rice-fish cultivation has beenintroduced through development projects.

In LAO/97/007 target provinces, the majorityof Lao fish ponds are shallow (water depth lessthan 50 cm) and are hand constructed. Averagefishpond area per household is 2 300 m2. Deeperponds can be constructed in upland areas bydamming valley streams, but this requires earth-moving equipment. Also, such ponds oftencollapse under spate water runoff during themonsoon season, since they usually lackdiversion canals.

In situations where farmers are land-secure andpossibly producing a rice surplus, inputs to theaquaculture system may become moresignificant. Feeding andfertilisation may bepractised more regularly,and investment in pondconstruction becomesmore likely. Wheremachinery is available,this may also be used forpond construction.Typically machineconstructed ponds arefound along roadsideswhere soil has beenremoved for roadconstruction, ormachinery operators havebeen paid to constructponds in their spare time.

Water supply to ponds isvaried but the typical Laopond is rainfed. Waterretention in the ponds is

variable but most farmers would expect to stockthe pond in June as it fills with rainwater and harvestin November � February, depending upon waterdepth and condition of the pond. Fishponds whichare able to hold water through the dry season untilLao New Year are able to command premium prices.

Fish Fry demand and production

Estimates of the fish fry requirement of the LaoPDR, based on land, reservoirs and rice-fieldsthat are suitable for fish production are shownin Table 4. These figures are consideredindicative or upper limits since not all listed sites/areas are suited to aquaculture and the presentfry stocking rates are very low. Despite this, itis apparent that fry production in the country isfar below demand (only 30 percent of demandis supplied by in-country production). Morerecent estimates by LAO/97/007 show anincrease in production from the provincialhatcheries but this is still well below estimateddemand. The shortfall provides an incentive forthe importation of fish fry from adjacent

noitcudorpyrF dnameD

yrehctahetatS etavirPesirpretne

ilasgnohP - - 000004

ahtmaNgnauL - 00003 000008

oekroB - - 000005

yaxmoduO - - 000007

gnabaPgnauL 000365 00004 0000053

gnauohkgneiX 000054 0000052 00000011

yruobayaS 000052 - 0000051

ecnivorPenaitneiV 0000002 000005 00006501

.Z.SnoobmosiaS - - -

erutceferPenaitneiV 0000053 0000663 00000011

yaxmahkiloB - - 000054

nauommahK 000051 00052 000075

tehkannavaS 000027 000554 0000075

navalaS 00007 00001 000065

kassapmahC 000005 00066 0000083

gnokeS - - 000003

latoT 0009538 0003137 00006125

Table 4. Estimated fish fry production and demand inLao PDR (1996)

Source: LAO/97/007 (1997)

7

No. 22

countries (Thailand, Vietnam and China) wherefry can also be produced at a lower cost.

Due to the short fish growing season, in thetypically seasonal ponds of the country, and thebetter survival of fingerlings (compared to fry),a large number of advanced fingerlings (3-5cm) has to be supplied in a relatively shortperiod of time (peak demand is during the earlypart of the monsoon season (June)). Sinceproduction of advanced fingerlings at provincialhatcheries is constrained by lack of adequatenursing area, and as farmers only purchase fryin small numbers, small farmer-basedhatcheries would be more suited to meetdemand in their localities. These hatcheries canbe assured of sale of all their production sinceorders are taken in advance.

Fry nursing (in net cages) by farmers has beenpromoted by the AIT (Asia Institute ofTechnology) Outreach Project in southern LaoPDR (Savannakhet province) for nearly 5 years.Expertise in fry production techniques is notrequired at the farmer level since fry arepurchased from the provincial hatchery. Thesmall farmers merely take fry and nurse for upto one month and then sell (Figure 2). Theeconomics of the operation are favourable,although the capital cost of the net cage can bea problem. Typically, the farmers rent the netcages at a subsidised rate for the nursing period.Farmers in Oudomxay have nursed fry tofingerling size, for their own use, as part of LAO/97/007 activities. This has helped reduce fryimportation and provided a market for the smalltwo week-old fry produced by provincialhatcheries in high numbers; previously, thesewere unmarketable due to high mortality afterstocking. The demand for small fry is currently

localised, but interest is expected to increaseas nursing activities are extended to five newprovinces in 1999.

Aquaculture inputs

Inputs to ponds are generally low due to lack ofavailability or the tendency to feed otherlivestock in preference to fish. Pond fertilizationis practised, but again the availability of fertilizervaries and there may be some competitionbetween use in rice cultivation/paddypreparation and fishpond preparation. Farmerswho have no experience of rice-fish culture areoften concerned that the construction ofchannels in their paddies might critically affecttheir rice yield. Results from some preliminaryfarmer trials in one province have shown thatrice-fish culture actually increases the overallrice yield, even though ten percent of the paddyarea is reduced by channel construction. It isnot clear whether the improved rice yield wasderived from fish activities in the rice paddy(stirring up nutrients, predation of rice pests)or whether occasional feeding/fertilization (topromote fish growth) was greater than normallypractised in the absence of fish. The latter, iftrue, would highlight the minimal input natureof Lao agricultural systems, whereby very smallchanges in inputs can have quite dramaticresults on production.

Typically livestock are not penned and thereforesingle point sources of manures are rare. Thisincreases the effort required for manurecollection and decreases the likelihood thatsufficient fertilizers will be applied to fishponds.Integration of livestock over fishponds can bevery productive where livestock are provided withcomplete feed, but this is rare in rural Laos.

8

Figure 2. Net cages (hapas)for ry nursing in Lao PDR

No. 22

Livestock integration with aquaculture isbecoming established in peri-urban areas as moreintensive livestock rearing methods are adopted.

Rice milling in Lao PDR is performed at villagelevel due to the availability of portablemachinery. The cost of milling can be paid incurrency or exchanged for the rice branproduced. Farmers unable to pay for milling willtrade their rice bran. The lack of bran preventsthese farmers from practising small animalhusbandry (chickens, pigs) or providing inputsto fishponds. Rice mill owners are frequentlythe most diversified livestock producers,engaging in all species due to the readyavailability of bran for animal feed.

In upland areas, the use of boiled cassava as afish feed is common; cassava is also widely eaten

Harvesting fish from rice-fish culture

as a staple. Mixtures of rice bran and cassavagive good fish yields especially if farmers alsoapply some fertilizers to ponds. Fertilization offishponds is a relatively common practice,although quantities are often inadequate for goodpond productivity. Lime is often unavailable awayfrom provincial capitals and, when available, isapproximately three times the price in adjoiningcountries. Lime application is thereforeuncommon in both aquaculture and agriculture.

Formulated fish feed (herbivorous fish andcatfish pellet) imported from Thailand isavailable in large cities and some provincialcapitals and is expensive. There is a possibilitythat commercial fish feed production maycommence in Vientiane Prefecture if the marketis found to be viable. Paradoxically, the highprice of fish in markets makes use of formulatedfish feeds economically viable. The tendency notto use feeds is probably due to perceive highereconomic risks.

Table 5. Production and productivity of farmers ponds

tehkannavaS yruobayaS gnokeS yaxmoduO gnauohKgneiX

forebmuNstnednopser

82 22 12 41 75

ezisdnop.evAm( 2)

0181 + 0051 039 + 029 0212 + 3047

0891 + 0761 0422 + 0042

dnopnaideMm(ezis 2)

0531 055 057 0251 0051

naideMnoitcudorp)esuoh/gk(

06 02 05 54 05

egarevAnoitcudorp)esuoh/gk(

231 + 722 67 + 241 48 + 101 78 + 78 701 + 171

naideMytivitcudorp

)ah/gk(

035 807 005 714 005

egarevAnoitcudorp

)ah/gk(

239 + 459 219 + 649 908 + 039 887 + 388 318 + 638

References

Fisheries Division. 1997. Fisheries Data.Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministryof Agriculture and Forestry, Vientiane, Lao DPR.

LAO/97/007.1998. Consumption and productionsurvey database. Provincial AquacultureDevelopment Project, DLF, Vientiane, Lao DPR.

UNDP. 1996. Country Strategy Note. UNDP,Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Source: LAO/97/007 (1998)

9

No. 22

FLEXIBILITY AND RISKAT THE FARMER LEVEL

Irrigation systems differ in water source (river,well, spring, borehole), capture method (open

intake, gate valve, pump), delivery (open canal,pipes, buckets, pumps), distribution system(flood, furrow, sprinkler, drip), and the allocationscheduling of the water. These differencesinfluence the flexibility of the systems and thefreedom of the individual farmer to makemanagement decisions.

Management complexity increases and flexibilitydecreases with the size of the scheme, as morestringent management is applied. Large-scalesystems face greater management complexityin delivering water to meet crop requirementsover a large area. This is compounded if farmerschoose diverse cropping patterns with staggeredplanting dates. To avoid this, relatively uniformcropping patterns are often imposed in largerschemes. Crops are grown in blocks andselection of these crops and planting time areorganized for all the farmers with plots withinthat block in such a way that optimal use canbe made of the available water. The specificblocks are only supplied with water when thosecrops require irrigation. This detailedorganization of the water supply is especiallyessential for large schemes with a complex canalsystem, and where the water supply is beingcontrolled either by pumping or release from areservoir. The imposition of uniform croppingpatterns reduces flexibility at the farm/farmerlevel.

Farmers operate farming systems whichincorporate a variety of activities. These systemsare flexible and change according to markets,

available resources, experiences, etc. Flexibilityto react to uncertainty and changing conditionsmay be so highly valued that farmers avoidobligations and organizational bonds in orderto keep individual room to maneuver. Irrigationschemes where farmers are left with littlefreedom to maneuver are therefore not popularamong farmers. In addition, large formalirrigation schemes are often hampered byoperational and maintenance problems, mainlybecause the schemes were designed from atechnical perspective without the involvementof the users. The vast majority of the formalirrigation schemes in Zambia is actually not inoperation (IFAD, 1993).

It is now increasingly recognized that farmersshould be given considerable freedom of cropchoice, even under formal irrigation schemes.This is especially relevant during economicchanges such as changing national or worldmarket prices, development of marketstructures, abolishment of subsidies, etc.

This implies that the cropping pattern is nolonger predictable and the design of theirrigation system can no longer be adapted to aparticular crop or set of crops but must allowdiversification. This is difficult to accommodatein large schemes with wide canals, where, forthe purpose of optimal water use, all farmersalong one feeder canal are expected to irrigateat the same set times.

OBSERVATIONS ONTHE INTEGRATION OF

AQUACULTUREAND SMALL-SCALE

IRRIGATION

1 van der Mheen, H. 1999. Adoption of integrated aquacultureand irrigation. A study conducted in Zambia and Tanzania.TCP/RAF/7825, ALCOM Working Paper No. 23. Rome, FAO.pp.21.

____

Based on areport by

Henk van derMheen

Aquaculturist,ALCOM1

With SpecialReference toZambia and

Tanzania

10

No. 22

Flexibility of time allocation is important forfarmers, especially for women. Gravity flow canalirrigation requires the presence of farmers atspecific times. For optimal use of farmers� labor,water should be available when needed, bymeans of effective and problem-free deliverysystems. Farmers value assured and predictablewater supplies; unpredictable supplies arereflected in low input, low production strategies,and low application of fertilizer (Chambers,1988). Small-scale systems, where farmers havemuch more direct control over the water supply,are characterized by intensive systems of diversecropping patterns and planting dates.Diversification of crops is a way to optimize theuse of available resources, cope with fluctuatingprices and adverse weather conditions, andprovide a wider range of products for homeconsumption.

The majority of farm households maintain asignificant, if varying, degree of autonomy fromthe market as characterized by the share of farmoutput which is consumed within the householdrather than sold. Risk avoidance, rather thanprofit maximization, dominates householddecision-making.

POSSIBILITIES FOR INTEGRATION

Integration of aquaculture and small-scaleirrigation aims at increasing overall productionthrough improved efficiency of water and landuse, use of labor or other inputs, and thediversification of farm production for sale andhome consumption. Integration can also improvethe efficiency of the dissemination of knowledgeand information.

Water Use

The main concern of farmers in irrigation is thereliability of the water source, and thepredictability of its availability. In many cases,the construction of small ponds can improve thereliability of the water source. Wheregroundwater is the source, the construction ofponds to collect this water increases the supplydirectly available to the farmer. In many placesin Zambia and Tanzania, farmers haveconstructed fish ponds supplied withgroundwater that also function as water storagereservoirs. The farmer has access to a largequantity of water when he needs it and the pondrefills from the water table when the farmer doesnot irrigate.

Water storage close to the fields facilitates theplanning of application and also allows controlover the water flow by farmers themselves.Water flow must not be too large, too small ortoo variable in order to insure ease and efficiencyof capture, control and application by farmers.Farmers in Mozambique constructed storageponds next to their fields in order to cope withwater allocation schedules and water shortagesduring the day. These ponds were at the sametime used for fish production. At an irrigationscheme in northern Senegal, a distributionsystem with reservoirs was developed to provideirrigators with individual freedom and minimizeorganizational processes of water allocation(Ubels and Horst, 1993). This was especiallyappreciated by women who, due to otheractivities, were unable to be present at theirplots at fixed times.

Chambers (1988) discussed flexibility of timeallocation as an important option to deal withlabor shortages. The construction of storagereservoirs near the fields greatly enhances thisflexibility and improves irrigation. He presentedan example of small individual storage reservoirswhich are filled during the night and are usedby day for irrigation.

Collection ponds and small storage reservoirscan be used for the production of fish if theyhave a dead volume. In cases where the feedercanal provides enough head, these fish pondscan be constructed to permit irrigation by gravityfrom the pond, thus integrating water use forfish farming and irrigation.

Diversification

Fish farming can also be integrated withirrigation to further diversify farm crops for homeconsumption and for sale.

Small-scale aquaculture provides fish for homeconsumption. Fish are not only consumed whenthe whole pond is harvested but also throughoutthe year through intermittent harvesting. Fishhave an advantage over other livestock in thatthey can be harvested and consumed whendesired, while animals such as chickens, goats,and cattle are usually only consumed on specialoccasions. Therefore, fish from small-scaleaquaculture contribute to improved foodsecurity, especially transitory food insecurity.

11

No. 22

Apart from providing the household with anadditional crop for consumption, fish can alsobe sold locally fairly easily, and for relativelyhigh prices. This may be especially importantfor more remote locations where marketing ofvegetables is difficult and expensive. Anadditional advantage with the marketing of fishis that fish does not have to be marketed duringa certain season, or at a certain point in time.Fish does not ripen in the sense that it has to beharvested before it decays. Although a pond mayhave its highest production after a certainproduction cycle, fish can be left in a pond untilthe prices are high enough or until a farmerneeds the money. Contrary to most horticulturecrops, a fish farmer is never forced to sell hiscrop, unless his pond dries up. Normally, fishcan be marketed locally; production levels fromsmall-scale aquaculture are not high enough toforce farmers to market fish further afield.

Development Approach andInformation Dissemination

Many development programmes lose theconfidence of local communities because theycome with rigidly defined official agendas andtechnical packages with specific boundaries ofintervention.

In the context of a participatory interventionstrategy, a programme can be more successfulif it has a mechanism to take into considerationthe total experiences and aspirations of targetgroups. The focus should be on the entire familylivelihood system rather than on a distinctsubsystem or a solution to only a very specificpart of the problem. Fish farming, as well asother technologies, should be seen as one aspectof rural development, not an isolated technology.It must be integrated into a holistic approach torural development. This requires a wider use ofinterdisciplinary approaches to ruraldevelopment.

Fish farming and irrigation have manycommonalties. They require similar resourcesand inputs and consequently compete forresources. But they can also complement oneanother and thus increase the efficiency ofresource use. Yet, extension services forirrigation and aquaculture are often separate,and as a consequence the information andadvice for one may conflict or interfere with theother. The integration of extension systemswould clearly encourage an integrated approachto resource use.

ADOPTION OF AN INNOVATION

Many considerations influence the decision toadopt or reject an innovation. The prevailingconditions of a farming household, includingfarming practices and perceived needs, influenceadoption. The resources required have to beavailable and information on the innovation mustbe accessible to the farmer in useful form. Thelatter depends on the communication channelsused and on the extent of the change agents�efforts to promote the innovation. Thecharacteristics of the innovation itself will alsoinfluence the decision for its adoption orrejection. It is very difficult to predict theadoption rate of an innovation. However,evaluation of its characteristics and its potentialacceptability during the prediffusion stage could,to a certain extent, help assess the potential forsuccessful adoption.

Rogers (1983) suggested five characteristics ofan innovation that affect the rate at which it isdiffused and adopted, these are: relativeadvantage, compatibility, complexity, triabilityand observability.

The relative advantage is the degree to whichan innovation is perceived as being better thanthe idea it supersedes. The advantages of fishfarming have been discussed above, fish farmingproduces an extra crop, and fish ponds can beintegrated with the water distribution systemand as such improve the water delivery for thefarmer.

Compatibility is the degree to which aninnovation is perceived as consistent with theexisting values, past experiences, and needs ofpotential adopters. Fish farming is an agricultureactivity, and farmers who are used to irrigationand management of water resources do notperceive fish farming as an alien activity. A locallack of animal protein or a need for cropdiversification provides an entry point foraquaculture and increases the compatibility ofthe innovation. Where farmers feel that waterallocation within irrigation schemes is a seriousproblem, ponds can reduce this problem. Thisincreases the compatibility of fish farming.However, the rationale for having ponds, i.e. theshortage or irregular supply of water, decreasesits compatibility. Previous experience with watershortage makes adoption of fish farming lesslikely.

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No. 22

Complexity is the degree to which an innovationis perceived as relatively difficult to understandand use. In general, more complex, or less wellunderstood innovations are more difficult toadopt. Fish farming in small ponds can beintroduced in a way that it is easy to understand,but the management of the fish pond is a morecomplex matter, and the adoption of propermanagement techniques requires much moreexternal assistance. The adoption of fish pondsintegrated in the water management system ismore complex than the adoption of fish pondsthat are operated independently from irrigatedcrops.

Triability is the degree to which an innovationmay be experimented with on a limited basis.Adoption becomes much easier if farmers cantry an innovation on a small scale. The triabilityof ponds integrated into the water distributionsystem and those operated independently couldbe considered the same, although the formerwould require a minimum size and depth toeffectively improve the water distributionsystem.

Observability is the degree to which the resultsof an innovation are visible to others. The rateof adoption increases with visibility. Fish pondsare of course very visible; the constructionprocess as well as the completed ponds are easyfor others to observe.

The influence of the characteristics of the twotypes of fish ponds (integrated vs. independentlyoperated) is summarized in Table1.

Integrated fish ponds have an extra advantageover independent ponds in that they can improvewater distribution. However, they are lesscompatible with existing activities andexperiences of the farmers, and are morecomplicated to understand. This deters adoption.Triability is also slightly more difficult withintegrated ponds, while observability can beassumed to be equal, or slightly greater forintegrated ponds. Benefits in the form of fishand income seem to be less evident than thebenefit of an independent source of water.

Observed Adoption

Fish farming was adopted at 13 of 17 sites inZambia and Tanzania where farmers werepractising irrigation.

Perceived needs of farmers were identified atthe thirteen sites, and are presented in Table 2together with the relative rate of adoption. Onecould argue that the relative advantage ofaquaculture is greatest where it meets farmers�needs for protein, diversification and improvedwater use, and lowest where only one of theseneeds is perceived. This would explain the lowrate of adoption in Shantumbo and Ngwerere.At these sites farmers had access to water, andto nearby markets that offered good prices forvegetables. In addition, the physical conditionsat the sites were not very favorable for theconstruction of ponds (Table 2).

Table 1. Relative influence of the characteristics of the innovationon the rate of adoption. (++ more favorable for adoption than +)

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13

No. 22

At Mbembeshi there was an additional need toimprove water allocation, but the area offeredfew locations for pond construction due to poorsoils. Conditions were good at Malolo and fishfarming could meet the needs for diversificationand protein supply. However, the adoption offish farming was hampered by the location ofthe sites and the negative influence of somelocal officials on the introduction of fish farming(Wetengere et al. 1998).

At Chipapa and Chipungwe, all perceived needscould be met by adoption of pond culture, butadoption was slow nevertheless. Farmers did notconstruct fish ponds integrated into the waterallocation system due to the unreliability of thewater supply. Farmers who did start fish farmingat these sites constructed ponds with watersources independent from the irrigation water.Ponds were constructed immediately downstream from a dam, and were filled with seepagewater from the dam. This option was lesscomplex and did not interfere with irrigatedplots. The ponds increased the amount ofirrigation water in Chipungwe, because farmersused the water from the ponds to irrigate cropsusing buckets. However, only a few ponds couldbe built in this manner.

In Mgeta, the rate of adoption of fish farmingwas moderate but steady, and the practicecontinued to spread to nearby villages. Land andwater are both intensively used and the marketfor vegetables and crops is relatively welldeveloped. Fish ponds had to be located near

the homestead for fear of theft and thuscompeted with other high value crops that werenormally planted there. Since land was a limitingfactor for increasing production, not all farmerswere able to adopt fish farming. Fish ponds wererarely used for storage of irrigation water; waterwas allocated to the ponds when it was not inhigh demand for irrigation.

Sites with sufficient water and land and with aclearly felt need for protein and diversificationshowed fast adoption. Farmers at Tangeni,Mfumbwe, Kibwaya, Chalata, Irumi and Musofuhad access to land and water; water wasavailable in sufficient quantity and there wasno competition from other activities or otherfarmers. Here fish farming met a felt need andcould easily be adopted without interfering withother farming activities. Therefore, adoption wasfast. Adoption was especially fast in Musofuwhere most farmers had access to land withwater, but where markets were difficult to reachand prices for vegetables barely met the costsfor production and transport. There was also asevere shortage of animal protein.

The topography of the area proved to be of muchless importance than anticipated. In Tangeni,ponds were constructed on 50 percent slopes(1:1), which are normally considered unsuitable,and the high construction labor was not a majorconcern. In some cases, diversion canals wereconstructed over long distances in order to bringwater to the ponds.

Table 2. Felt needs at sites where fish farming was adopted, and adoption rate

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14

No. 22

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The above observations were gathered in thecourse of a very brief field survey of selectedsites in Tanzania and Zambia to examine theadoption of fish farming and the appropriatenessof the integration of fish farming and irrigation.The limited duration of the survey only alloweda brief description of what happened at the sites.For a more scientific in-depth study, a largersample of sites is required encompassing a widerrange of irrigation schemes, including largerschemes with clear systems for water allocationand scheduling, as well as schemes situated indrier areas of southern Africa.

Fully integrated techniques are always moredifficult to adopt since they interfere withestablished activities and therefore pose a risk.Step by step introduction towards fullintegration, if technically possible, may increasethe adoption rate. Fully integrated techniquesmost likely will require more technical assistanceand training to facilitate adoption.

At many of the surveyed sites, water was not arestricting factor and there was no specialincentive for direct integration of water use. Thefarmers did not pay for the use of water and,therefore, inefficient use is not directly reflectedin farmers� incomes. This situation may changeas water resources come under greater pressure

from users. Zimbabwe has now officially adopteda system whereby charges will be levied onwater use. Although details of how the systemwill be implemented are not available, it is aclear sign that water will increasingly beconsidered a commercial commodity in southernAfrica. With this change, efficient integrated useof water will become a necessity, including theintegration of aquaculture and irrigation.

REFERENCES

IFAD. 1993. The Agricultural Sector in Zambia.IFAD Identification Report. Working Paper 2,Rome, IFAD. 22 pp.

Chambers, R. 1988. Managing Canal Irrigation.Institute of Development Studies, University ofSussex, UK. 278 pp.

Ubels J. and Horst, L. 1993. Irrigation Design inAfrica: Towards an Interactive Method.Wageningen Agricultural University,Wageningen, Netherlands and Technical Centrefor Rural and Agricultural Co-operation, Ede,Netherlands.

Rogers, E.M. 1983. Diffusion of Innovations. TheFree Press. New York. 453 pp.

Wetengere, K., Osewe, K. & van Herwaarden,H. 1998. Development of semi-intensive fishfarming in Morogoro Region, Tanzania. FAOALCOM Working Paper 22. Harare. 54 pp.

15

No. 22

INTRODUCTION

As we move into the next millennium, thedomestic and international requirement for

both high and low valued fish and aquatic plantsfor direct and indirect consumption is likely toincrease due to a combination of risingpopulations, living standards and disposableincomes. While the predictions of supply of fishrequired to meet future needs varies, it is widelyacknowledged that fish yield from traditionalmarine and inland capture fisheries, whichreached 95 million tonnes in 1996, is unlikelyto increase substantially (SOFIA 1998) and thatexpectations from the aquaculture sector tomeet rising demand will probably increase. Foraquaculture, the challenges we therefore faceare how to: (i) sustain and increase the currentmean annual global growth rate and (ii)strengthen and promote aquaculture as alegitimate and sustainable long term farmingactivity. In addressing these challenges it shouldbe appreciated that issues faced by aquaculturehave not changed greatly but their prioritizationhas changed, and that these priorities varybetween nations depending on the state ofaquaculture development. A key considerationin any analysis of achievements and justificationof the use of resources in aquaculture will bethe availability and use of the necessaryinformation.

In China, the above challenges have beenaddressed on an ongoing basis within anevolving national aquaculture framework sincethe 1980s, aimed at increasing and sustainingthe efficiency of output. Between 1990 and1996, China expanded aquaculture productionat an average annual rate of 20 percent and

diversified production. Since the 1980s, China'sopen-door policy together with the decision togradually decentralize management, haveplayed important roles in transformingaquaculture from a centrally planned to amarket-based activity. Available indicators,which will be presented herein, suggest thatgrowth in Chinese aquaculture production canbe attributed to an increase in land area usedfor aquaculture as well as an increase in nationalaverage production efficiencies from culturesystems.

CHANGING SCENARIOS IN AQUACULTURE

DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA

The Chinese population is predicted to rise fromthe present 1.2 to 1.6 billion by 2026, reducingfurther the per capita share of land resourcesfor food production. Per capita agricultural landhas steadily decreased from 0.19 hectares (ha)in 1949 to 0.09 ha in 1995 (Wu 1996). Theseconsiderations and the rapid changes inpopulation structure, and rising living standards,have presented the Chinese with severalchallenges and opportunities to meet the risingdemand for low and high quality animalproducts, in particular aquatic products. Between1991 and 2020 the national per capitaconsumption of fish is projected to increaseannually by 5.6 percent (Huang et al. 1997).The acknowledgement of stagnating wild fishstocks has focused Chinese fishery developmentpolicies on expanding inland, brackish and inparticular marine aquaculture as a key strategyfor meeting changing national demand andconsumer patterns.

Changing scenariosin aquaculturedevelopment in China

Krishen RanaFisheries Information,

Data and Statistics Unit (FIDI)

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No. 22

RECENT CHANGES IN CHINESELIVING STANDARDS AND CONSUMERPREFERENCES

The gradual transformation of the Chineseeconomy from a centrally based to a marketbased economy and the decentralization of theeconomy to minimize urban migration has hada significant impact on the living standards ofChinese urban and rural populations. Between1990 and 1996, net per capita income of ruralpopulation rose by nearly 19 percent/yr, from650 in 1990 to 4 200 yuan in 1996. The increasesin living standards of the rural sector, derivedthrough diversifying and industrializing the ruraleconomy, were even higher and rose by 21percent/yr from 350 to 1 700 yuan in the sameperiod (Figure 1).

The accompanying increases in purchase powerand the growing affluence of urbanized and ruralpopulations has influenced the consumptionpatterns of main commodities (Figure 2).

Since the reform policies in the 1980s, Chinesehousehold surveys suggest a gradual shift froma predominately vegetarian (grain andvegetable) to a meat eating diet. In both urbanand rural areas the per capita purchases of grainand vegetables have declined and that of redmeat and aquatic products increased (Figure 2).Urban populations with their higher disposableincome, however, consumed more aquaticproducts than red meat and between 1985 and1996 the per capita purchases of aquaticproducts increased by 2.6 percent/yr from 7 to9.3 kg/yr. In contrast, the per capita purchasesof red meat was higher (11-12 kg/yr) in therural sector and showed little change in the sametime period. For aquatic products (fish and

shrimps), however, per capita purchasesincreased at 7 pecent/yr and more than doubledfrom 1.6 kg/yr to 3.4 kg/yr.

ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES

To meet these rising demands, China hasformulated and refined its aquaculturedevelopment policies targeting specific national,provincial and farm level issues aimed attransforming the aquaculture sector from acentrally-based to a market-based activity. Atthe national level, the development of inlandaquaculture production was part of the strategyfor rural industrial development. Freshwateraquaculture expanded from the traditionalsouthern aquafarming provinces south of theHuai river, into north eastern, western, andnorthern regions of China. At the local level,

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Figure 1. Recent increase in net per capita annincome in rural and urban areas and related price indices. 1985 = 100

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Figure 2. Consumption Pattern of Major Commodities in (a) Urban and (b) Rural Populations in Mainl(Data adapted from Chinese Statistical Year Book, 1997)

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No. 22

BOX 1.Producer and local level incentivesfor developing the aquaculture sector

Ø Management decentralized to countylevel administration and producers

Ø Target production in co-operativeslinked with sole responsibility onprofitability

Ø Support on credit, materials,processing and marketing

Ø Around 3350 large & 2200 coldstorage facilities to foster handlingand accommodate increasedproduction.

Ø Deregulation of price controls, mainlyfor high valued species. (Somecontrol over low valued species toensure their affordability to mostChinese).

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China aimed to provide the necessary incentivesfor individuals, collectives, and State-run farmsto increase production (Box 1).

To increase fish production and employment inthe Provinces, the area allocated for culture wasincreased and the types of water bodiesapproved for aquaculture broadened, attractinghitherto uninterested households, State-ownedfarms and water conservation departments inmany villages and towns into taking upaquaculture as an additional viable economicactivity. By 1990, over 2 million people wereattracted to aquaculture from other industries,taking the number engaged in aquafarming toover 6 million (Qian 1994). Total fishery(aquaculture and capture) labour in 1996totalled 12 million. The number of people whowere employed full-time in aquaculture in 1996reached 3 million, an increase of 76 percent over1990 (Zhao 1997). This increased opportunity,particularly in freshwater production, played animportant role in alleviating rural poverty andincreasing the income of farmers engaged incapture fisheries and aquaculture.

ALLOCATION AND UTILISATION OF NATURALRESOURCES FOR AQUACULTURE PRODUCTIONAND DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA

Aquaculture development in China focused onincreasing production from inland as well as andmarine waters. Since 1984, the area andintensity of production from ponds, and theutilisation of open waters such as lakes andreservoirs, rivers and rice paddies for freshwateraquaculture have steadily increased. In 1996,100 percent of available ponds and 81 percentof reservoirs were utilized and opportunities stillexist to further develop shallow seas and ricepaddy fields (Table 1).

Ponds and reservoirs are the principal types ofwater bodies utilized for freshwater aquaticproduction, accounting for 72 percent of inlandarea (excluding paddy fields) used foraquaculture in 1996 (Zhao 1997). Pondsaccounted for 40 percent or 1.96 million ha ofinland cultured area. Unlike reservoirs, pondarea utilized for aquaculture continued toincrease at an average annual rate of 5.6 percentbetween 1990 and 1996. Similar increases (5.7percent) in the utilization of marine areas werealso reported in the same period (Figure 3).

In addition to area, production yields have alsoincreased at an annual average of 9.4 percent/yr with improved and more focused technologicaldevelopment. For ponds, national average yieldshave increased from 2 385 kg/ha in 1990 toaround 4 100kg/ha in 1996. Higher increasesin fish production yield were achieved withmarine fishes. Between 1990 and 1996 nationalyields increased at an average of 20.1 percent/yr (Figure 3).

18

Table 1. Reported utility rate of land and waterresources for aquaculture in China in 19961.

No. 22

PRODUCTION

DIVERSIFICATION

The culture of the traditional carp and tilapiaspecies, which are farmed across China,continues to dominate production. However, inrecent years, there has been greater effort todiversify production to other carps and intohigher valued freshwater species such asmandarin fish, freshwater crabs and prawns, softshelled turtle and eels. In 1996, these newgroups were valued at US$ 1.4 billion andrepresent 6.5 percent of total aquaculture value(Figure 4).

China has also demons-trated that relativelyhigh value species are not necessarilycarnivorous species. In matching resources andmarket opportunities, China has also focusedon developing relatively high value species whichfeed low in the food chainsuch as filter-feedinginvertebrates e.g. oysters,scallops, razor shells,cockles, mussels etc.Between 1990 and 1995production of invertebratefilter feeders increased at24 percent/yr. In the sameperiod non-filter feedinginvertebrates (e.g. crabs,etc.) increased at 49percent annually. In thesame period, demand formarine finfish has lead toan annual increase inproduction of 33 percent(Figure 5).

In the last decade, the ongoing transformationfrom a centrally planned economy to a marketeconomy has highlighted several shortcomingsfor the aquaculture sector. These include: a)competition with other industrial sectors for landand aquatic resources particularly in coastalregions; b) degradation of water quality andculture environments through urbanization,industrialization and uncontrolled intensificationof aquaculture; c) limited processing capacityof aquaculture products; d) slow or, in somecases no implementation of market orientedpolicies on price de-regulation; e) unpredictablefluctuations in the quantity and quality of seed,particularly of high value fresh and marine finfishand shellfish species; and f) poorly maintainedculture facilities. China has recognized theseissues and is addressing them on an ongoingbasis.

To address key issues such as pollution, thegovernment has introduced legislation to controlwater quality in order to protect aquaculture andcapture fisheries. Since 1979 over 500 laws andregulations were issued by the State Council(Zhao 1997). Recent regulations are shown inBox 2. For farmers producing high value species,including small shrimp, eel, mandarin fish etc.,fluctuations in fry cost, supply and quality,increased feed and medication and other inputcosts, price fluctuations of end products and highquality standards for export products, have allincreased investment risk. To promote sustainedproduction of high valued species, the State ispromoting private investment and the formationof joint ventures with foreign companies whichshould continue to improve technology transferand reduce some of the investment risk.

Figure 3. Changes in inland and water use and production efficiencies in China (value on graphSW areas, data adapted from Zhao, 1997)

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Figure 4. Total value of recently targeted species in China in 1996 (data source FIDI, FAO)

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No. 22

Figure 5. Growth in Chinese mariculture production by feeding types. (Data source FIDI, FAO)

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References

Anon. 1997. China statistical yearbookNo 16. China Statistical Publishing House.Beijing, China. 851pp.

SOFIA. 1998. The state of the world fisheriesand aquaculture. Rome, FAO. 112pp.

Huang, J., Rozelle, S., Rosegrant, M. W. 1997.China food economy to the twenty-first century:Supply, demand and trade. International FoodResearch Institute. Washington, DC 20036-3006. USA. 18pp

Qian, Z. (ed). 1994. The development of Chinesefisheries and manpower in aquaculture.Agricultural Press, Beijing, China. 212pp.

Wu, Y. (1996) Pollution threatens fisheries.China Daily, 25 August 1996. p8.

Zhao, W. 1997. Research on the sustainabledevelopment of aquaculture in China. Paperprepared for the first meeting of the FAO/APFICAquaculture and Inland Fisheries Committeemeeting. 22p.

Box 2.Regulations to strengthen theinternal/external environmentin China

To promote and protect aquaculture fromactivities external to the activity, theChinese have introduced:

Ø Fisheries law of the P.R. of China (1986)

Ø Article 10 - Best use of suitable waterand land for promoting aquaculture

Ø Article 12 - Establish mangrove naturereserve to protect spawning and nurserygrounds

Ø The law of Marine EnvironmentalProtection (1986)

Ø The law of Water Pollution Prevention(1986)

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No. 22

Aquacultu

re in Africa -

Africa-Aquaculturein

Africa-

Aquaculture

inAfrica-AquacultureinAfr

ica -

John MoehlRegional Aquaculture OfficerFAO Regional Office for Africa, Accra, Ghana

Interest in aquaculture across the regioncontinues to grow and there is increasing

activity in both the private and public sector.One of the major implications of this growth isa re-assessment of the public sector�s capacityto support aquaculture. During the boom yearsof the 1970s and �80s, when aquacultureprojects were sprouting up every where, thepublic sector provided extensive support toaquaculture development, principally with donorfunds.

Research and extension were common areasreceiving donor support. Other less commonsupport mechanisms were subsidized feed costsand government assistance for pondconstruction. The latter could take the form offree hand tools or even heavy equipment madeavailable to farmers for pond construction; eitherfree of charge or at a low cost. A prominentform of government intervention was throughthe establishment of fish stations. These werealternatively seen as focal points for extension,hatcheries (often providing free or subsidizedseed), demonstration centres, training sites orresearch facilities. Hundreds of stations werebuilt around the Region; a large part of them isabandoned today.

Governments can no longer rely on donor fundsto support aquaculture and their own budgetshave few reserves to provide subsidized inputsor maintain expensive facilities. The trend todayis one of downsizing and merging, with severalcountries attempting to even privatize suchactivities as research and extension. The daysof flourishing local government hatcheries withtheir team of aquaculture extension agents areall but gone. In many cases, aquaculture hasbeen blended into the mix that has become aunified agriculture extension service andgovernments are looking at ways and means todivest, including ceding fish stations to theprivate sector.

AFRICA REGIONAL AQUACULTURE REVIEW

Although privatization is widespread, themethods vary and the approaches are often notfully developed. The issue of reduced publicsector support to aquaculture will be one of themain topics of the Africa Regional AquacultureReview, organized by the FAO Regional Officefor Africa, to be held in Accra in September 1999.The Review will assemble practitioners fromfifteen African countries and a number ofdevelopmental organizations. The combinedexpertise of participants will be used to assesswhy aquaculture has not established a more solidand economically viable foundation in Africa,albeit millions of donor dollars devoted to itspromotion and despite past efforts to mitigatethe identified constraints.

It is widely accepted that it is not a lack ofaquaculture information that has hampereddevelopment, but a lack of access to availableinformation. Africa is rapidly moving into theInformation Age. Nearly instantaneous electroniccommunication now offers the opportunity fornecessary information exchange. The Review willfacilitate these exchanges and make animportant first step in taking a regional approachto problem solving.

AQUACULTURE IN AFRICA

Perspectives from the FAO

Regional Office for Africa

AQUACULTURE IN AFRICAPerspectives from the FAORegional Office for Africa

21

No. 22

-AquacultureinAfrica

-Aquaculture

inAfrica

-AquacultureinA

Specific objectives of the Review are to:evaluate the past thirty years of

aquaculture development efforts in theregion with specific focus onaquaculture extension and publicsector support for aquaculture;identify those elements that wereand were not sustainable; elaboratea list of lessons learned; review thepresent status of aquaculture in theregion through an analysis ofdifferent aquaculture productionsystems; identify trends inaquaculture development; andprepare an outline of the keyelements of a general aquaculturedevelopment strategy.

INTEGRATED IRRIGATION AND

AQUACULTURE WORKSHOP

The Regional Office will also be organizing anIntegrated Irrigation and Aquaculture Workshopin September 1999. The workshop will serve asa forum for irrigation and aquaculture specialistsfrom five African countries, as well asrepresentatives of a number of irrigation/aquaculture agencies, to review the status ofintegrated irrigation/aquaculture (IIA) fromdevelopmental and research perspectives withthe aim of establishing a network of nationalinstitutions to foster information exchange andcollaboration on field activities.

IIA is becoming ever more popular as thedelicate status of the Region�s aquatic resourcesis more fully appreciated, especially in water-stressed areas. One can no longer take waterfor granted and it is imperative to developtechnologies that encourage re-use and providereal synergy for resource utilisation. Irrigationand aquaculture are well-known technologies,but a true marriage of the two provides someinteresting challenges (see article by Henk vander Mheen in this newsletter).

IIA is also figuring increasingly in FAO�s SpecialProgramme for Food Security (SPFS). ThisProgramme underscores the importance ofenhanced water management and a better useof the Region�s aquatic resources. IIA is, thus, agood fit and many countries are planning tointegrate aquaculture into irrigation schemes aspart of SPFS. A further indication of the risingawareness of IIA is the up-coming project inZambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi: The Subregional

DR. MATTHIAS HALWART JOINS FIRI

Dr. Matthias Halwart has been appointedFishery Resources Officer (Aquaculture) in theInland Water Resources and AquacultureService (FIRI) at FAO HQ effective 1September 1999.

Dr. Halwart brings with him many years ofexperience on aquaculture and farmingsystems development. From 1990 to 1994,he co-ordinated and implemented a jointresearch project among the FreshwaterAquaculture Center (FAC), the InternationalCenter for Living Aquatic ResourcesManagement (ICLARM), and the InternationalRice Research Institute (IRRI) on the potentialof fish as biocontrol agents in rice in thePhilippines. From 1995 to early 1999, heworked with FIRI, first as AssociateProfessional Officer with focus on aquaculturein integrated farming systems, and later asconsultant on diverse aspects of small-scaleaquaculture, including backstopping missionsfor projects in Malaysia, Vietnam and SriLanka. To meet the interdisciplinary demandsof his work at FAO, Dr. Halwart forgedcollaborative links and carried out jointactivities with colleagues from irrigation,farming systems and integrated pestmanagement, both within and outside FAO.Prior to joining FIRI, he held a teachingposition as Visiting Faculty in the School ofEnvironment, Resources and Development atthe Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) inThailand.

Dr. Halwart�s technical responsibilities in FIRIwill focus largely on small-scale ruralaquaculture techniques and systems, and onintegrated aquaculture-agriculture productionsystems, including integrated irrigation andaquaculture activities.

Project for the Integration of Aquaculture intoIrrigated Small-Farming Systems for SouthernAfrica. This project, to be implemented by FAOand funded by IFAD, is scheduled to start beforethe end of they year.

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No. 22

The 1998 SIPAM meeting took place in Olhao,Portugal, from 17 to 19 September at the kindinvitation of Portugal and with the financialsupport of Italy through ICRAM.

Twelve national Co-ordinators and the SIPAMRegional Co-ordinator and Data Managerattended the meeting (Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt,France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain,Portugal, Tunisia and Turkey). FAO wasrepresented by Messrs. Coppola and Pedini. Themain objectives of the meeting were to presentand discuss the new SIPAM for WINDOWSsoftware, to review the SIPAM data status andto continue the discussion on the SIPAM versionfor the INTERNET.

As announced in FAN Number 17, the RegionalCentre, jointly with Istitute of Marine Biology ofCrete (IMBC) and FAO, had already modifiedthe SIPAM software in order to include thesuggestions expressed in a previous meetings(Bari, March, 1997, Salerno, November 1997).The new SIPAM for WINDOWS 2.1 version isnow more advanced, thanks to the newlyintroduced tools, especially for developingnational networks and for data transfer fromother existing data bases within the participatingcountries. The National Co-ordinatorsappreciated the performance and facilities of thenew version and expressed the need to betrained on its use. For this purpose, a trainingcourse was organized at CIHEAM headquartersin Zaragoza, Spain, in January, 1999 which wasalso attended by the representatives of Bulgaria,Libya and Romania, as new participatingcountries.

The thirteen SIPAM data bases include about6000 records. The National Co-ordinatorsreviewed the data quality on the basis of asummary report prepared by the data manager.They decided to focus, as a first step, on fivedata bases of high priority: national reports(using the new format adopted by the meeting),production statistics, experts, and animalpathogen information (based on the FAOsoftware AAPQIS prepared for Asia). A copy ofAAPQIS (Aquatic Animal Pathogen andQuarantine Information System) is expected tobe received by the Regional Centre in Tunis soon.A group of experts should be established togenerate and collect data to be entered intoAAPQIS�Med. It was also recommended thatFAO should explore the possibility of a RegionalTechnical Co-operation Programme (TCP) projectto assist member countries to establish theMediterranean Aquatic Animal HealthInformation Systems.

News from the

GFCMMediterraneanAquacultureNetworksS. Hadj-Ali (SIPAM Coordinator)and M. Pedini

SIPAM(System of Information for thePromotion of Aquaculture in theMediterranean)

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The SIPAM home page and a multilingualbrochure are being prepared in FAO Rome.Portugal offered to prepare and issue thebrochure in 4 languages, English, French,Spanish and Portuguese. A forthcoming releaseof the SIPAM brochure is expected to include anArabic version.

Regional data base. The 4th issue of the SIPAMRegional data base, including about 6 000records, was completed and distributed inFebruary 1999. The next release will use thenew SIPAM for Windows version. The NationalCo-ordinators will enter information on the fivepriority areas as soon as the new versionbecomes available.

New SIPAM member countries. Algeria,Bulgaria, Libya and Romania expressed theirinterest to be linked to SIPAM in 1998.Representatives from Bulgaria, Libya andRomania participated in the course organizedby SIPAM last January in Zaragoza, Spain. TheSIPAM Regional Co-ordinator, accompanied bythe Data Manager, visited Libya in June 1999 toinstall SIPAM and to train the staff of the MarineBiology Research Centre in Tajura to use thesoftware and start data entry. It is expected thatBulgaria and Romania will be visited soon forthe same purpose.

Cooperation with SELAM and TECAM. Asannounced in FAN No. 17, a meeting was jointlyorganized by SIPAM, TECAM and FAO lastDecember 1998 in Rome (FAO HQ) to go aheadwith the design of the SIPAM pathology database. The meeting which was attended byspecialists from Mediterranean countries,recommended that the SIPAM pathology database should not be developed as an AquaticAnimal Pathogen and Disease Reporting System,in order to avoid duplication of efforts with theOffice International des Epizooties. They alsorecommended to create a Mediterranean versionof the AAPQIS software which has beendeveloped for the Asian Region.

With regard to SELAM, a joint SIPAM/ SELAM/FEAP (Federation of European AquacultureProducers) meeting was organized in February,1998 in Rome (FAO HQ) to discuss the designof the marketing data base. A French expert, incooperation with ICRAM, Italy, is preparing alist of the Mediterranean experts who shouldparticipate in the preparation of the data base,which should benefit from FEAP data onaquaculture product prices.

TECAM (Network on Technology ofAquaculture in the Mediterranean)

Seminar on Mediterranean MarineAquaculture Finfish SpeciesDiversification, Zaragoza,Spain, 24-28 May 1999

The seminar took place from 24 to 27 May 1999,at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute ofZaragoza (CIHEAM-IAMZ), Zaragoza, Spain. Theseminar, which is included in the activities ofTECAM, was jointly organized by CIHEAM-IAMZ and the FAO Fisheries Department. It wasattended by 83 participants from 18 countries(Algeria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt,France, Greece, Japan, Italy, Morocco, Norway,Portugal, Romania, Spain, Taiwan, Tunisia,Turkey, and the USA). The seminar reviewedthe latest developments in the farming of newfinfish and cephalopod species for Mediterraneanaquaculture including methodological aspectsthat should be taken into consideration in theprocess of domestication and in the screeningof new finfish candidates for aquaculture. Fullpaper contributions to the seminar as well as asummary of the open discussions have beenpublished in CIHEAM�s journal - OptionsMéditerranéennes (see New FAO Publicationssection in this newsletter).

EAM (Network on Environment andAquaculture in the Mediterranean)

EAM Seminar on EnvironmentalImpact Assessment of MediterraneanAquaculture Farms, Zaragoza,Spain , 17-21 January 2 000

The seminar will take place at the CIHEAM-IAMZ of Zaragoza, Spain. The seminar, whichis included within the activities of the EAM, isto be organized by CIHEAM-IAMZ, and theFisheries Department of the FAO. It aims toreview the relationships of Mediterraneanaquaculture farms with the environment. Inparticular, it will address and discuss thedifferent methodologies for the assessment ofenvironmental impact of aquaculture farms, andreview the latest developments of monitoringstrategies affecting large-scale (sustainableproduction capacity in a given coastal area) andsmall-scale management (sustainability ofspecific projects). The Seminar caters toprofessionals directly involved in this field ofaquaculture in private companies, researchinstitutions and other national or internationalinstitutions. It is intended to foster the exchangeof ideas and information.

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SELAM (Network on Socio-Economic andLegal Aspects of Aquaculture in theMediterranean)

Workshop on Global Quality inMediterranean Aquaculture, Barcelona,Spain, 29 November-1 December 1999

The workshop will take place in Barcelona, Spain,from 29 November to 1 December 1999. It is tobe organized by CIHEAM-IAMZ, the FisheriesDepartment of the FAO and the the DireccióGeneral de Pesca Maritima (DGPM) of theGeneralitat de Catalunya, Spain. The purpose

of the Workshop is to review the latestdevelopments in technologies and marketing forthe improvement of quality throughout theproduction cycle, and to discuss qualityconcepts, product quality standards and norms(trade, sanitary, environmental, etc.) affectingthis industry, to facilitate sustainable andresponsible development of the Mediterraneanaquaculture sector. The workshop caters forprofessionals directly involved in the field ofaquaculture production and economics fromprivate companies, research institutions or othernational or international institutions, favouringexchange of ideas and information.

ARRIVEDERCI JIM

Dr. James Kapetsky retires from the InlandWater Resources and Aquaculture Service

Jim Kapetsky�s career in international fisheries, also his associationwith FAO, began on the Kafue Flats, Zambia, in 1969 where he

was a biologist in the employ of the University of Michigan ona pre-impoundment study � part of an FAO project

headquartered in Chilanga. Stimulated by the excellentquality of the applied fisheries research coming out of

that FAO project, Jim used the research from the Kafueas the basis for his Ph.D. dissertation with the goal ofeventually qualifying for employment with FAO. While studying at the University of

Michigan Jim also carried out a study of the economic impact of sport fishing onGrand Traverse Bay for Sea Grant and worked as a consultant for the Mekong River

Commission in Bangkok. He went almost directly from defending his dissertation toColombia where he was a fishery biologist from 1974-1977 on a FAO project for the

development of inland fisheries. In 1977 he was selected for a fishery resources officer postin the Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service at FAO HQ. Apart from providing

technical advice to then very extensive FAO/UNDP Field Programme, he worked on themanagement of coastal lagoon fisheries and on mangrove-fisheries relationships.

In 1986, using the opportunity afforded by the FAO external training programme, he studied remotesensing and geographical information systems (GIS) in the USA. He used that training to launch asecond career in the applications of GIS and remote sensing to inland fisheries and aquaculture thatwent side by side with his more traditional work in resource evaluations and management of inlandfisheries, in recent times with heavy involvement in inland fishery enhancements. His most recentwork in GIS has been continent-wide assessments of fish farming potential and spatial modelling ofinland fishery potential as well as the use of satellite data to monitor water surface changes and forthe inventory of shrimp ponds. In 1988 he was promoted to Senior Fishery Resources Officer.

Up until the time of this retirement in August 1999, Jim had visited 65 countries and carried outfisheries or aquaculture work in 33. Not content to sail, fish and grow chili peppers on the coast ofNorth Carolina full time, he and his wife, Eileen, are in the process of registering as C-FAST, Inc.�Consultants in Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences and Technologies� in order to remain technicallyactive on a part-time basis. He is at 5410 Marina Club Drive, Wilmington, NC 28409-4103, USA andcfast@mail.ortech.net.We wish him and Eileen a happy and long life.

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No. 22

PROJECTS AND OTHER ACTIVITIES

24

Consultation on the Application ofArticle 9 of the FAO Code of Conductfor Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) in theMediterranean Region, Rome, Italy,19-23 July 1999

The objective of this Consultation, was toreview the level of understanding and the statusof application of the principles of Article 9(Aquaculture Development) and other articlesrelated to aquaculture of the CCRF, to discussidentified gaps and difficulties encountered inthe application of the CCRF principles foraquaculture development, and to proposeelements for action plans at national andregional levels to support the application ofArticle 9 of the Code. The Consultation was thefinal event of a project funded by the ItalianGovernment in support of the recommendationsof the last sessions of COFI on application ofthe Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheriesat regional level. The meeting was put underthe aegis of the GFCM Committee onAquaculture.

The Consultation was attended by 54participants from 20 members of the GFCM (outof a total of 21 members) and by three observersfrom IGOs [the International Centre forAdvanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies(CIHEAM) and the Information Systems forPromotion of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean(SIPAM)] and one NGO � the Federation ofEuropean Aquaculture Producers (FEAP).

The meeting discussed a synthesis of nationalreports and proposed elements for national andregional action plans. It validated the choice offive major elements dealing with (i) diffusion ofthe Code at national and regional level, (ii)improvement of the planning process for betterintegration of aquaculture in national plans, (iii)enhancement of harmonization betweenaquaculture development and environmentalconservation, (iv) use of the Code to upgradethe economic value of aquaculture production,

and (v) use of the Code to improve and stabilizetrade of aquaculture products in theMediterranean region. In connection with theactivities proposed under the five elements,three working groups reviewed the list proposedby the Secretariat, amended it and establishedpriorities at national and regional levels andsuggested a mechanism for implementation ofthe approved activities. The Consultationindicated that the GFCM would be theappropriate institution to coordinate theimplementation of the regional activities.

The report of the meeting will be presented atthe next sessions of the GFCM Committee onAquaculture and the GFCM for endorsement. Itwill be used also by the Secretariat to prepareproposals for the donor community forimplementation of the activities which have beenprioritized by the participants.

Joint FAO/NACA Consultation onSustainable Aquaculture for RuralDevelopment, Chiang Rai, Thailand,29-31 March 1999

The Consultation was jointly organized by FAOand NACA to develop a detailed framework fora programme on aquaculture in ruraldevelopment and to consider strategies for itsimplementation. The basic concept of theprogramme was drafted in 1997 by a NACAconsultative group in which FAO wasrepresented, that was subsequently reviewedand further clarified by the Technical AdvisoryGroup of NACA in 1998.

The Consultation took an overview of relevantinformation emerging from country reports,lessons learned and experiences of specificprojects, regional and internationalorganizations and donor agencies. It alsoreviewed specific issues in small-scaleaquaculture on the basis of expert reviews. Thedraft programme concept was then reviewedthrough four working groups which examinedand provided comments on various elements;e.g. programme vision, development andspecific objectives, programme outputs andactivities, etc. The outputs from the working

Mario Pedini and Z. ShehadehFishery Resources Division

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groups were discussed in plenary and aframework for a programme on �Aquaculturefor Sustainable Rural LivelihoodDevelopment (ASRLD)� was developed byconsensus to guide the subsequent formulationof the programme.

The Consultation was well attended. There were50 participants, including national experts (fromBangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Philippines,Thailand and Vietnam), representatives of otheroganizations/institutions (AIT, CARE, CRSP/USAID, DANIDA-Bangladesh, DFID, DFID-Bangladesh, FCRI-Hungary, ICLARM, IFAD, IIRR,MRCS, SEAFDEC), FAO�s LAO/97/007 project, anumber of observers from Thailand and severalstaff from FAO, FAO-RAP and NACA.

The Consultation was of the view, inter alia,that:

· under proper conditions, small-scaleaquaculture was an effective tool that couldbe used for achieving improved householdfood security and enhancing overall rurallivelihood development;

· a regional programme on �Aquaculture forSustainable Rural Livelihood Development�was very timely and of considerable regionalrelevance;

· methods and approaches for drawingparticipation of local communities inassessment, planning and developmentactions should be key areas of interventionfor the programme;

· strengthening the capabilities of local,national, and regional institutions involvedin rural livelihood development throughaquaculture is another important objective;

· the programme would help speed up regionalcooperation through exchange of knowledgeand experience, and establish close linkageamong national and regional institutions,researchers, development and extensionpersonnel and communities;

· the programme should offer adequate scopeand conditions for donors, NGOs, regionaland international organizations to participateand contribute in the programme; and

· initial assistance in the form of an FAOregional Technical Cooperation Project shouldbe explored to quick-start the project.

DFID/FAO/NACA Asia Regional ScopingWorkshop �Primary Aquatic Animal HealthCare in Rural, Small-Scale AquacultureDevelopment in Asia�

The first training workshop of the FAO/NACAregional technical co-operation programme(TCP) project �Assistance for ResponsibleMovement of Aquatic Animals in Asia� washeld in Bangkok from 16th - 20th January 1999.The workshop identified a number of activitieswhich will lead to the development of nationalstrategies and Asia-wide regional technicalguidelines for aquatic animal quarantine andhealth certification. The detailed project work-plan was approved by the participants, and thefirst drafts of the regional technical guidelinesand national strategies for quarantine and healthmanagement were presented at a projectworkshop in February 1999.

An important issue raised during the meetingswas the need for special attention to ensure thatdisease control/preventative measures reachrural farmers. Economic losses are estimated tobe at least US$ 3 billion/year in Asia, impactingon both small-scale and large- scale aquacultureproducers alike.

Information emerging from recently collecteddata by the DFID-supported South East AsiaAquatic Animal Disease Control Project(SEAADCP), AAHRI and NACA would indicatethat there is a serious under-reporting of diseasein this region and a consequent lack ofprevention, diagnosis or treatment. The effectsof this on small-scale rural aquaculturedevelopment are potentially more serious thanon more intensive or �industrial systems�. Thereis little indication at present that primary aquaticanimal health care is a priority in countries inthe region.

Given the importance of ensuring disease controland preventative measures and to providegenuine assistance to small-scale farmers, FAO,NACA and AAHRI/SEAADCP proposed a scopingworkshop entitled �Primary Aquatic AnimalHealth Care in Rural Aquaculture Development�.This scoping workshop will review informationon socio-economic impacts, risks of diseaseincursions and health management strategiesin small-scale aquaculture and enhancedfisheries programmes and develop a regionalstrategy and a framework for better healthmanagement in rural aquaculture.

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The agenda of the meeting which took placefrom 27 to 30 September 1999 includes fivemain sessions: (i) an introductory session, (b)regional reviews and national case studies onthe impact of animal diseases in the context ofrural aquaculture development, (c)methodological issues and interventionstrategies, (d) group discussions and (5)conclusions.

Aquaculture Information System for Asia

Due to space limitation, we had omitted thereport of the FAO/NACA Workshop onAquaculture Information Systems in Asia whichtook place in Bangkok from 17 to 20 July 1998.A total of 42 participants from seven countriesattended the Workshop, together withparticipants from regional and sub-regionalinstitutions involved in aquaculture informationand development, such as AIR, AARHI,INFOFISH, Mekong River Commission, SEAFDEC,and UNDP. The objectives of the workshop were:

· to present and discuss the results of thesurvey of information systems and databases in selected countries (majoraquaculture producers in the region) andthe emerging analysis of the situation, withrepresentatives of the various sectorsassociated with aquaculture development;

· to exchange views about the situation ofaquaculture data bases and informationsystems and the perceived needs for futuredevelopment of the sector;

· to present the SIPAM system to theparticipants as a possible model for theregion; and

· to elaborate a tentative action plan forfurther work in this area, in case countriesand regional organizations would considerthe system developed by the FAO useful.

The documentation prepared by the FAO, basedon a survey of regional capabilities, waspresented by the consultant Ms. Yong-ja Cho,who carried out the survey. The questionnairehad been sent to 56 organizations in seven mainaquaculture producing countries in Southeastand South Asia (i.e. Bangladesh, China, India,Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand)and eight regional organizations involved inpromotion of aquaculture development.

The survey was intended to identify:

· types of computerized aquaculturedatabases and information systems;

· types of information and data covered bythe systems or databases;

· main users of the computerized data basesand information systems;

· availability of the systems or databases;

· hardware and software used to developinformation systems or databases;

· constraints in maintaining the systems andproviding access to them; and

· extent of information exchange andnetworking.

The survey responses showed that users of theexisting databases were mainly researchers,followed by teachers and students, extensionpersonnel, managers and planners, andfishfarmers. The survey also showed that:

· isolated databases on specific topics exist;

· data and information are collected mainlyfrom library collections, published literature,government and research survey data,internal management data, and personalcommunication;

· databases are not regularly updated orregular maintained;

· availability and accessibility of databases arelimited;

· hardware used are IBM compatible PCs;

· a wide variety of software is utilized to createdatabases;

· no common or compatible informationhandling methods and tools exist;

· there is little or no information exchange ornetworking; and

· e-mail is used mainly as a central mail box.

Main constraints faced by the surveyrespondents were lack of personnel withcomputer skills, inadequate budgets, lack ofcomputers and communication facilities andobsolete systems and databases. The resultsof the survey revealed that the aquaculturesector in Asia did not yet have reliableinformation systems and services to support thesector�s management, that the informationsystems developed through external support hadbecome nearly obsolete or had not beenupdated, and that the existing computer and

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communication technologies probably were notbeing used to their potential. The sector has sofar lacked basic ingredients to develop andestablish an effective information system; e.g.understanding of information requirements forsector management, political will andmanagement commitment to improveaccessibility, availability and utilization of dataand information; and leadership.

The interest of the participants from thecountries to adopt the SIPAM conceptual modelwas high and clearly expressed in the report ofthe meeting. It was also recognized that theadoption of the SIPAM strategy and model inAsia would require a number of steps to redesignthe data bases which should be more in linewith the species and technologies common inthe region. The paticipants agreed that theadopted report should be presented to the APFICsession in Beijing, while the workshop co-organizer, NACA, would present the report toits next Governing Council for endorsement andadvice on follow-up.

IFAD Grant for Southern Africa

The �Sub-regional Project for theIntegration of Aquaculture into IrrigatedSmall-Farming Systems in Southern Africa�is ready for signature. The International Fundfor Agricultural Development (IFAD) hasapproved a grant for a project to be implementedby the FAO in Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabweover three years. The project aims at maximizingthe returns from investments made in irrigationsystems in Southern Africa by including variousforms of aquaculture in on-going schemesfunded by IFAD. There are a large number ofreservoirs built in these three countries. Zambiahas more than 2 000 reservoirs, Malawi hasapproximately 1 000 and Zimbabwe about12 000, which represent a strong potential forintegration of fisheries and aquaculturepractices. The project will continue the line ofwork of ALCOM and the FAO Special Programmefor Food Security, which had initiated activitiesfor integration of aquaculture in Zambia (seeFAN 19, p.14).

The goal of the project is to introduce anddevelop farmer friendly techniques forintegrating aquaculture into irrigated agriculturein order to increase the return per unit of landand the quality of the water used. This will beaccomplished through four main activities: thedevelopment of farmer friendly technology for

integration of aquaculture and irrigatedagriculture, the validation of the technology, itsdiffusion and the organization of national andregional awareness on IAA (IntegratedAgriculture Aquaculture). The project plans towork on 20 different sites per country and willuse a participatory planning approach to selectthe technology packages with the farmers. Oneinternational expert is expected to support theactivities at national and regional level for thefirst 15 months of the project. This project willcoordinate its activities closely with the newphase of ALCOM, the design of which should befinalized by the end of 1999, and with the SIWUPproject in Zambia.

ALCOM

A 15-month prepa-ratory phase of theproject IntegratedAquatic Systems forSmallholder Farmershas been approved bythe Belgian Govern-ment and is now operational. The project aimsto improve overall productivity from integratedfarming practices and improve living standards,through optimum use of available waterresources. It represents the continuation of theALCOM programme into its final stage, whichshould be formulated in the course of thispreparatory phase. The ALCOM programme hasdemonstrated the importance of aquaticresources for smallholder food security, withponds and dams serving as food �banks� andfor storage of crucial water reserves for domesticand agricultural use. Field activities will assistin identifying enhanced management strategiesfor these resources. In the aggregate, thesestrategies form templates, which can be appliedto smallholder communities region-wide.

To promote these strategies, the projectactivities have strongly emphasized the socio-economic aspects of resources management,underscoring the necessity of understandingstakeholder priorities for resources utilization.The project will strengthen the capacities ofcollaborating institutions and services, as wellas resource persons and leaders in stakeholdergroups in participating countries. At the end ofthe preparatory phase, additional technicalassistance will be provided to complete theinstitutionalization of ALCOM within SADC. This

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last phase will last five years. The project willcontinue to operate from Harare and will includeone international and three national experts.

National Training Course in DiseaseDiagnosis and Surveillance in CulturedAquatic Animals - Research InstituteNo. 1, Ha Bac, Viet Nam, 07�11 June 1999

The five-day training programme was aimed atproviding assistance to Vietnamesediagnosticians on Level I diagnostic as agreedand recommended through the Asia RegionalProject on Quarantine and Health Certification(TCP/RAS/6714). Thirty participants includingsix from Laos and Cambodia attended thetraining programme. The course was organizedby NACA and hosted by the Vietnam ResearchInstitute for Aquaculture No. 1 (RIA1). Theworkshop was jointly sponsored by FAO, NACA,Australian Agency for International Development(Aus-AID), Australian Department of Agriculture,Fisheries and Forestry (AFFA) and the ThailandAquatic Animal Health Research Institute(AAHRI). This is one of the five National TrainingWorkshops to be conducted under therecommendations of the TCP/RAS/6714,financially assisted by Aus-AID, AAHRI, NACA,and FAO.

The workshop discussed and learned about thefollowing issues and subject areas:

· NACA/FAO regional programme and theobjectives and expected outcomes from thetraining course;

· surveillance and diagnostics - levels I/II/IIIas agreed by the Asia regional countries;

· major aquatic animal diseases in Vietnam;

· Institutional set-ups in Vietnam (who helpsthe farmers with their disease problems);

· disease situation and institutional set-up inCambodia;

· disease situation and institutional set-up inLaos;

· disease in aquaculture - concepts of causes,transmission and control;

· principles of sampling and surveillance;

· recognising common fish and shrimpdiseases (farm level, pond level, animallevel);

· health management and record keeping(general issues) and

· developing a disease reporting system.

Fourth Technical Co-ordination Meetingof the South Pacific AquacultureDevelopment Project (SPADP) Phase II

The fourth Technical Co-ordination Meeting(TCM) was held in Tokatoka Hotel, Nadi, Fiji,from 18-19 March 1999. The meeting was at-tended by the representatives from Cook Is-lands, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Papua New Guinea,Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu, Sec-retariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), Uni-versity of the South Pacific (USP) and represen-tatives from FAO RAP Office. The meeting wasalso attended by donor representative and mem-bers of the SPADP Evaluation Mission Team. Themeeting was chaired by Mr. Esaroma Ledua ofthe Fisheries Division of the Government of Fiji.This was the last TCM of the SPADP, which wasdue to terminate its operation in August 1999.Mr. H. Tanaka, Project Manager, presented a briefoutline of the project activities carried out duringthe period from January 1998 to February 1999.The major activities carried were as follows:

In Fiji:· Feasibility study on community-based

milkfish farming

· Site survey for tilapia cage farming and cagedesign

· Liaison service for giant clam shipment fromFiji to Samoa

· Advisory services on the relocation of theNaduruloulou Freshwater AquacultureResearch Center and fish feed manufacturing

· Advisory services on site selection for theproposed national pearl hatchery and on thedesign of small-scale pearl hatchery

In Kiribati:· Assistance to the Government of Kiribati on

the renewal of seaweed sale contract withCopenhagen Pectin

· Advisory services on seacucumber culture,trochus seed production, bait milkfishfarming (Temaiku Farm), cockle stockenhancement and black-lip pearl oysterprojects

In Nauru:· Advisory services to the government on

utilizing Buada Lagoon for food fishproduction

· Milkfish fry collection and farming

· Assistance in the formulation of a projectfor UNDP funding

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In Palau:· Advisory services on the rehabilitation of

milkfish ponds and stocking programme

· Restoration of giant clam hatchery

· Feasibility of seaweed farming

· Marine & freshwater prawn farming fordomestic consumption

· JICA/US Coral Research Project

In Samoa:· Advised on tilapia, shrimp and mullet culture

development and on the possibilities ofseaweed farming

In Solomon Islands:· Provided advice on the development of

commercial shrimp Islands farming andseaweed farming

In Tonga:· Assistance in the development of small-scale

pearl-oyster hatchery

· Micro-algae culture for pearl oyster seedproduction

· Seaweed spore preservation and seaweedfarming (Cladosiphon)

In Vanuatu:· Assisted the government in oyster spat

collection methods

In Papua New Guinea:· Assisted in the Java carp seed production

In Federated States of Micronesia:· Advised on Mabe peal production techniques

and green snail culture in Kosrae

Under the Manpower Development Programme,the project has carried out a sponge farmingworkshop in the Federated States of Micronesiaand a regional group training on marine snailseed production and stock enhancement inTonga. The project also supported training oftechnical officials through participation intraining courses abroad in seaweed culture,shrimp hatchery etc. In addition, the projectsupplied technical information to all the membercountries as and when requested.

The South Pacific Comission (SPC) has acceptedthe responsibility for future aquaculturedevelopment in the South Pacific. However, ithas not yet succeeded in identifying donorsupport for this activity. TCM expressed the hopethat SPC would be able to identify donor supportvery soon and that USP and ICLARM wouldexpand their activities bearing in mind theimpending termination of SPADP.

VIET NAMAquaculture in the Northern UplandsProject

In the context of a UNDP funded projectAquaculture in the Northern Uplands, theFAO has been requested by UNDP and theGovernment to participate, through theprogramme on Support for Technical Servicesat the Project Level (STS), to provide technicalassistance in certain components of the project.This UNDP project aims at building local capacitybased on community participation to enable poorand remote ethnic minority groups to undertakea development programme in Aquaculture. Thiswill include resource assessment, planning andimplementation of an action plan. The projectalso gives stress to the strengthening of anextension network and improvement of seedproduction and delivery systems to providedirect support to the upland ethnic minorities.Geographic coverage includes districts of LaiChau, Son La and Hoa Binh provinces. Theproject has a duration of three years and theFAO intervention will center on provision ofexpertise on micro-credit, integrated rice-fishfarming, fish health management plus additionalad hoc consultancies.

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NEW FAO PUBLICATIONS

3132

CIHEAM/FAO. 1999. Marine finfish speciesdiversification: current situation andprospects in Mediterranean aquaculture.Série B: Etudes et Recherche, No.24,Options Méditerranéennes. Zaragoza,Spain. 139pp.

Recent years have seen a significant increase inthe number of studies and publications relatedto the cultivation of new species. Besides papers

published in scientific periodicalsand presented in variousaquaculture meetings, severalthematic meetings have beenorganized to review and discussprogress in knowledge ofpotential new species ofinterest for Mediterraneanaquaculture. The TECAM (theNetwork on Technology ofAquaculture in theMediterranean) Workshop onMarine Aquaculture FinfishSpecies Diversification held inNicosia, Cyprus, on 14-17June 1995, and the

International Symposium on New Speciesfor Mediterranean Aquaculture held in Alghero,Italy, 22-24 April 1998, are good examples.

This publication presents the results of a surveyof marine finfish diversification (for aquaculture)in the Mediterranean region, which was carriedout by TECAM as a follow up on therecommendations of the TECAM Workshopmentioned above. The overall objective of thesurvey and the resulting publication was to fostercommunication and collaboration in the regionon the development of new species, bydocumenting on-going efforts and the status andconstraints of identified new species underinvestigation (rather than to provide acomprehensive technical review). The surveycovered species screening and selection effortsby public institutions and private firms. The

participation of sectors in the survey (the formerconstituted 34 percent of respondents) opensthe door for collaboration between them intackling main constraints to the commercialculture of promising species

The survey identifies 26 species and presents asummary of biological characteristics and cultureinformation for each. Another useful item is anannex incorporating the address and contactperson for each institution/company thatparticipated in the survey.

NACA/FAO. 1998. Quarterly aquatic animaldisease report (Asia and Pacific Region), July-September 1998. Bangkok, NACA. 38 pp.

NACA/FAO. 1998. Quarterly aquatic animaldisease report (Asia and Pacific Region),October-December 1998. Bangkok, NACA..Bangkok, NACA. 41pp.

The establishment of a regional aquatic animaldisease reporting system is one of the majorcomponents of the FAO/NACA/OIE Regionalprogramme on �Development of TechnicalGuidelines on Quarantine and HealthCertification, and the Establishment ofInformation Systems for the ResponsibleMovement of Live Aquatic Animals in Asia�, whichis implemented under the FAO Technical Co-operation Programme Project, entitledAssistance to Safe Trans-boundaryMovement of Live Aquatic Animals in Asia -(FAO TCP/RAS/6714).

These two publications, which complement theOIE Quarterly Aquatic Animal Disease Report,represent the first two quarterly aquatic animaldisease reports compiled at the national levelby the National-Coordinators of the abovementioned FAO/NACA/OIE Regional Project andcollated for the region by the NACA Secretariatin Bangkok. The format of the report was agreedand adopted by 21 project member

Ziad H. Shehadeh

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governments. FAO and NACA believe that thisregular reporting mechanism will facilitateinternational movement of live aquatic animalsin Asia-Pacific with reduced risk of introductionand transfer of associated pathogens.

Kapetsky, J.M. & Chakalall, B. 1998. A stra-tegic assessment of the potential for fresh-water fish farming in the Caribbean IslandStates. Una evaluación estratégica de lapotencialidad para la pisciculturadulceacuicola en los Estadus Insulares selCaribe. COPESCAL Technical Paper/Documento Técnico de la COPESCAL.No. 10,Suppl./Supl. Rome/Roma, FAO. 41pp.

The report describes the potential for inland fishfarming in the Caribbean Island States basedon methods used in an earlier study (�A strategicassessment of the potential for freshwater fishfarming in Latin America�, COPESCAL TechnicalPaper, No. 10, 1997) used to estimatefreshwater fish farming in Latin America. Four

criteria were used toestimate potential for small-scale fish farming in ponds:water loss, potential forfarmgate sale, soil andterrain suitability for pondsand availability ofagriculture by-products asfeed or fertilizer inputs. Afifth criterion � urbanmarket potential, wasadded in order toestimate potential forcommercial fish farming.These criteria wereweighed in differentways to construct small-

scale and commercial fish farming models onthe basis of expert advice. Numbers of cropsper year of Nile tilapia and common carp werepredicted based on monthly climatic variables,while small-scale and commercial level outputswe simulated by varying feeding levels and sizeat harvest. Combining the small-scale andcommercial models with the simulations of fishproduction provided overall suitability ratingsfor each 5 arc minute grid (approximately 9x9km). Field verifications were carried out inJamaica and the Dominican Republic.

The results suggest good potential for freshwa-ter fish farming in the Caribbean Island Stateswith relatively large areas rating very suitableor suitable for the combined criteria, and withrelatively high crops/year output of the speciesconsidered. The results of the field verifications

indicated the importance of local knowledge forthe interpretation of the predictions.

Hoggarth, D.D.; Cowan, V.J.; Halls, A.S.;Aeron-Thomas, M.; McGregor, J.A.;Garaway, C.A.; Payne, A.L.; Welcomme, R.L.1999. Management guidelines for Asianfloodplain river fisheries. Part 1. A spatial,hierarchical and integrated strategy foradaptive co-management. FAO FisheriesTechnical Paper. No. 384/1. Rome, FAO.1999. 63pp.

Hoggarth, D.D.; Cowan, V.J.; Halls, A.S.;Aeron-Thomas, M.; McGregor, J.A.;Garaway, C.A.; Payne, A.L.; Welcomme, R.L.1999. Management guidelines for Asianfloodplain river fisheries. Part 2. Summaryof DFID research. FAO Fisheries TechnicalPaper. No. 384/2. Rome, FAO. 1999. 117pp.

This technical paper provides guidelines for anintegrated management strategy for floodplainriver fisheries. The paper is written in twoseparate volumes. Part 1 presents guidelines ina �user-friendly� format, to promote their uptakeby fishery managers, policy makers and fieldofficers. Recommendations are given both onthe alternative technical tools which may be usedto manage river fisheries and on the institutionalfactors required for their success. The highlyvariable ecological and social characteristics offloodplain rivers demand locally appropriate andadaptive solutions, rather than a single�blueprint� approach. The recommendedmanagement strategy allocates responsibilitiesboth hierarchically and spatially, and promotesthe effective collaboration of government,communities and other stakeholders atappropriate levels.

The more technical Part 2 describes theunderlying research work, which provided muchof the basis for these management guidelines.Investigations were made during four projectsfunded by the UK Department For InternationalDevelopment (DFID), in Bangladesh, India,Indonesia, Nepal and Thailand between 1992and 1997. Part 2 describes the floodplain riverenvironments, and the fish stocks and fishingpractices found at some of these study sites.Justification is given for a range of technicalmanagement tools for river fisheries, includingthe use of access control and irrigation schemesto give benefits to fishing as well as agriculture.Final chapters in Part 2 describe lessons learnton the management of enhancement fisheries(e.g. based on fish stocking), and on theprospects and limitations of participatorymanagement for these resources.

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