atomic theory & atomic structure. tro, chapter 4 & 9 sections 4.1 – 4.4, 4.8, 4.9; 9.2 –...
TRANSCRIPT
Atomic Theory &
Atomic Structure
Tro, Chapter 4 & 9
Sections 4.1 – 4.4, 4.8, 4.9; 9.2 – 9.9
Document BIG IDEAS about:
• Atomic structure– Electrons (mass, size, position)– Protons and neutrons (mass, position)– Isotopes
• Changes in (MODERN) thought – Dalton– Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr
• Quantum theory (CONTEMPORARY)
Early Atomic Theories
Democritis (400 BCE)
• First to propose idea of atom• Atom = “a” + “tomos” = cannot be
cut• Based solely on logic; not
supported by experiments
Alchemy(12-1500 CE)
• Modern word ‘chemistry’ came from Arabic ‘alkimiya’
• recognized importance of experimentation
• Responsible for developing lab equipment & procedures still used today
NOTE: Alchemy is a field, NOT a person…
Galileo(~1600 CE)
• Birth of modern science - combining logic, experimenting, publishing results
Lavosier & Priestly(1700’s)
• Quantitative analysis of chemicals
Law of Conservation of Mass:
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed
Proust(1700’s)
• Developed Law of Definite Proportions
Law of Definite Proportions:Different samples of the same compound always contain its
constituent elements in the same proportions by mass
Law of Definite Proportions
• Copper carbonate always contains – 5.3 parts copper– 4 parts oxygen– 1 part carbon
by mass
Dalton(1800’s)
• School teacher that proposed the first modern-day idea of atoms
Law of Multiple Proportions:If 2 elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that
combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in small whole # ratios
Law of Multiple Proportions
Dalton’s Atomic Theory - 1808• All matter is composed of atoms which
cannot be subdivided• Atoms of same element are identical
(size, mass, reactivity)• Atoms combine to form compounds in
simple, whole # ratios• Chemical reactions involve the
separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction
Modern Atomic Theories
General Principle #1 Electric Charges
Objects with an equal amount of positive and negative charge are said
to be electrically neutral
+ – positive negative
General Principle #2Forces between Charges
• Objects with like charge repel
• Objects with opposite charge attract
+ + ++
– + – +
Forces between Charges• Electrostatic force becomes
greater with more charge• Electrostatic force becomes
smaller the greater the distance between the charges
Thomson’s Atomic Model (1904)
Cathode Ray Experiments• Any metal worked
for anode• Negative electric
field repelled beam• Object placed in
path of glow blocked beam
J.J. Thomson’s Contribution
• Discovered the electron (1897)• Plum Pudding model• Determined the charge-to-mass
ratio of an electron using data from cathode ray tube experiments
Evidence & Conclusions• cathode rays consisted of subatomic
particles from atoms of anode• cathode rays are negatively charged
• must also be positive charge
• Millikan (oil drop experiment, 1909) calculated electron’s mass to be 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Modern View of Atomic Structure
Particle
SymbolRelativ
e Charge
Mass (kg)
proton p+ +1 1.6726 x 10-27
neutron
n0 0 1.67510 x 10-27
electron
e- -1 9.1096 x 10-31
+
0
nucleons
Modern View of Atomic Structure
Particle
Relative
ChargeMass (kg)
Relative mass (amu)
p+ +1 1.6726 x 10-27 ~1
n0 0 1.67510 x 10-
27 ~1
e- -1 9.1096 x 10-31 ~0
+
0
Rutherford’s Problems• How is nucleus held together?• Why don’t electrons collapse into
nucleus?• H atom has 1 proton & He atom has
2 protons, mass ratio should be 2:1; instead the ratio is 4:1
…there must be another particle
The Gold Foil Experiment: Hypothesis
• The α-particles will pass straight through the atoms
What is an () alpha particle?
It is a positively charged Helium nucleus
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
The Gold Foil Experiment: Outcome
What’s happening?
The Gold Foil Experiment: Conclusions
Atoms :• must be mostly
space• must have a very
small, dense area of + charge
• Protons have same charge as e-, but almost 2000x more mass!
The Neutron• Discovered by James Chadwick in
1932.• Neutron is electrically neutral &
has slightly greater mass than a proton
Mystery solved.
Atomic theory timeline
Updating Dalton’s Atomic Theory
3 major differences between modern atomic theory & Dalton’s atomic theory:
• Atoms are NOT indivisible – they are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons
• Atoms of the same element are NOT exactly alike – they can have different masses (isotopes)
• Atoms CAN be changed from one element to another, but not by chemical reactions (nuclear reactions)
Atomic Structure & Isotopes
Atomic Mass Unit (amu)• defined as a more convenient unit
for reporting mass of small numbers of atoms
• 12C is used as the reference• 1 amu is defined as exactly 1/12 of
a 12C atom
Getting Information from the Periodic Table
6C
12.0111
Atomic # = # p+ in nucleus
Elemental symbol
Atomic mass (more on this later)
Isotopic Notation• Atomic number (Z) = # of p+ in the nucleus• Mass number (A) = sum of # p+ & n0 in
nucleus• For a neutral atom, # e- = # p+
H11 He4
2 C126 O16
8 Zn6330
Mass number (A)
Examples
Atomic number (Z)
Isotopes• All atoms in an element have the
same atomic number• However, 2 atoms of the same
element can have different mass numbers – called isotopes
• Isotopes have:– Same # of p+
– Different # of no
Some Common Isotopes
H
H
H
11
21
31
C
C
C
126
136
146
U
U
23592
23892
Relative Abundance
Mass Spectrometry• Technique used to determine
atomic mass
e-
Atom bombarded by stream of high energy electrons
e-
e- collides with atom, “bounces” off, but transfers some energy to it
e-
+Atom dissipates excess energy by expelling an electron
Mass Spectrometry, cont.• Ions are accelerated through a magnetic field• Amount of deflection depends on the ion’s mass• Highest mass deflected least
• Lowest mass deflected most
N
S
++ +
+
++++
Mass Spectrometry, cont.
Mass (amu)
Sample mass spec for chlorine
Relative abundance of each isotope can be determined from relative peak heights
35 37
Relative Abundance & Atomic Mass
• Relative isotopic abundance is then used to calculate atomic mass
• Atomic mass is the weighted average of the mixture of isotopes
Example
average atomic mass = (atomic mass 35Cl)(fraction 35Cl) + (atomic mass 37Cl)(fraction 37Cl)= (34.968 amu)(0.7577) + (36.965 amu)(0.2423)= 35.45 amu
Calculate the atomic mass of Cl given the relative abundances of its isotopes:35Cl – 75.77%37Cl – 24.23%
PracticeCopper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in electrical cables & pennies, among other things. The atomic masses of its 2 stable isotopes, 63Cu (69.09%) and 65Cu (30.91%) are 62.93 amu and 64.9278 amu, respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of copper – the relative abundances of each ion is given in parentheses. Answer: 63.54 amu
The Bohr Model
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light
c =
c = speed of light (3.0 x 108 m)= wavelength= frequency
Frequency vs. Wavelength
Light
• Energy as frequency • Energy as wavelength • Light behaves like a particle
(photon) as well as a wave
c =
Emission Spectrums• When electricity is run through a
sample of hydrogen gas, hydrogen atoms gain energy
• H atoms loose that energy by emitting photons
• Resulting spectrum is discontinuouscontinuous
discontinuous
What’s happening?
Bohr Model• Electrons move in
circular orbits around the nucleus
• Only certain energy levels are “permitted ” (this explains the discrete lines for the emission spectrum of hydrogen)
Schroedinger/Heisenburg• Experiments used mathematics
(probability) to predict behavior of electrons– Schroedinger equation
approximated the probability of finding a single electron for H within a region close to the nucleus
– Heisenburg [Uncertainty Principle] reinforces the idea that we just don’t know!
Math in Context: Blackbody Experiments