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Attributes of meaningful learningexperiences in an outdoor educationprogramStacy T. Taniguchi a , Patti A. Freeman a & A. LeGrand Richards aa Brigham Young University , USAPublished online: 06 Aug 2007.

To cite this article: Stacy T. Taniguchi , Patti A. Freeman & A. LeGrand Richards (2005) Attributes ofmeaningful learning experiences in an outdoor education program, Journal of Adventure Education andOutdoor Learning, 5:2, 131-144, DOI: 10.1080/14729670585200661

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Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning Vol 5 (2), 131 - 144, 2005

Attributes of Meaningful Learning Experiences in an Outdoor Education Program

Stacy T. Taniguchi Patti A. Freeman

A. LeGrand Richards Brigham Young University, USA

Abstract This phenomenological study sought to identify the attributes of meaningful learning experiences as found in an outdoor education program. Thirteen students in the Wilderness Writing Program at Brigham Young University were the sample of this study. Their participation in outdoor recreational activities and their reflections about their experiences were analyzed. Through written journal entries, group discussions, observations, and writing assignments, a qualitative analysis identified attributes that occurred in their meaningful learning experiences. Meaningful learning was defined as a realization of a person's weaknesses, strengths, and potentials. This realization came through experiences with attributes of a degree of perceived risk, which led to a feeling of awkwardness, followed by a purifying process, or sublimation. A reflective period allowed for reconstruction of a person's view of himself or herself and this was closely tied with feedback from others in the group.

Introduction

As educators and recreational professionals, we have seen the full spectrum of learning experiences that are meaningful to one particular group and almost meaningless to another. For some, the learning experience was filled with excitement, and for others, boredom. We wondered what may account for the range of experiences.

Dewey (1938) stated that a democratic society needs educated citizens who will be capable of making positive contributions to the betterment of that society. These citizens need to be prepared through relevant experiences that provide a sense of self-worth and models of being good citizens. Dewey's pragmatic philosophy of education acknowledged that people have many experiences in their life time, but those experiences that are followed by a period of reflection can lead to something learned or an educative experience. However, not all educative experiences provide individuals with memories of excitement to learn new insights about themselves. For instance, students have educative experiences to solve quadratic equations or learn the sequence of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. They may have a sense of accomplishment to have learned these things, but are not necessarily excited about what they have learned because these experiences lack a level of relevancy in their lives.

In order for experiences to be meaningful to individuals, Palmer (2004) suggested bringing us back to our whole selves. Society has divided our lives into parcels that are dedicated to meeting certain expectations. For example, there is an academic part of us that should conform to certain standards in order to be successful at school, a professional part that has expectations that guide our progress in what we do for a living, and a social part that has rules of etiquette that allows us to be accepted

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by others. We lose sight of who we are as we try to conform to what we think society expects of us. As Palmer suggested, meaningful learning experiences go beyond just learning something; they guide people's perceptions of who they really are and what are they capable of.

Based on Dewey's concept of the educative experience and Palmer's view of meaningful learning experiences, we were interested in discovering, what are the attributes that can lead an educative experience to a meaningful one? Given the potential for growth from meaningful learning experiences, it seems beneficial to determine what the attributes of such experiences are. The identification of such attributes may give educators the tools to create experiences that excite students, that help them to realize what they need to work on and what they are capable of doing. Therefore, the purpose of this research study was to identify the attributes of such meaningful learning experiences for college-aged participants in an outdoor adventure-based education program.

Literature Review

Dewey sought to redirect the focus of philosophy from a discipline that attempts to define what troth is to a discipline that strives to advance well-being (Oliver, 1999). He proposed that people are interested in and capable of getting better control over their environment, broadening their horizons, and improving their lives (Posner, 2003). Therefore, one goal of educators should be to improve the lives of the students they educate (Dewey, 1938). Dewey felt that a way to make such an improvement was to offer students an education that was relevant to them by focusing on experiences that mimicked real life situations.

Experiential education provides learning experiences that Dewey advocated (Beard & Wilson, 2002; Coleman, 1979; Henry, 1989; Itin, 1999; Joplin, 1995; Phipps, 1988; Prochazka, 1985; Proudman, 1995; Wurdinger, 1994). Researchers agree with Dewey that the learning process involves more than just being exposed to an experience; time for reflection gives the experience more opportunity for permanency and relevance (Beard & Wilson, 2002). Reflection on the experience may provide the opportunity for that experience to be meaningful, but reflection alone does not make an experience define an individual, or necessarily, excite a person about what he or she is discovering.

It is this relevancy that makes the effort worthwhile and stirs the desire to learn more. Experiences that are relevant to individuals provide insight to their inner self (Palmer, 2004). These insights are more than memorizing the alphabet or calculating the volume of a cylinder. Palmer suggests that we need to provide experiences that help people discover their whole self or the soul from which we gain the relevant and meaningful knowledge for improvement. Such experiences add to the educative experiences.

As educators who strive to offer opportunities to learn, many of us look for ways to help our students improve their lives. We hope that the improvements make the students educated and contributing citizenry of our democratic society. However, whatever method of instruction we use, this improvement should be partially based on experiences that result in knowledge gained that helps students discover relevant insights to their lives.

To better understand and interpret the experiences and perceptions of students in this study, the researchers drew upon two epistemological views of reality. The first is existentialism. It provides the foundation of why there is an inherently human desire to know the reality of one's existence.

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The second is the transcendentalists' view of the sublime, a concept that is used to find meaning in personal reflected experiences.

Existentialism Existentialism provides a philosophical basis for those who advocate that experiences, especially those that expose a person's fragile state, help define one's reality. The experience of being in the natural outdoor setting can be overwhelming. Subsequently, this can set the stage for individuals to confront the consciousness of their mortality by recognizing they cannot control nature (Kaplan & Talbot, 1983).

As individuals recognize the relationship between their existence and the natural environment, they become aware of the timelessness of the natural environment. This awareness gives them a reference point from which they see their temporary existence. As a result, learning becomes a relevant process of discovery in response to this consciousness. Through this process, there is a form of emancipation where one can find meaning through reflection of experiences (Greene, 1978).

As a person faces the discomforts and dangers provided by the challenges of a natural outdoor setting, such as cold and hot temperatures, getting wet, experiencing fatigue, etc., the natural outdoors can provide an experientially based awareness of one's mortality. This awareness makes the experience relevant.

Transcendental Philosophy: The Judgment of the Sublime Immanuel Kant believed that knowledge is gained from experience, but not all knowledge is gained that way. He advocated the philosophy that there is a structure of knowledge that transcends experiences and, therefore, is apriori (Oliver, 1999). This structure of knowledge is what Kant refers to as analytic judgment and is an essential part of man's understanding of truths (Zammito, 1992). Kant implied there is knowledge that exists that depends on a level of comprehension beyond the empirical senses. Only by analytical judgment does a person make this comprehension.

The application of a priori knowledge is accomplished by experiences. This is what Kant refers to as synthetic judgment. Synthetic judgment requires that more validation is necessary and this validation is sensed through experiences.

Kant (1892) provided the a priori concept of the dynamically sublime. The sublime is not a description, but is the essence of an object. Unlike a person's description of the beauty of something, which is sensual and descriptive, the sublime is the nobility of the object or person. This nobility is a part of a person or object regardless of any experiences that a person has (Zammito, 1992).

The discovery of the sublime, however, comes with a price (Kant, 1892). The sublime is grounded in initial disappointment because of the immensity of what is boundless and formless. The emotions are overwhelming and, therefore, the process of discovery is frustrating, disappointing, and even humiliating as the reality of the essence of something or someone comes into formation (Kant, 1892). But the realization of the sublime also brings about the good and pleasurable feelings that come after the discovery of the sublime. For example, Palmer (2004) stated that when he visited the Boundary Waters of northern Minnesota after a terrible storm, many of the trees in that area were destroyed. But, on subsequent visits, he was "astonished to see how nature uses devastation to stimulate new growth" (Palmer, 2004, p. 5).

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Attributes (~f Meaning~l Learning Experiences in an Outdoor Education Program

This research study focused on Kant's notion of knowledge that transcends experiences (analytic judgment), but does not deny that experiences help define the application of this knowledge (synthetic judgment). The sublime is personal, and therefore, may help to discover what makes personal experiences meaningful.

Dewey (1938) advocated for a democratic society made up of an educated citizenry who are prepared to make worthwhile contributions. He proposed that the best way to educate that citizenry is by offering them educative experiences. Yet, experiences with time for reflection are not all successful in creating an excitement for learning, a sense of relevant improvement, or a discovery of who we are and what we are capable of. According to Palmer (2004), we need experiences that reveal "an ontological reality of selfhood that keeps us from reducing ourselves to biological mechanisms, psychological projections, sociological constructs, or raw material to be manufactured into whatever we think society needs" (p. 33). We need to go beyond Dewey's educative experience and reach Palmer's meaningful one.

Method of Study

This study locused on an outdoor education program at Brigham Young University (BYU) called the Wilderness Writing Program (WWP). The WWP is an adventure-based education program with an emphasis on self-discovery and formation of an environmental ethic. This WWP was developed and instructed by two BYU professors, one from the English Department and the other from the Recreation Management Depamnent. The researchers were invited by the instructors to conduct their research with the students in the program; they had no influence on the contents of the program.

Sample The data were collected from a convenience sample of l 3 participants who were enrolled in the BYU Winter Semester Wilderness Writing Program. There were four male participants and nine female participants. The sample included four freshmen, one sophomore, one junior, and seven seniors. The students' major areas of study varied from the social sciences to the natural sciences. One of the male students was married with no children; the other 12 students were not married. The average age was 20.4 years (s = 1.94). The participants had varying levels and types of experiences in outdoor settings.

Program Description The WWP consisted of two courses that were taken together in the same semester. The Introduction to Outdoor Recreation course had the students participate in four outdoor activities. The activities included a winter campout where students had to build and sleep in a snow cave, a three-day backpacking trip in a Utah desert canyon, a ropes course seminar, and a cross-country skiing outing. The Wilderness Writing course required students to write personal essays concerning their experiences in the outdoor activities. Self-analysis through journal and personal essay writing was at the center of this program (Bennion & Olsen, 2002).

Procedures The principal researcher also participated in the four outdoor activities, allowing him to take observation notes. At the end of each day of an activity, the participants made daily journal entries regarding their reflective perceptions of their experiences. After each activity was completed, the

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primary researcher facilitated group discussion sessions, which allowed the participants to reflect on their perceptions of what they were doing, thinking, and learning during and right after their outdoor experiences. The discussions also gave insight to what class participants perceived about each other. The participants were also required to write personal essays about their involvement in each outdoor activity experience and their interaction with others during the activities. A conference between each participant and the writing professor took place at least once during the program to assist the participants to better express their feelings in the essays. A researcher attended these conferences as an observer. The focus of the conferences was on the description of the experience and not on trying to assist the students in framing or understanding their experiences. The conferences and discussions were tape recorded and later transcribed. The recordings, essays, and journal entries were collected for triangulation of sources and analysis.

Analysis Attempts to identify the stocks of knowledge (Schulz, 1970) that were common and frequently shared amongst the participants of this study were accomplished through their journal writings, personal essays, and discussion groups. The data was analyzed using line-by-line open coding and axial coding methods, assisted by the qualitative analysis computer program, QSR NVivo. The characteristics that appeared to be common for the experiences were analyzed in conjunction with the stocks of knowledge identified in order to form typifications (Holstein & Gubrium, 2000).

In qualitative research, trustworthiness is conceptually related to reliability and validity (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). Several trustworthiness procedures were followed in this study to establish reliability and validity among the qualitative data. Credibility, the qualitative equivalent of internal validity, was established using member checking. Dependability and confirmability, the qualitative equivalent of reliability, was achieved through the use of an inquiry audit. Four external auditors examined the transcriptions and the qualitative data analysis process. They confirmed the resulting codes and attributes.

Findings

Five attributes of the outdoor experiences of this program emerged from the analysis of the research data: (a) perceiving risk, (b) feeling awkward or uneasy, (c) experiencing fractional sublimation, (d) reconstructing a self-image, and (e) allowing for growth. Each of these attributes was pervasive and typified what the participants perceived as Palmer's (2004) meaningful discovery of the whole self. The sequential nature of these attributes appeared to be critical to having a meaningful learning experience.

Perceiving Risk This study considered risk to be the chance that a state of awkwardness may result from participation in an activity or experience. As exemplified by one female participant's written entry, risk and awkwardness seem to be related, "Although I try to avoid awkward situations, I have a tendency to land in the middle since I take risks." This statement illustrates that the perception of risk precedes the state of awkwardness.

The perception of risk could vary from a potentially embarrassing situation to a life-threatening experience. Most of the risk perceptions experienced by the participants were between these two extremes. These perceptions were due to the participants' lack of aptitude for the activity or situation,

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a lack of physical abilities to overcome the problems presented, and/or an uncomfortable feeling due to environmental factors.

The level of perceived risk was an important consideration for the participants, and some types of risks were considered greater challenges than others. Risks that had the potential to produce physical discomfort without injury were considered lesser risks than the risk of injury. Regardless of the actual level of risk, just the perception of risk in an outdoor activity seemed to lead to the process of having a meaningful learning experience. One female participant stated:

... I learned the most about myself, and about trusting people, and about trusting myself, and about my strengths and my weaknesses when I was terrified and I wasn't sure i f l was going to wake up in the morning in the (snow) cave . . .

Feel ing Awkward The second common attribute of these experiences was identified by the participants as awkwardness. Four of the 13 participants specifically used awkwardness, and described these moments as the state of being uncomfortable due to the unfamiliarity of the situation. This state involved a sense of inconvenience, ignorance of what was happening and/or what to do, a lack of ability to perform necessary actions, a sense of being out-of-place, or being in a situation that was unmanageable (Guralnik, 1966). Awkwardness was not synonymous with danger, or necessaril), a negative experience. A male participant stated:

1 downhill ski, but cross-country skiing is different enough that I feel like a little baby learning to walk and continuously trip over my own feet. It's embarrassing, but I never fel t like my safety was in jeopardy.

As duration of the awkward situation increased, the quality of the meaningful learning experience seemed to decrease. One male participant stated, "I am tired of this; the initial excitement has worn of f I no longer feel adventurous ... I have fallen too often." It appeared that there was a point at which the awkward feeling became frustrating and even created a feeling of hopelessness. Similarly, experiencing the same awkward state over and over in a short period of time was detrimental to the meaningful learning process. Several of the participants noted that repeating the same situations of awkwardness led to boredom rather than finding meaning in the activity. For example, after hiking for several days, some of the participants felt that the only meaning there was in the red rocks of the canyon was that the rock was red.

The important aspect of the awkward state was that there was recognition of this state and the individual's vulnerability while in this awkward state. There were challenges with no quick fixes. A female participant stated, "Doing, feeling, and experiencing are part of learning; the mind may require the stimulation of the awkward moments."

Experiencing Fractional Sublimation The third attribute, fi 'actional sublimation, described the process of shedding facades Palmer (2004) refers to as the parts of a person. Shedding the facades allowed the whole or sublime self be discovered. Typically, sublimation is a reference to a chemical purifying process. In certain environments, a substance can have impurities in a solid state. In order to return to its purest form, a sublimation process is required. For example, dry ice is carbon dioxide in its solid state and it usually carries impurities in the solid state. As higher temperatures are introduced, the dry ice sublimates to a pure gas form of carbon dioxide leaving behind the impurities. The resulting gas state is more

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pure than the solid state due to the sublimation process. Since complete sublimation is not possible from a brief outdoor experience, fractional sublimation is used to describe this process.

Palmer (2004) suggests that the tendency to fabricate facades is done to create a personal image based on how individuals perceive what society expects them to be. A male participant stated, "Also,

there's kind o f a public face that people put on. You want people to perceive you this way." These facades hide the sublime nature of an individual. These facades may be physical items, such as dress, coiffure, cosmetics, and adornments. Others are manifested through behavior, such as the way a person interacts with others, what she or he says, or the person's projection of body language. This image is usually fabricated on a more grandiose scale than what is reality, yet facades projecting an inferior image can still hide the sublime. As one female participant stated, "l 'm usually not very good at athletic things, but I 'm definitely learning to enjoy trying."

Some aspect of the environment or the participants' relationship with the environment seemed to trigger this process of sublimation. A connection to the awkwardness created by the environment was indicated in every comment regarding letting down a facade. A female participant stated, "I have found that when I am out in the wilderness, I can't hide from my true self."

This study points to the phenomenon of fractional sublimation as the process that Kant (1892) referred to as the painful aspect of realizing the sublime. As one male participant put it, "For a man who has snow-skied all his life, to not be able to snowplow [on cross-country skis] correctly was painful." This Kantian pain of being overwhelmed by the discovery of true self has its origins in the psyche. Fractional sublimation was not a pleasurable experience for the participants because they had to confront their facades.

As the participants viewed the beauty and immensity of their natural surroundings, they seemed to connect their sublimation process with what was happening in the environment around them. The erosion of rock, the changes in the weather, and the adaptation of the flora and fauna became models of change. As a female participant wrote:

The canyon did not start that way, it started small and over time turned into something magnificent and breathtaking. In that moment, I started to think about me, about who I am, about who I want to become. After several miles, I concluded that God had His hand in my life. l, too, was to become His creation, His masterpiece. It will take time ... it will take work. I will have to withstand years o f rain and wind. But it will be worth it.

Fractional sublimation was accompanied by a variety of emotions. Some expressed surprise like, "It surprised me how scared I was." There were those who even expressed giving up, such as, "I could fee l the cold now ... and I literally longed fi)r death." Frustration was another emotion mentioned by some of the participants. A male participant wrote, "I becamefi 'ustrated with others in my group." These emotions were identified as indicators that the fractional sublimation process was taking place or had already taken place.

Reconstructing a Self-image Reconstruction of a self-image was an important attribute in the process of having a meaningful learning experience because this was the phase of defining what was meaningful from the experience. Reconstruction was composed of two sequential processes: Reflection followed by reformation. Reflection was usually a process done in solitude, but reformation was always a process made

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Attributes (~'Meaningfid Learning E~xpelqences in an Outdoor Education Program

possible by sharing the experiences with others during the group discussions. During the reflection process, the participants thought about their experiences and how they reacted to the situations they faced. Questions like, "How did I handle myself in this situation?", "Did I contribute positively or negatively to the situation?", and "What did I learn about myself?", were reflected upon. Critical to this process was the participants' recognition and acceptance to the answers to these questions and others like them. If there was recognition but no acceptance of what was realized in the fractional sublimation stage, the experience may have been educative, but not necessarily meaningful. Acceptance translated the experience into a personal realization of an aspect of a person's true self. This was the basis from which reconstruction of one's self began.

From what was learned during the reflection process, reformation developed as the participants realized their sublime nature and what they could do with this new insight of themselves. Identified weaknesses were addressed as to whether the weaknesses could be worked on and changed or lived with because the weakness was just part of their whole self. Strengths and potentials, which were usually identified by others who were part of the experience and not the individual, would be addressed as how they could be utilized for the improvement of one's self. A female participant stated:

What I saw about my true self was through the comments made by others who were with me. They were my mirror that showed me what I was really like and I trusted them because we shared the same experience. But they were supportive, not critical, and that helped me feel better about myself

This view is reminiscent of Mike Stroud (1997), an Antarctic explorer, who said that he needed to step outside of himself to get a really good view of who he was. For these participants, they relied on their classmates and instructors to give them that out-of-body perspective.

There were several participants who pointed out that the outdoor environment had an influential role in their self-discovery. As illustrated by the following male participant, his presence in the outdoors and interacting with it gave him a reference point from which to compare and contrast himself:

Obviously we don :t live in geologic time, but the trials that plague our lives are similar to those of the canyons. If we can compare the periods o f hurt and betrayal to the immense space o f eterni~, it is just like the rocks fracturing from the walls o f the cliff. It has to happen. It is the hand of God molding us into monolithic fortresses.

The experience of perceiving risk, feeling awkward, and experiencing fractional sublimation allowed for the reconstruction of self to occur. The canvas that portrayed the image of these individuals' lives had been wiped partially clean and the reconstructed self was the new image painted on as a foundation of their new self-portrait.

AUowing f o r Growth Growth was the final attribute in the phenomenon of meaningful learning experiences. Growth was the recognition that a personal change had occurred and that the process yielded results that were memorable and worthwhile. This attribute was not a part of the process of making meaningful learning experiences but was the result of meaningful learning. At this stage of the experience, the participant not only recognized that something influential happened but could identify what that something was. The participants were specific as to what was learned and many expressed how that had changed them. A female participant stated:

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A meaningful learning experience? Is that what is meant by the sharp pain in my bruised

knees as I hobble slightly back to my dorm room? Yes, I grew. My physical awkwardness

forced me to reveal my social awkwardness and the result was rewarding.

Twelve of the study's 13 participants felt that they had meaningful learning experiences in the WWP and expressed positive growth as the result of their experiences. Even though many of the participants initially perceived the risks and awkward situations were uncomfortable, all found the outcome of the experiences to be positive for them. The following excerpt from a female participant's personal essay illustrates this point:

I remember the cross-country trip and journal abstract. I was so worried about what the

assignment was and doing all that was required and so worried about doing it just right, and not sounding like an idiot that I wash 't able to open myself up. I wasn't really able to

enjoy the trip ... Since then, I have learned to enjoy the moment andJocus on the activity.

And later, as I write my journal, I have found the meaning or what I learned. It's been an interesting journey.

Growth was the verification that meaningful learning had taken place. The participants' expressions of growth at the end of the WWP were more than just the checked off excellent class rating on an evaluation form. All but one participant found the experiences meaningful and emotionally expressed their feelings about the program in very powerful words, as illustrated by the following female participant's comment:

Thank you for a wonderful class. It has caused me to believe that I can do more than I think I can do. I feel more connected to my environment; I want to learn more about it. It has

given me a sense of place, a sense o f belonging.

Discussion

All but one of the 13 students had a meaningful learning experience in the Wilderness Writing Program. A perception of risk appeared to set in motion the sequence of attributes identified for creating a meaningful learning experience. When risk was not identified by the participants, the other attributes did not appear to develop. As illustrated by one participant who perceived no risk in the activities, he could not accept what was being revealed about him during his reflection and, therefore, did not find a reason for reconstruction, a crucial theme in the creation of a meaningful learning experience. He claimed not to see meaning in his experience.

Under the attribute of risk, the participants' level of perceived risk appeared to influence two things. First, the participants had to decide if the risk was worth taking in the first place, and second, the potential for meaning was determined by the perception of risk. Some higher levels of perceived risk were too awkward for the participants to become involved in and, therefore, they chose not to participate. The potential for meaning was never a consideration when choosing whether to participate, but upon reflection after the different activities, it seemed clear that the degree of risk directly influenced how quickly the other attributes would follow. It is interesting to note that the actual degree of risk did not determine whether or not a meaningful learning experience could take place; just the perception of risk could trigger the other attributes. Even when one participant considered an activity a high risk and another considered the same activity a low risk, insights about oneself were gained.

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Awkwardness had three characteristics that re-occurred for all of the participants. First, the causes of awkwardness appeared to be important for the participants to identify. This helped establish reference points for future determinations concerning the degree of risk one might be willing to take during similar activities. This resulted in expected patterns of levels of risk participants were willing to take. Some were willing to take risks that led to awkward situations that were caused by inconvenience, but not risks that left them feeling out of control. Second, the duration of the awkwardness did not influence how meaningful the experience was for them. The meaningfulness of the experience was found to be in the cause of the awkwardness and not how long the participant remained in the situation. Finally, the third attribute of awkwardness was the recognition of the awkwardness. This recognition was essential in order for the participant to move on to the next stage of the phenomenon of creating meaningful learning.

Fractional sublimation had three descriptive components that appeared in this study. The first component was the natural outdoor environment becoming a reference point for comparison of oneself. Here, the existentialist's view of man's existence being compared and contrasted to his natural surroundings became evident through the reflections of the participants. Seven of the participants used the metaphor of the erosion of the earth as a reflection of their own sublimation. Many of the participants knew that facades were being peeled off because the outdoor environment required them to immediately deal with their sublimation. A second component of fractional sublimation was that it was not a pleasurable experience. The participants realized some unpleasant characteristics about themselves through the sublimation process. This resulted in a psychological pain, which was experienced during sublimation. It could manifest itself later as a physical pain, but not often. The third component of fractional sublimation was the emotion that was expressed as part of the recognition of this process. Whether it was surprise, disappointment, or frustration, emotions ran high at this particular stage of the phenomenon.

Two characteristics of reconstruction were important because they contributed to the actual creation of the meaningful experience. First was the recognition and acceptance of what resulted from the fractional sublimation was essential for the reconstruction to proceed. To recognize and accept that a fagade was exposed and peeled away, helped the person and others see the sublime nature of the individual. The second characteristic was using the natural environment as an analogy to what was happening to a person. It allowed individuals to use the outdoor setting as a model from which they could visualize their own personal reconstruction process. Seeing a river slowly carving out its own niche in a canyon helped the participants realize that what they had been going through during the activity was similar to this natural erosion process.

During reconstruction, the process of reflection allowed the participant to process what had occurred to them and put the important experiences into a context in which they could create meaning. Some of the participants pointed out that this phase could be done in solitude and some preferred to be alone during reflection. Following this reflection, the process of reformation allowed the participant to use his or her strengths and weaknesses to discover his or her potentials. This reformation was greatly enhanced with the help of others who shared the experiences with that individual. They gave feedback on what they saw about the individual and could explain how that person influenced the experience for them. Finally, reconstruction was an experience that caused one to be reflective regarding what had happened during the experience; it was not just an unnoticed moment in time.

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Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning Vol 5 (2), 2005

The final attribute of growth differed from the other four attributes in that it verified the phenomenon of a meaningful learning experience; rather than helped create it. Growth was the product of the previous four attributes, and has three unique characteristics. First, the participants recognized that something was learned and they could identify exactly what was learned. Second, growth was a positive experience for the participants. It was constructive. Finally, growth was an emotional experience. There were deep feelings that sometimes could not be written or verbally expressed, but were emotionally expressed. A tear, a laugh, or a smile indicated something good happened out of all this.

The findings of this study allowed us to create a model of what constitutes a meaningful learning experience and attempt to fill the gap between educative experiences and meaningful learning experiences (See Figure 1).

This model (see Figure 1 below) builds on Dewey's educative experience. Defining the experience with the first three themes found in this study, followed by a reconstruction period, comprising of reflection and reformation, sets the stage for a meaningful learning experience. Adding a time of recognizing and accepting the sublime realizations of self and allowing for a reformation of one's self-image with the help of others, who were with the person during the experience, brings about a reconstruction period and personal growth. This sequence of attributes makes the experience go beyond Dewey's educative one. The experience is now a meaningful learning experience.

F igu re 1. Meaningful learning experience model

Experience I

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Attributes of Meaningful Learning Experiences in an Outdoor Education Program

Conclusion and Implications

Meaningful learning came through experiences that had attributes of a degree of perceived risk, which led to a feeling of awkwardness, ~bllowed by a purifying process, or sublimation. A reflective period allowed for reconstruction of a person's view of himself or herself and this was closely tied with feedback from others in the group. This was Dewey's educative experience taken to the next level to create a meaningful learning experience. A meaningful learning experience is memorable and important because something valuable and applicable to life has been learned.

This new model provides a framework through which meaningful learning experiences can develop. We propose that the meaningful learning experiences that occurred during the WWP can occur in programs that offer the attributes identified in this study.

The implications of this study can be far-reaching for education because the focus is on relevant learning and self-awareness. If education should produce the contributing citizenry that Dewey (1916) and Posner (2003) advocate in a democratic society, then educators need to create similar meaningful learning experiences. These identified attributes can be the template for outdoor education programs to model and add their own variations to. These attributes may be used to create educational experiences in educational programs without wilderness resources. For example, using stories of those who have struggled and survived in an outdoor setting can vicariously portray the process that may lead to a meaningful learning experience. Educational programs without a wilderness focus may also use this framework to guide curriculum development. Re-enacting situations in history, problem-solving in actual scenarios, and giving students the opportunities to apply knowledge in real experiences will provide opportunities for meaningful learning experiences.

Recommendations for Further Research

More studies with different samples of age groups, different activities, gender-focused samples, recreational instead of academic settings, and family groups should be conducted to analyze the perceptions of people encountering risk and awkwardness that can give more details to the themes identified in this study. These studies may lead to potential variations that can be tested to determine if these attributes may be applicable to other learning environments.

The model of a meaningful learning experience emerged from the data and can be modified by findings from future studies. As the model is applied to different situations, such as with families, married couples, at-risk youth, and others, greater understanding of how we can create meaningful learning experiences will be established.

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Attributes qf Meaningful Learning Experiences in an Outdoor Education Program

Author Biographies

Stacy T. Taniguchi PhD is an assistant professor in the Department of Recreation Management and Youth Leadership at Brigham Young University. His primary research focus is on identifying and understanding meaningful experiences in outdoor educational and outdoor recreational settings. E-Mail: stacytaniguchi@byu.edu

Patti A. Freeman PhD is an associate professor in the Department of Recreation Management and Youth Leadership at Brigham Young University. Her research focuses on mothers and their perceptions of entitlement to leisure and recreational patterns of families with adopted children. E-Mail: patti freeman@byu.edu

A. Legrand Richards PhD is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Foundations at Brigham Young University. His research interests focus on the history of grading in schools and the relationship of demographics and educational opportunities. E-Mail: Buddy_Richards @ byu.edu

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