atmosphere - epa.sa.gov.au · 18 state of the environment report 2008 atmosphere ... for reference...

18 S TAT E O F T H E E N V I R O N M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 0 8

ATMOSPHERE

• AirQualityinmetropolitanAdelaide:NO DISCERNABLE TREND withnon-compliantlevelsofparticulatesatsomemonitoringsites.

• AirQualityinPortAugusta:NO DISCERNABLE TREND

• AirQualityinPortPirie:NO DISCERNABLE TRENDwithnon-compliantlevelsofsulfurdioxide,leadandparticlesinthereportingperiod.

• AirQualityinWhyalla:NO DISCERNABLE TREND

CleanandHealthyAir–maintainingandimprovingairqualityintheAdelaideairshedandregionalcentresinSouthAustralia.

Environmental Protection Authority Strategic Plan 2007-2010

Note:Ambientairqualitydatamustbelong-termandcomparabletodeterminestatisticallyvalidtrends.Currentmonitoringprogramshavenotbeeninplacelongenoughtodeterminesuchtrendsinallcases.

WhilegoodairqualityisavailabletothemajorityofSouthAustralians,maintaininggoodairqualityforallisvitaltothedevelopmentofasustainablestate.

Trends

Goal

Air Quality and a sustainable South Australia

A i r Qual i ty

Poorairqualitycanarisethroughnaturalprocessessuchasduststormsandanthropogenicprocessessuchasemissionsfrommotorvehicles,industryandwoodheaters.Asitisimpossibletocontrolallofthenaturalprocessesthatcancausepoorairquality,itisimportanttohaveagoodunderstandingofanthropogenicsources.

Whileitisnotalwaysnoticeable,airqualityhas a significant impact on the lives and lifestylesofSouthAustralians.Poorairqualitycanlimitthecapacityforpeopletogooutandenjoytheirsurroundingenvironmentandmoreimportantly,itcanhave a significant impact on the health of susceptibleindividuals.

Elevatedconcentrationsofairpollutants,especiallyparticulatesandozoneareknowntohaveanegativeeffectontherespiratoryandcardiovascularsystems

leadingtoincreasedillnessandwithparticulates,increasedmortality.

AstudyintothehealthcostsofparticulatematterbytheUniversityofAdelaideandDepartmentofHealth(DoH)isunderwayandunavailableforreferenceatthetimeofpublishingbutthecostasextrapolatedfromNewSouthWalesdata,isestimatedtobehundredsofmillionsofdollars(DEC,2005).Thisstrainsthehealthsystemandultimatelyalsoimpactsothergovernmentservices.MaintaininggoodairqualitywillimprovepublichealthaswellascontributetoasustainableSouthAustralia.

19S TAT E O F T H E E N V I R O N M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 0 8

Vehicle number trendsWhat is PM10 (particulate matter) and where does it come from?

Thenumberofvehiclesontheroadsisestimatedtoincreaseasmuchas14.8%bytheyear2014-15,increasingtheircontributiontoairpollution.(Apelbaum,2007)

Thepotentialforincreasesinairpollutants,suchasparticlesandozone,isofgreatestconcerninAdelaideduetothedensityofthepopulation,industryandmotorvehicleusageandismonitoredbytheSouthAustralianEnvironmentProtectionAuthority(EPA)atsixlocationsacrosstheairshed.CollecteddataissuppliedtotheNationalEnvironmentProtectionCouncil(NEPC)onanannualbasisandisalsosuppliedtothecommunitythroughthewebbasedAirQualityIndex(www.epa.sa.gov.au/airindex_sum.html)or in response to specific requests.

Regionally,airpollutantsthatareofconcernincludeleadinPortPirie,whereelevatedbloodleadlevelsremainasignificant problem, dust in Whyalla anddomesticwoodheatersmoke(particulate)intheAdelaideHills.AllaremonitoredbytheEPA.

ClimatechangemodelsindicatethatelevatedparticulateandphotochemicalsmogeventsarelikelytobecomemorefrequentandmoresevereastemperaturesandemissionsfromdiffusesourcesuchasmotorvehiclesincreaseinSouthAustralia.

Particulatematterisacomplexmixtureofairbornesolidandliquidparticleswithadiameterequaltoorsmallerthan10micrometers(approximatelyonesevenththethicknessofahumanhair).Itcancomefromavarietyofsourcesincluding:

• wood smoke from fires (such as combustion wood heaters and bushfires)

• motorvehicleexhaustemissions

• windblowndust

• windblownsea-salt

• industryemissions

• pollens

Particulatematterisanairpollutantofconcernastheycanpenetrateintothelungsandcauserespiratoryorcardiacproblemsorevenmortalityinsensitiveindividuals.Particulatemattercanalsobeofconcernastheycanhaveotherchemicalsorheavymetalsadsorbedtothemwhichcanalsocausehealtheffects. Researchers are yet to find a particle concentration where there are noresultinghealtheffects.

CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard–AirPollutionParticulateMatterBrochurewww.arb.ca.gov/html/brochure/pm10.htm

NewZealandMinistryfortheEnvironment–HealthEffectsofPM10inNewZealandReportwww.mfe.govt.nz/publications/air/air-quality-tech-report-39/air-quality-tech-report-39-aug03.pdf

SmokeWatch in action at Woodside Primary School. Photo: EPA

Dust Storm. Photo: Glenn Gale, DWLBC

Air Qual i ty


ATMOSPHERE

Airpollutantsatelevatedlevelscanimpactonvariousagriculturalactivities.Forexample,thepeakozonelevelscurrentlyexperiencedintheAdelaideairshed,whilewithinNationalEnvironmentProtectionMeasure(NEPM)levelsthatprotecthumanhealth,havebeenprojectedtoreducetheyieldofsensitivecropssuchascantaloupe,grapes,oranges,onionsandbeansby12-31%.Thisreductionisprimarilyduetotheozoneinterferingwiththephotosynthesisprocess.Importantly,theAdelaideairshedimpactstheNorthernAdelaidePlainsandtheWillungaBasin.Theextentoftheimpactonnativevegetationisunknown.Ozoneislessofaprobleminregionalareas.

Theamenityofanareacanbeseverelyimpactedbypoorairqualityoreventheperceptionofpoorairquality,withresultingnegativeeconomicconsequencesforresidentsduetodecreasesinpropertypricesandvalues.Itcanalsoleadtounrestanddistrustbetweenthecommunityandanylocalindustriesandassociatedgovernmentdepartments.Poorairqualitycanbevisuallyunpleasant,whetheritisalargeplumerisingfromastackoralayerof brown haze covering the city first thinginthemorning.ImprovementstoSouthAustralia’sairqualitywillrequireaconcertedeffortbygovernment,industryandthecommunitytoreduceemissions.

Thecommunitycanplayitspartbyreducingmotorvehicleusage,supportingpublictransport,usingwoodheaters more efficiently and supporting industriesthatdemonstratebestpractice

emissionmanagement.Industryhasaresponsibilitytoeffectivelymanageenvironmentalimpactsandcan,inmany instances, benefit from doing so. These benefits can include resource efficiencies, increased staff engagement andretention,andimprovedcommunitystanding.Thegovernmentisresponsibleforregulationofpollutingactivitiesand industries, and can influence air qualitythroughitsinvolvementinthedevelopmentoffuelqualitystandards.

Ways to reduce air pollutionTherearemanywaysinwhichairpollutionemissionsenteringtheatmospherecanbereduced.

Theseincludelesseningvehicleemissionsbyusing:

• sustainabletransport(publictransport,cycling,walking,carpooling)

• efficient driving habits and vehicle maintenance.

Woodsmokeemissionscanbereducedby:

• burningonlydryandseasonedwood

• keeping air vents open for 20 minutes after lighting a fire

• keeping the fire live and bright, but letting it go out at night

• regularlycheckingtoensurenosmokeiscomingfromthechimney20 minutes after lighting a fire

• maintaining the flue or chimney.

Adoptingthesepollution-reducingpracticeshelptomaintaingoodairquality.

‘Theamenityofan

areacanbeseverely

impactedbypoorair

qualityoreventhe

perceptionofpoorair

quality,withresulting

negativeeconomic

consequencesfor

residentsdueto

decreasesinproperty

pricesandvalues.’

Torrens Island Power Station. Photo: Tim Lubcke

CONDITION INDICATOR

• Exceedances of NEPM guidelines for key air pollutants

NEPMguidelineshavebeendevelopedfor specific air pollutants that pose a risk tohumanhealth.Theyareacceptedstandardsagainstwhichtoevaluatethequalityoftheairwebreathe.Theimpactofpoorairqualityonplantsandanimals,asdiscussedinthechapter,arenotmanagedbytheseguidelinesand,atpresent,nosuchguidelineshavebeendeveloped.

PRESSURE INDICATOR

• Level of emissions of key air pollutants

TheNationalPollutantInventoryrecordsemissionsofkeyairpollutantsineachairshed,providinganindicationofthevolumeofandtheareasinwhichemissionsaremostheavilyconcentrated.

Indicators


CONDITION INDICATOR: Exceedances of NEPM guidelines for key air pollutants

TheNEPMforAmbientAirQualitywasintroducedinJuly1998bytheNEPCandsetsouthealthprotectionstandardsforairpollutantstobeachievedby2008,basedonhourly,four-hourly,eight-hourly,dailyand/orannualaverages,dependingonthepollutantandthemannerinwhichitaffectshumanhealth.

TheAirNEPMstandardsdonotapplytolocationsadjacenttoindividualsourcessuchasindustrialfacilities,wherepeakconcentrationsmaybeexpected,butrelatetotheexposureofthegeneralpopulationinresidentialzonesorareas.Atpresent, the Air NEPM addresses specific airpollutants:particlessmallerthan10micrometersindiameter(PM10),particlessmallerthan2.5micrometersindiameter(PM2.5),carbonmonoxide,lead,nitrogendioxide,sulfurdioxideandozone.

Thefollowinginformationcoversmonitoringresultsthatindicateconcentrationsintheenvironment,whiletheemissionsthemselvesarecoveredinthenextsectionofthechapter.

Particulate Matter

Particulate matter is monitored at five locationsintheAdelaidemetropolitanarea, two in Whyalla and five in Port Pirie. Particulatematterisgenerallyairbornedust,smokeorfumesandcanbesolidmaterialssuchassoilorextremelycomplexmixturesofsolidandliquidcombustionproducts.Someindustrialprocessescancreatedustasaconsequenceofprocessingrawmaterials.

Dust storms and bushfires can result in high levelsofparticulatesandwindgeneratedseasaltalsocontributestoairborneparticlematterloadings.Particulateshavebeenimplicatedinarangeofhealthproblems,particularlycertainrespiratoryandcardiovascularconditions.

AnadvisoryreportingstandardforPM2.5of25µg/m3fora24houraverageand8µg/m3foranannualaveragewasintroducedintotheAirNEPMin2003.TotalSuspendedParticulates(TSP)referstoparticulatewithadiameterupto50micrometres.

Adelaide

PM10particulatematterhasbeenfoundtobeanissueintheAdelaideairshed.TheAirNEPMgoalofnotexceedingthestandard

more than five times per calendar year was notmetinatleastonesitein2003and2005(sixincidenceseachyear),and2006and2007(11incidenceseachyear).

PM2.5particulatematterisalsoanissueintheAdelaideairshedwiththeannualaverageatthesolemonitoringsitebeingequaltoorgreaterthantheAirNEPMadvisoryreportingstandardin2003(once)and2006(twice).

Port Pirie

AirbornedustisofconcerninPortPirie.ContinuousPM10monitoringattheOliverStreetsiteshowsanincreasingnumberofdaysexceedingthe24hourPM10AirNEPMstandard(50µg/m3)sincecontinuousmonitoringcommencedinJune2003.Itshouldbenotedthatsomeoftheseincidencescouldbeattributedtoregionaldustevents.

Whyalla

Airborne dust remains a significant problem in Whyalla.TheNEPMmonitoringsiteiscentrallylocatedwithinWhyalla(atSchulzReserve)howevertheNEPMcriteriaofnumberofdaysexceeding50µg/m3isalsousedtoassessmonitoringdatafromthenon-NEPMsitesintheeasternpartofthecity.

TheHummockHillstationwasdecommissionedinSeptember2006.Monitoringonthebasisofonedayinthree,alsoceasedatCivicParkinJune2007.

ContinuousPM10monitoringatWallSt(inEasternWhyalla)commencedinthesecondhalfof2003andatSchulzReserve(theNEPMsite)inJuly2007.

DatafromSchulzReservefor2007doesnotdemonstratecompliancewiththeNEPMduetomonitoringnotspanningthefullyear.However,duringthesixmonthsin2007thatthesitewasactivetherewerefive exceedences of the NEPM standard indicatingtherewouldbenon-compliancewiththeNEPMgoalifmonitoringwereforthefullyear.

DatafromWallStisusedtomonitoremissionsfromOneSteelandprovidefeedbacktothecompany on the efficacy of various capital programs aimed at fine dust reduction. Note thatthissiteincludesemissionsfromsourcesotherthanOneSteel(egnaturalbornedust).Thenumberofdaysexceeding50µg/m3measuredatWallStfor2004,2005,2006,and2007are14,31,28,and25respectively.Thedatafor2004usedanalternativemonitoringmethodologyandcannotbecomparedtootherdatapresentedinthisreport.

TheairqualitymeasuredattheWallStsiteisconsideredatpresenttobeaboveacceptablelevels.

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Source: EPA Monitoring data

20072006200520042003

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What is the currents i tuat ion?

Figure 1.1: Exceedances of PM10 standard at

Oliver Street, Port Pirie (2003-2007)

Air Qual i ty


ATMOSPHERE

AmajorupgradetotheOneSteelsteelworks,knownasProjectMagnetcompletedinlate2007,isexpectedtoimprovetheairqualityineasternWhyalla.

Port Augusta

MonitoringforparticulatematterinPortAugustaceasedinMay2007.Themeasuredvalues(onedayinsix)weretypicallybelowtheNEPMstandard.Whenconsideredalongwithchangestothesiteovertimeandimprovementstoindustry’smanagementofstockpiles,monitoringatthissitewasnolongerrelevantorrepresentativeofthearea.TheEPAisreviewingtheneedforcontinuousparticlemonitoringinPtAugusta.

Carbon monoxide

ElizabethiscurrentlytheonlysiteinSouthAustraliawherecarbonmonoxideisbeingmonitored.MonitoringintheAdelaideCBDwasconductedataHindleyStreetsiteuntilJune2005,butwasdiscontinuedduetoredevelopmentofthesite.

AreplacementsitewaslocatedatTandanya,andoperatedbetweenSeptember2006andMarch2007.Thissitewasdiscontinuedduetovariabilityregardingaccesstothemonitoringequipment.ThereisnownocarbonmonoxidemonitoringintheAdelaideCBDhowever a new site has been identified andmonitoringisplannedtorecommenceduring2008.

Over the past five years, there have been noexceedancesoftheNEPMstandardrecordedatanyofthesites.ConsiderationisbeinggiventowhetherbroaderairqualitymonitoringshouldberesumedwithintheCBD.ThiswillbeinformedbyoutcomesofanAirNEPMreviewthatisunderwayatthetimeofwritingthisreport.

Lead

Metropolitan Adelaide

LeadedpetrolwastheprimarysourceofairborneleadinurbanareasofSouthAustralia,buthasnotbeenonsalesinceOctober2000.Sincethenthemeasuredconcentrationofairborneleadhasdecreasedwithtime.TheairborneleadconcentrationisnowwellbelowAirNEPMstandard,andconsequentlyleadlevelsarenolongermeasuredinmetropolitanAdelaide.

Pt Pirie

TheNyrstarLeadSmelter(formerlyknownasthePasmincoorZinifexLeadSmelter)in

PortPirieistheworld’slargestleadsmelterand refinery, producing approximately 230,000tonnesofleadandleadalloysperyear.Leademissionsfromthesmelterareby far the most significant environmental concernforthePortPiriecommunity.Ingestionofhistoricandnewleadparticlesfromsoilsanddustisthemajorpathwayofhumanexposure.Howeverairbornedustlevelsprovidesomeindicationofthecontributionofcurrentleademissionsandexposureofresidents.

SinceFebruary2006,aprogramknownas“tenby10”hasbeenimplementedbyNyrstar,PortPirieRegionalCouncil,DoH,andEPAaimedatreducingbloodleadlevelsinchildrenandisdiscussedinmoredetaillaterinthischapter.

TheNEPMstandardforairborneleadhasbeenexceededinPortPirieseveraltimesover the past five years. It should be noted thattheleadsmelterceasedoperationfor46daysduetoaone-in-20yearmaintenanceeventduringJulyandAugust2006.Monitoredleadlevelsaregenerallyhigherduringthatperiodoftheyear.Significantly higher lead levels are recorded attheEllenStreetmonitoringsite,locatedadjacenttothesmelterboundaryhoweverthisdatadoesnotrepresentambientairqualityandcannotbecomparedtoNEPMstandards.ResultsfromEllenStreetareusedtoevaluatesourcecontrolstrategieswithinthesmeltersite,astheseindicatethe influence of fugitive emissions from thesmelter.MeasurementsattheEllenStsitewerediscontinuedforseveralyearsduringthelate1990sandearly2000sduetoare-focussingofambientmonitoringinSouthAustraliaatthattimetowardsmoreresidentialareasofthetown.

Nitrogen dioxide

Nitrogendioxide(NO2)levelsintheairare recorded at five locations within the Adelaideairshed,butnoexceedancesoftheNEPMstandardshavebeenrecordedsince1990andaverageconcentrationsarewellwithintheguidelines.NO2monitoringceasedinMountGambierinSeptember2002,afterafullyearofmonitoringrecordednoexceedances.

Sulfur dioxide

InthemetropolitanAdelaideareasulfurdioxide(SO2)iscurrentlymonitoredataNorthfield site, 8 km north east of the city. TheNEPMstandardsforSO2havenotbeenexceededsincemonitoringbeganin2002.

MonitoringattheChristiesBeachandMountGambiersiteshasceased.ThePt Stanvac oil refinery, the predominant

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Figure 1.2: Annual lead levels measured at various locations throughout Port Pirie, compared with the NEPM lead standard of 0.50µg/m3 (1994-2007)

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Figure 1.3: Number of days per month at Oliver Street, Port Pirie that the highest 1 hour SO2 concentrate measured per day was above the 1hr NEPM Standard of 0.20ppm (2002-2007)


ATMOSPHERE

sourceatChristiesBeachhasclosedandthemonitoringcampaignatMountGambierconcluded.

MonitoringforSO2inPortPiriebeganatOliverStreetin2002.Theresultsfromthissite are given in figure 1.3, displaying the numberofdayspermonththatthehighestonehourreadingforadaywasabovethe NEPM standard. Over the five years reportedinthisreport,therewere158dayswhenthehighest1-hrreadingforadaywasabovetheNEPMstandard.AstheAirNEPMgoalallowsforonlyoneexceedanceofthisstandardinacalendaryear,theseconcentrations are a significant problem.

Figure1.4showsthe24hraverageconcentrationofSO2atPtPirie-OliverStcomparedtothecurrent24hrNEPMstandardandthenew24hrWorld Health Organisation (WHO) Guideline(whichisnotlegislatedinAustralia).ShouldthisstandardbeadoptedinAustralia,theseconcentrations would also be a significant problem.

Ground level (ambient) ozone

OzoneismonitoredatvarioussitesthroughouttheAdelaideairshed,withonlyoneexceedanceoftheonehourAirNEPMstandardoccurringsince1986.ThisexceedancewasmonitoredattheNetleysiteon25January2006andisattributedto emissions from bushfires, the smoke from whichtravelledintotheAdelaideairshedfromVictoria.

Astheformationofozoneisdependantonstrongsunlighttopromotethechemicalreactionsbetweennitrogenoxidesandhydrocarbonsreleasedintotheair,itismoreprevalentduringsummer.OzoneislessofaprobleminregionalareasandmonitoringceasedinMountGambierinSeptember2002asnoexceedanceswererecorded.

Stratospheric ozone

The Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas Management Act 1989 wasamendedin2003toenabletheCommonwealthGovernmenttotakecontrolofandmanagethesuiteofregulationsdealingwiththeuse,licensing,disposalandimportationofstratosphericozonedepletingsubstancesorSyntheticGreenhouseGases(SGGs).

Thestatesnowhavenoroleintheregulationandmanagementofozonedepletingsubstances.TheCSIROandtheBureauofMeteorologymonitorforstratosphericozonedepletingsubstancesandtheireffectsontheenvironmentonbehalfoftheCommonwealthGovernment.

Resultsreportedinthe 2006 Australian State of Environment ReportbytheFederalDepartmentofEnvironmentandWaterResourcesregardingstratosphericozonestatedthatthe:

• Totalamountofchlorinefromozonedepletingsubstancesinthestratosphereisslowlydecreasing;

• TheAntarcticholeintheOzonelayerstoppedgrowinginmid1990salthough no significant reduction in sizehasbeenobserved;

• ThetotalamountofozoneinthestratosphereoverAustraliaandNewZealandhasstartedtoincreasesince2000.

Furtherdetailsontheseresultscanbefoundat: www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/commentaries/atmosphere/stratospheric-ozone.html

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Figure 1.4: 24 hour SO2 concentrations at Oliver Street, Port Pirie, compared with the 24 hour NEPM standard of 0.08 ppm and the revised WHO guideline of 0.007ppm (2002-2007)

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Source: National Pollutant Inventory 02/03

Aggregate

Figure 1.5: The relative contributions from

industrial and non-industrial sources of various

pollutants to the atmosphere, based on 2002-

2003 National Pollutant Inventory estimates

Air Qual i ty


PRESSURE INDICATOR: Level of emissions of key air pollutants

ThemajorsourceforinformationonairpollutionemissionsistheinternetdatabasefortheNationalPollutantInventory(NPI).IndustriesfeedestimatesoftheiremissionstotheairintotheNPIeachyear.Thisprovidesaneasywaytodeterminewhetheremissionsfrom specific industries are increasing eachyear,andwhetheremissionsareincreasingineachairshed.

TheEPAhasresponsibilityforestimatingemissionsfromaggregatesourcesincludingmobilesources(privateandcommercialvehicles),domesticsources(lawnmowers,smallenginesandwoodheaters),andsmallcommercialsources(drycleaners,bakeriesandpetrolstations).Whilethesesourcesemitonlysmallamountsofpollutantsindividually,theircontributionacrosstheentireairshedis significant.

Industry’scontributiontoairpollutioninSouthAustralia,calculatedfromtheinventory data, is shown in figure 1.5 and variesdependingonthepollutant.Itrangesfrom7%forbenzeneto99%forsulfurdioxide.

Thebreakdownofsourcesforkeyairpollutantsvariesdependingontheairshedanditsgeographicallocation,e.g.recreationalboatinghasamuchgreaterimpactonemissionsintheRiverlandthanitdoesintheSouthEast.Basedonthe2002-03NPIaggregateemissiondatabase,thelargestsourcesofthe ‘Air Toxics’:Benzene,VOC,NitrousOxide,andCarbonMonoxideinallSouthAustralianairshedsaremotorvehiclesand solid fuel fires such as domestic woodheaters.

MotorvehiclesarealsothelargestsourceofSOinallairshedsexcepttheSpencerGulf,withcommercialshippingcontributing89%oftotalaggregateemissions.Thelargestaggregate(non-industrial)sourceofleadinallairshedsisre-entraineddustfrompavedandunpavedroads,whereleadfromhistoricemissionsfrommotorvehicleshasaccumulatedinthesoil.Thissourcecontributesbetween48%(Adelaideairshed)to96%(Barossaairshed)ofemissions,howeverthetotallevelsarenowverysmallgiventhephasingoutofleadedfuelsinthe1990s.

What are the pressures?

ATMOSPHERE

Fuel Combustion - sub reporting threshold facilties

Gaseous fuel burning (domestic)

Commercial Shipping/Boating

Railways

Aeroplanes

Solid fuel burning (domestic)

Lawn Mowing

Liquid fuel burning (domestic)

Motor Vehicles

86.6%

9.2%

1.0%0.8

%0.7

%0.4

%0.1

%

1.1%

Motor Vehicles

Lawn Mow ing

Solid fuel burning(domestic)

Service stations

Print Shops / Graphic Arts

Recreational Boating

Aeroplanes

Source: National Pollutant Inventory 02/03 (NPI)

68.1%15.9%

10.9%

3.3%

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0.4%

0.1%

Motor Vehicles

Domestic/Commercialsolvents/ aerosols


Architectural Surface Coatings

Natural/Town Gas Leakage

Lawn Mowing

Service stations

Motor Vehicle Refinishing

Print Shops / Graphic Arts

Dry Cleaning

Bakeries

Fuel Combustion - sub reporting threshold facilities

Solvent Use - Sub-threshold facilitiesCutback Bitumen

Aeroplanes



0.4%

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%

0.1%

47.0%

14.0%

11.0%

7.3%

7.3%

4.9%

3.8%1.6%

1.2%

Figure 1.8: The relative contribution of various Oxides of Nitrogen sources in the Adelaide airshed based on 2002-2003 National Pollutant Inventory estimates

Figure 1.6: The relative contribution of various Benzene sources in the Adelaide airshed based on 2002-2003 National Pollutant Inventory estimates

Figure 1.7: The relative contribution of various VOC sources in the Adelaide airshed based on 2002-2003 National Pollutant Inventory estimates

Withmotorvehiclesbeingadominantsourceofairemissions,changesinvehiclenumbersandfuelconsumptionare likely to have a significant impact onairqualityinthefuture.Overthepastdecade,therehasbeenachangeinthetypeoffuelconsumed.Pastchangestofuelqualityandtype,includingthebanningofthesaleofleadedfuel,haveledtonoticeabledifferencesintheambientairqualityincludingthevirtualremovalofleadasanurbanairpollutant.

AdvancesinfuelqualityandengineperformancecontinuetobemadethroughapplicationoftheAustralianDesignRules.Forexample,AustraliahasrecentlyadoptedtheEuro3andEuro4standardsforpetrolanddieselasasteptowardsimprovedengineemissions.Itislikelythatnewfueltypesandfuturechangesinconsumptiontrendswillhavefurtherimpactsonairquality.

TheintroductionofbiofuelssuchasethanolblendedpetrolandbiodieselmayalsoplayapartinairqualityinSouthAustralia.Whileethanolblendedfuelsmayreducetheemissionofvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs),theymayalsoincreasetheemissionofsomemoretoxicpollutants.Thisissueneedsfurtherinvestigationtodeterminewhattheeffectswillbe,especiallyontheAdelaideairshed.

SouthAustralia’spopulationtargetwithsubsequentlyincreasingnumbersofmotorvehiclesislikelytohaveasignificant impact on ambient air quality.Withanestimatedincreasein the road fleet of 14.8% by 2014 15(Apelbaum,2007),theaddedemissionsareexpectedtooffsetgainsmadethroughfuelqualityandengineimprovements.Theymay,dependingonwhetheranairshedislimitedbyNitrousOxideorVOCs,leadnotonlytoanincreaseinthenumberofexceedancesfortheseprimarypollutants,butalsoanincreaseinthenumberofexceedancesofsecondarypollutantssuchasozone.Thiswillbeexacerbatedbyincreasedtraffic congestion if not managed properly.


ATMOSPHERE

Lawn Mowing


Fuel Combustion - sub reporting threshold facilities


Gaseous fuel burning (domestic)


AeroplanesMotor Vehicles

82.2%

10.6%

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%0.1

%

Lawn Mow ing

Motor Vehicles

Aeroplanes

Paved/Unpaved Roads Fuel Combustion -sub reporting threshold facilities


Gaseous fuel burning(domestic)

47.9%37.9%

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%0.4

%0.1

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Source: Apelbaum, 2007

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Figure 1.9: The relative contribution of various Carbon Monoxide sources in the Adelaide airshed based on 2002 - 2003 National Pollutant Inventory estimates

Figure 1.10: The relative contribution of vari-ous Lead sources in the Adelaide airshed based on 2002-2003 National Pollutant Inventory estimates

Figure 1.11: Changes in the annual consumption (ML) of various fuel types for South Australia (2000-2005)

What are we doing about i t?

TheEPAisfocusingonseveralofareastomaintaingenerallygoodairqualityacrossallSouthAustralianairsheds.Theseinclude:

• ReviewingandupdatingtheEnvironment Protection Policy (Air Quality)forcompletionin2009.

• DevelopingacomprehensiveSouthAustralianAirQualityManagementPlanforcompletionin2009.

• Monitoring air quality at specific locationsnotonlytodeterminecompliancewithlegislationsuchasAirNEPM,butalsotoidentifyairqualitytrends.

• Gainingagreaterunderstandingofthemovementofpollutantswithinairshedsthroughtheuseofatmosphericcomputermodels.

• Usingairqualitymodelstoforecasttheimpactofairpollutionbasedonchangesinemissionsfromvarioussources.

• DevelopingandimplementingtargetededucationandbehaviourchangeprogramssuchasAirWatch,SmokeWatchandTravelSmart.

• Workingwithindustrytoreduceemissionsfromindividualfacilitiesandtheirimpactonthesurroundingcommunity.OneSteel’sProjectMagnetinWhyallaandthejointNyrstar/StateGovernmentbloodleadreductionprogram(tenby10)inchildrenprograminPtPirieareexamplesofthisapproach.

• Contributingtothedevelopmentandmaintenanceofairqualitypolicies,legislationandstandardsatvariouslevelsofgovernment.

UpdatingtheEnvironment Protection Policy (Air Quality)willprovideasingle,comprehensiveairqualitypolicyforSouthAustraliathatincorporatesmatterscoveredbythecurrentAirQuality,BurningandFuelQualityEPPs.ItwillalsoincluderelevanttopicsfromthevariousNationalEnvironmentProtectionMeasuresthatrelatetoprotectionoftheairenvironment,andanyothercurrentandemergingmattersthathaveimplicationsforthisstate’sairenvironment.

TheSouth Australian Air Quality Management Planiscurrentlybeing

developed.Thedocumentwillprovideastrategicframeworkaddressingmonitoringofanddevelopingresponsesto,airqualitymanagementissuesacrossthestate.ItwillprovideablueprintforcollaborativeairqualitymanagementinSouthAustraliabetweengovernmentagencies,industryandthecommunity.

OneSteel’sProjectMagnetisprimarilytheconversionofthesteelworksfromtheuseofdryhaematitetoawetmagnetitefeedtoextendthelifeofthesteelworksandincreaseproductivity.ThechangestotheproductionprocessareanticipatedtoreducetheamountofdustfromthesteelworksthroughtherelocationofthecrushingandscreeningplanttotheneworemineintheSouthMiddlebackRange,updatingfacilitiestoreducefugitivedustemissionsfromorecarsandshiploading,aswellasaddingmoisturetotheexportironore.

InFebruary2006,the‘tenby10’projectwaslaunchedbyZinifex,thenownersoftheleadsmelter,inpartnershipwithDoH,PortPirieRegionalCouncilandtheEPA,withacommonplantocompre-hensivelyaddresschildren’sexposuretolead.TheprojecthasbeencontinuedbycurrentownersNyrstarandtargetsthereductionofbloodleadlevelsinchildrenby implementing strategies to specifically andaggressivelyreducefugitiveleademissionsandleadexposureinthecommunity.

Thegoalofthe‘tenby10’initiativeisforatleast95%ofchildreninthePortPiriecommunitywhoareaged0-4years,tohaveabloodleadleveloflessthan10µg/dLbytheendof2010.

Itisestimatedthatby30June2007,approximately48%(390)ofchildrenhadabloodleadlevelequaltoorabove10µg/dLcomparedto53%asreportedinthe2003StateoftheEnvironmentReport.BasedonABSpopulationestimatesthatfigure will need to be reduced to around 40childrenbytheendof2010ifthe‘tenby10’goalistobeachieved.Furtherinformationontheproject,includingcompanyinitiativesdesignedtoreducefugitiveemissionsisavailableatwww.tenby10.com

In2006and2007aspartofthebroaderapproachtoimprovingairquality,theEPAinpartnershipwiththeAdelaideHillsCouncilimplementedatwo-yearpilotbehaviourchangeprogramcalledSmokeWatch.

Theprogram’saimhasbeenthereductionoftheamountofwood

Air Qual i ty


What more should we be doing?

ATMOSPHERE

smokefromhouseholdwoodheaters.Itincorporateda ‘SmokeWatch Challenge’thatencouragedhouseholderstouse efficient wood-heating practices throughoutwinter,plusschoolactivitiesandpartnershipswithlocalbusinesses.Followingevaluationofresultsofthepilotprogram,itisanticipatedthattheEPAwillconsiderrollingouttheprogram,approachingotherlocalcouncilstopartnerinitsdelivery.

AreviewoftheEPA’sairqualitymonitoringnetworkisbeingundertakentodeterminewhetheritisoperatingtoitsfullpotentialanddeliveringinformationto fulfil its strategic requirements. As partofthisreview,datafrompreviousmonitoringisbeinganalysedtoassistinidentifyingpatternsofairpollutantmovementineachofthestate’smajorairsheds.ThecurrentmonitoringplanwasbasedonastudyconductedbyCSIROinthelate1990stodeterminearepresentativemonitoringprogramacrosstheStategivensetresourcesandtheStateGovernment’srequirementsundertheAirNEPM.Thisplan,however,hasalsobeenalteredinresponsetotheairqualityconcernsofthecommunity.

Thiswillinformstrategiestooptimisemonitoringwithineachairshedtoensurethatitaccuratelydeterminesairquality trends and identifies areas where particularattentionisrequired.Thereviewisscheduledforcompletioninlate2008.

AirQualityiscloselylinkedtotransport.Thestategovernmenthasresponsibilityfortransportplanningandcertain

TheEnvironmentProtectionAuthorityrecommendsthefollowing:

R1.1 Implement an Air Quality Strategy for South Australia that identifies currentandfuturerisks,prioritiesandmanagementobjectives.

Smoke clouds from 2007 bushfires on Kangaroo Island. Photo: DEH

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’sStrategic Planvisitwww.stateplan.sa.gov.au

componentsofregulation.ThereismoreonthistopicintheTransport chapterofthisreport.

R1.1

Growing Prosperity T1.22, T1.8

Improving Wellbeing T2.4

Attaining Sustainability

Fostering Creativity and Innovation

Building Communities

Expanding Opportunities


ATMOSPHERE

Apelbaum,J.(2007).South Australian Transport Facts

AirQualityMonitoringdata,EnvironmentProtectionAuthority,SouthAustralia

CalifornianAirResourcesBoard(1997),Research Notes - Estimated Crop Yield Losses from Air Pollutants in California: 1989 – 1992,CaliforniaEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Sacramento,California,USA.www.arb.ca.gov/research/resnotes/notes/97-1.html

DepartmentofEnvironmentandConservationAir Pollution Economics: Health Costs of Air Pollution in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Region (Dec2005),GovernmentofNewSouthWales,Sydney. www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/airpollution05623.pdf

DepartmentofHealth(2005).The Port Pirie Lead Implementation Program Future Focus and Directions, GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.health.sa.gov.au/pehs/PDF-files/ptpirie-future-focus-06.pdf

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority(2003).The State of Our Environment - State of Environment Report for South Australia 2003,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.environment.sa.gov.au/soe2003/report.html

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority(2005). South Australia’s Air Quality – 2004,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/air_quality_2004.pdf

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority(2006). South Australia’s Air Quality 2005, GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/air_quality_2005.pdf

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority(2007). South Australia’s Air Quality 2006, GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/air_quality_2006.pdf

EnvironmentProtectionAuthority(2004).Ambient Air Quality Monitoring – South Australia 1979 - 2003,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/aq_report.pdf

References

Ai r Qual i ty

Knighton,Ray(2006),Ozone Research and Vegetative Impacts, UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,Portland,Oregon,USAwww.airquality.nrcs.usda.gov/AAQTF/Documents/Washington_Nov_2006/Ozone_Research.pdf

Talbot,L.,Rowett,A.,Abbot,P.(2004),Magnetite – OneSteel Whyalla’s new attraction,MESAJournal,Adelaide.www.pir.sa.gov.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0009/11025/m/35_onesteel_magnetite.pdf

Zinifex(2007).ZinifexPort Pirie Smelter Sustainable Development Report 2006 www.nyrstar.com/en/community Environment/siteReports/2006Zinifex/H02926ZinifexPortPirie.pdf

National Environment Protection Council www.ephc.gov.au

World Health Organisation www.who.int/en/

United States Environment Protection Agency - Air Pollutants www.epa.gov/air/airpollutants.html

National Pollutant Inventory www.npi.gov.au

Department of Environment www.environment.gov.au/ozone/ index.html

Bureau of Meteorology Atmosphere Watch Section www.bom.gov.au/inside/oeb/atmoswatch/aboutozone.shtml

Department of Environment and Water Resources Australian Antarctic Division www.aad.gov.au/default asp?casid=2850

Fur ther In format ion


ATMOSPHERE

Climate Change

• GreenhousegasemissionsDECREASED7%since1990

• GreenhousegasemissionsourcesINCREASED11%since1990butareSTABLEsince2001

• StationaryenergysectoremissionsINCREASED36%since1990

• TransportsectoremissionsourcesINCREASED6%since1990

• AgriculturesectoremissionsourcesDECREASED4%since1990

Emissionsbyend-useeconomicsectors

• Residentialsectorenergy&transportemissionsINCREASED28%since1990

• CommercialsectoremissionsINCREASED 26%since1990

• Industrialsectoremissions INCREASED 7%since1990

Notes to the above figures:

Unlike the last report, this State of the Environment Report compares the latest emissions data to those of 1990, as that is the relevant reference year in international climate discussions. 1990 was the base year for the Kyoto Protocol and also the South Australian Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007.

The figures include offset for reduction in net emissions from the emissions category known as land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF). If LULUCF is excluded from the figures, South Australia’s net greenhouse gas emissions have risen by around 11% since 1990. This trend in net emissions has been due to a substantial increase in emissions sinks balancing a similar increase in emissions sources.

LULUCF went from being a 1.6 million tonne emissions source in 1990 to a 3.6 million tonne emissions sink in 2001 and a 4.1 million tonne sink in 2006 (Department of Climate Change, 2006). Sinks have a finite capacity to offset emissions.

The data does however include net emissions from interstate electricity transfers (adding 0.6 million tonnes in 1990 and 3.2 million tonnes in 2006) and are rounded to two significant figures.

Trends Goal

T3.5AchievetheKyototargetbylimitingthestate’sgreenhousegasemissionsto108%of1990levelsduring2008-2012,asa first step towards reducing emissions by60%(to40%of1990levels)by2050

South Australia’s Strategic Plan 2007

T3.6Useofpublictransport:increasetheuseofpublictransportto10%ofmetropolitanweekdaypassengervehiclekilometrestravelledby2018.


T3.7Ecologicalfootprint:reduceSouthAustralia’secologicalfootprintby30%by2050.


T3.8 Zero Waste: reduce waste to landfill by25%by2014.


T3.12Renewableenergy:supportthedevelopmentofrenewableenergysothatitcomprises20%oftheState’selectricityproductionandconsumptionby2014.


T3.13 Energy efficiency – government buildings: improve the energy efficiency ofgovernmentbuildingsby25%from2000-01levelsby2014.


T3.14 Energy efficiency – Dwellings: increase the energy efficiency of dwellingsby10%from2000-01levelsby2014.


Tackling Climate Change, South Australia’s Greenhouse Strategy 2007-2020 alsocontainsanumberofobjectives,strategiesandgovernmentactionstoreduceemissionsandenhancethestate’sresiliencetoachangingclimate.

‘Whilemanynatural

factorsaffect

Earth’sclimate,the

recentwarmingis

unprecedentedover

thepastmillennia.’

Langhorne Creek/Lake Alexandrina in drought condition. Photo: EPA


Cl imate Change and a sus tainable South Aust ra l ia

Climatechangecausedbytheenhancedgreenhouseeffectisnowevidentfromincreasedglobalaverageairtemperatures,widespreadmeltingofsnowandice,risesinglobalaveragesealevel,changesinprecipitationpatternsandoceancurrents(IPCC,2007),andshiftsofplant,insectandanimalranges(IPCC,2007).Figure1.12highlightstherelativelyhighertemperaturesexperiencedgloballyinthepast15yearscomparedtotheyearssince1850.

WhilemanynaturalfactorsaffectEarth’sclimate,therecentwarmingisunprecedentedoverthepastmillennia.Deep-timegeochemicalandbiologicalproxiessuchasoxygenisotopesfromicecoresandtreeringdata,coupledwithsophisticated climate models confirm thatthishasbeenprimarilycausedbyhumanactivities(IPCC,2007).

Sincetheindustrialrevolution,humanshavesubstantiallyalteredtheEarth’satmospherebyincreasingconcentrationsofcarbondioxide,

1998

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Note: Observed global average surface temperature differences (black lines) from the average for 1961 to 1990. Vertical coloured bars represent the tempera-ture uncertainty range. The warmest years in each

decade are labelled. The data are from the HadCRIT3 dataset. More information is available at

www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobsSource: HadCRUT3 dataset

methane,nitrousoxideandothergreenhousegasesthroughburningfossilfuels,industrialandagriculturalpractices,andlandclearing.Examinationoficecoreshasrevealedthatlevelsofcarbondioxideandmethanearenowfaroutsidetheirrangesofnaturalvariabilityoverthelast650,000years.Theglobalatmosphericconcentrationofcarbondioxidein2008is35%higherat382partspermillion(ppm)thanthepre-industriallevelof280ppm.Methaneconcentrationshaveincreased151%(CSIRO,2006).

InSouthAustralia,theaveragesurfacetemperatureroseby0.96°Cbetween1910and2005,higherthantheobservedincreaseinthenationaltemperatureof0.89°C,and0.74°Cgloballyduringthistime(seeFigure1.13).ThiswarminghasbeenaccompaniedbyamarkeddeclineinprecipitationinsouthwesternandeasternAustralia(CSIRO,2006).

The1992UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)calledfor“stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”.

Recent scientific findings suggest temperatureincreasesofmorethan2°C

Figure 1.12: Observed global average surface temperature differences from the average for 1961 to 1990

2

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-2

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Figure 1.13: South Australia Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly (base 1961-90)

Goyder’s Line

In1886thensurveyor-generalofSouthAustralia,GeorgeWoodroffeGoyder,publishedamapthatillustrated“thelineofdemarcationbetweenthatportionofthecountrywheretherainfallhasextended,andthatwherethedroughtprevails”.Intheearly1870sandearly20thcenturyfarminglandwasopenedupnorthoftheline,howeverinbothcasesdroughtprevailedandnumerousnorthernfarmsconvertedtograzing.

In2005DrPeterHaymanofSARDIandDrMarkHowdenofCSIROpresented findings that there is a chanceGoyder’slinecouldmovenorth,buttherewasahigherchancethatitwouldmovesouthabout50kilometresby2070,asaresultofadverseclimatechange.Thislattermovewouldrestrictthestate’sreliablecroppingland.

In2007theseresearchersfoundthatmanyinthelocalagriculturalindustryfeltthattechnologymaybalanceadverseclimatechangeuntil2030,butby2070theeffectsofadverseclimatechangewouldoutstriptechnology’sabilitytocompensate.

Drought

Climate Change


ATMOSPHERE

280

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360

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400

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1980

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2015

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Source: CSIRO Marine & Atmospheric Research and

Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station/Australian Bureau of Meteorology.

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abovepre-industriallevelswillconstitutedangerousclimatechangeasbasedonthelikelyeffectsonsealevelandtheexterminationofspecies(IPCC,2007).Seeminglysmall,suchchangesinclimatewillresultinsubstantiallyincreasedrisksofextremeeventssuchasheatwaves,droughts, floods and bushfires, instability ofpolaricesheets,andmajorlossofglobalbiodiversity.ThiswouldhaveaseriousimpactonAustralia’senvironment,economyandpublichealth.

Partoftheproblemwiththedevelopmentofstrategiesaroundadverseclimatechange,isthatthewiderpublicexperiencesmuchlargerday-to-dayvariationsintemperatureanddoesnot fully appreciate the significance of consistenttrendsinsmallchanges.Thedifferencebetweenaniceageandaninterglacialperiodisonly5oCandglobalwarmingthusfarhasbeenmorethan10%ofthis.

Duetothevulnerabilityofanumberof Australia’s ecosystems, significant adverseconsequencesareprojectedfromrelativelysmallshiftsinclimaticconditions.Infact,recentmodestclimatechangeshavealreadyimpactedontheabundance,distributionandbehaviourofawiderangeofAustralianspecies(Hughes,2003)includingwithinSouthAustralia.Theyalsocontributedtothedisappearanceofsomespeciesglobally(Poundset al.,2006).Decreasedrainfallandreducedsoilmoisturebalancewilllessenagriculturalproductivityandplaceforestplantationsatfurtherriskfrombushfires. Higher temperatures will stress livestockandlowerthequalityofgrazingland.FurtherpressurewillbeplacedonSouthAustralia’swaterresourcesduetoreduced inflows to rivers and reservoirs, andincreaseddemand(CSIRO,2006.

Evenifgreenhousegasemissionsceasedtoday,theexistingatmosphericgasconcentrationswillresultinadditionalwarmingoftheplanetof0.2-1.0°Cbytheendofthecentury(CSIRO,2006).BasedonthefutureemissionstrajectoriesoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC-thekeyinternationalbodythatassessesthelatestclimatechangescience),CSIROclimatemodelsrevealthatabusinessasusualemissionsscenariowillresultinawarminginAustraliaof0.4–2.0ºCabove1990levelsby2030and1.0–6.0ºCby2070(CSIRO,2006).

ManyimportantobservationshavebeenpublishedsincethelatestIPCCassessment,indicatingthatthethreatofglobalwarmingmayhavebeen

Figure 1.15: Cape Grim Tasmania Methane parts per billion

Figure 1.14: Cape Grim Tasmania CO2 parts per million

Indicators

CONDITION INDICATOR

• Atmospheric Concentration of Greenhouse Gases

ConditionIndicatorsaretheannualaverageatmosphericconcentrationsofgreenhousegasesandlocalobservationsofclimatechanges.Othersectionsofthereportprovidedetailsofindicatorsofbiologicalandeconomicresponsestoglobaladverseclimatechange.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Sources of greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia

Determiningthesourceofgreenhousegasemissionsprovidesfocusonthosesectorsthatrequiregreatestintervention.

underestimatedinthatreport.Theseinclude:

• GlobalcarbondioxideemissionsgrowthisacceleratingfasterthantheworstcaseIPCCemissionsscenarios(Raupachet al.,2007);

• Arcticsea-icemayberetreatingmorerapidlythananticipated(NationalSnowandIceDataCentre,BoulderColorado2008);

• Thecapacityofglobaloceanstoabsorbcarbondioxidemayalreadybediminishing(Canadellet al.,2007).

• Intheabsenceofeffortstocurtailemissions,itisnowprobablethattheimpactofwarmingwillbeattheupperendofpredictions(CASPI,2007).

Climatescienceisnowprovidingastrongcaseforurgentactiontosignificantly reduce greenhouse gasemissionstoavoidcatastrophicconsequencesforhumanityandmostotherlifeontheplanet.WhetherthechangesthatarecurrentlybeingexperiencedintheSouthAustralianclimatecanbefullyexplainedbyhuman-inducedactionsandgreenhousegasemissionsornot,itisclearthatacautionaryapproachtotheevidentrisksinvolvedrequirepoliciesandstrategiestoenhanceouradaptivecapacity,loweremissionsandreducetheecologicalfootprintofhumanactivity.


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Figure 1.16: Cape Grim Tasmania N2O parts per billion

Map 1.1: Trend in Annual Total Rainfall 1960-2006 (mm/10yrs)

Map 1.2: Trend in Mean Temperature

1960-2006 (°C/10yrs)

• Gross State Product per tonne of greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia

SouthAustraliashouldbeaimingtoincreaseGrossStateProductpertonneofgreenhousegasemissionsasthisdemonstratesaneconomythatutilisescarbon more efficiently. Conversely, areductioninthisindicatorshowsthatoureconomyisbecomingmorecarbonintensive.

• Net greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia indexed against population

Thisindicatordemonstratespercapitaemissionswhichareindicativeofconsumption and carbon efficiency of theeconomy.

CONDITION INDICATOR: Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases

Thethreemostimportantlong-livedgreenhousegasesfromhumanactivityarecarbondioxide(CO2),methane(CH4)andnitrousoxide(N2O).Theatmosphericconcentrationsofthesegaseshavebeenobservedtoincreasemarkedlyoverrecentdecades.

TheCSIROandBureauofMeteorologymonitorgreenhousegasconcentrationsattheCapeGrimfacilityonTasmania’snorthwestcoast(www.bom.gov.au/inside/cgbaps/).Giventherelativelylonglifeofthesegasesintheatmosphere,observationsatCapeGrimareindicativeofSouthAustralianconcentrations.

Carbon dioxide is the most significant anthropogenicgreenhousegas,withanatmosphericconcentrationof382partspermillioninMay2008.AtCapeGrim,readingsshowtheannualemissionsofCO2havegrownbyabout80%since1974,andhaveincreasedatahigherrateinthelastdecade(Raupachetal.,2007;IPCC,2007).

Theatmosphericconcentrationofmethaneincreasedfromapre-industrialvalueofabout715partsperbillionto1717inMay2008.Duringthissameperiod,nitrousoxideconcentrationshaveincreasedfromabout270to321partsperbillion.

TheIPCCestimatesthattheatmosphericcarbondioxideequivalent

(CO2-e)concentrationofalllong-livedgreenhousegasesiscurrentlyabout455partspermillion.Anthropogenicaerosolsandotherpollutantscurrentlymoderatethewarmingeffect,givinganeffectiveconcentrationof375partspermillionCO2-e.However,effortstocontrolairbornepollutantswillcausethismoderatingorcoolingeffecttodecline,whilethewarmingassociatedwithgreenhousegasesremainsbecauseofthelifeofCO2intheatmosphere(IPCC,2007andCASPI,2007).

Figures1.14–1.16showthetrendsofincreasingconcentrationsofthethreemaingreenhousegasesoverrecentdecades.

Observed changes in climate

TheCSIROhasconductedanumberofstudiesonSouthAustralia’stemperatureandrainfalltrendssincethe2003StateoftheEnvironmentreport.MostrecentlyhasbeenacomprehensivestudyentitledClimate Change in AustraliaaspartofAustralia’sClimateChangeScienceProgramwiththeBureauofMeteorology.Thisreportalsogivesupdatedprojectionsfor2030and2070aspreviouslycitedinthischapter.www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/silo/reg/cli_chg/trendmaps.cgi

Map1.1and1.2illustrateannualtrendsinMeanTemperatureandRainfallsince1960.Seasonaldataoverthesameperiodsshowsthatrainfalldeclineispredominantlyoccurringinautumn.

Inordertocontaintheglobaltemperatureincreaseatamaximumof2-2.4ºCabovepreindustriallevels,theIPCChaveadvisedthatgreenhousegasconcentrationlevelsneedtobestabilisedat445-490partspermillionofCO2-e(IPCC,2007).Deepcutsingreenhousegasemissionsareurgentlyrequiredtoachievetheselevelsandavoidthemoresevereprojectedadverseclimatechangeimpacts.Giventhatthereiscurrentlyapproximately450partspermillion,thisisalreadyinthedangerousrangeandonceaerosolpollutantsarecontrolled,thiswarmingwillbefullyrealised.Thatis,noorverylittlefurtheremissionsgrowthispermissibleifwarmingistoberestrictedtobelow2°C.

Thecurrentlyperceivedhighlevelofthreathasprovidedtheurgencyforsettingtargetstostabilisegreenhousegasconcentrationlevelsinthedesiredrange.Thedangercouldescalateiftherateofwarmingturnsouttobeattheupperlimitofcurrentprojectionsand/or

What is the currents i tuat ion?

0.600.400.300.200.150.100.050.00

-0.05-0.10-0.15-0.20-0.30-0.40-0.60

50.040.030.020.015.010.05.00.0

-5.0-10.0-15.0-20.0-30.0-40.0-50.0

Climate Change

Source:AustralianBureauofMeteorology

Source:AustralianBureauofMeteorology


ATMOSPHERE

ifsensitivitiestotheapparentlysmallchangesintemperaturearefoundtobe more significant than anticipated. Thisisthenatureofriskmanagement,theongoingweighingofthepotentialseverityofchangeagainsttheprobabilityofitsoccurrence.Itwillnotremainconstantandstrategiesareneededtoreflect this.

UNFCCCnegotiationsareunderwayonpreparinganewinternationalclimatechangeagreement(postKyoto)byDecember2009,withtheaimofestablishingmoresubstantialemissionsabatementtargets.Inrecognitionoftheirhistoricalresponsibilityforglobalwarming,indicationsarethatdevelopedcountrieswillberequiredtoreducegreenhousegasemissionsto25-40%below1990levelsby2020,and80-95%by2050,toachievethedesiredconcentrationstabilisationlevel(IPCC,2007).Currentstatepolicytargets are below these scientific targets, butareapositivestepintherightdirection.Aspartofamoreconcertednationaleffortonreducingemissionsandunderstandingtheimplicationsofadverseclimatechange,SouthAustraliamustbothcontinuetoactivelyparticipateinthenationalprocesses,andidentifyappropriateandeffectiveactionsatthestatelevel.

Agrowingeconomy,especiallyonethatisexpandingintoenergyintensivesectorssuchasmining,willseeemissionsfromenergysectorsincreasewhileaccesstowaterislikelytolimitthecontributionofvegetationasacarbonsink.Theneteffectisupwardpressureonthestate’semissionsinventory.

Thestatehasyettodemonstrateongoingstabilisationofemissionsandfurtherdecouplingofemissionsfromeconomicgrowthisrequired.

Analysisofthetrendsatasectorallevelshows that a focus on energy efficiency willbeanecessarycomplementtotheexpansionofrenewableenergyifwearetocontainemissionsgrowthintheenergysector.Thisappliesparticularlyintheshortterm where energy efficiency options canoftenbeachievedquicklyandwithpositive economic benefit.

Thelargeincreaseinatmosphericconcentrationsofthekeygreenhousegasesandtheobservedtrendsintemperatureandrainfallsupporttheviewthatsomelevelofadverseclimatechangeisinevitable.ProjectionsfromtheCSIROandBureauofMeteorologyin2007indicatethatthestatecanexpecttohave

ahotter,drierclimatewithanincreasedrisk of bushfires, drought and other extreme climaticeventsaswellasincreasedevapo-transpiration,sealevels,coastalerosionandsolarradiation.Understandingtheimplicationsofthisforthestate’sbiodiversity,regionsandindustries,particularlythosethatrelyonnaturalresources,mustbecomeahighpriority.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Sources of greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia

SouthAustralia’sEmissionsInventoryiscompiledfromdataprovidedbytheDepartmentofClimateChange(DCC,formerlytheAustralianGreenhouseOffice) to which is added a quantity reflecting the emissions occurring in the easternstatesasaresultoftheelectricitythisstatereceivesoverthetwointerconnectors.

In 1990 the first full year of operation of theHeywoodInterconnectorthisquantitywasaround0.6MtCO2-e,andstoodataround3.2Mtin2006.Flowsacrosstheinterconnector are a reflection of relative pricesinthewholesaleelectricitymarket.TheaverageemissionsgeneratedbyaunitofelectricitygeneratedinSouthAustraliaareveryclosetotheaverageintensityacrosstheentireNationalElectricityMarket,i.e.closetoonetonneofCO2-eperMegawatt-hour(or1kg/kWh)in2006.

SouthAustralia’semissionssourcesareshowninTable1.1.

Whileelectricitygenerationcontinuestobethebiggestsourceofemissions,therehasbeenadramaticgrowthinwindgeneratedrenewableelectricityinSouthAustraliarecentlyandthisisforecasttogrowtoaround20%oftheelectricitygeneratedinSAby2010.

SouthAustraliaalsohasenormouspotentialtogenerateelectricityfromgeothermalenergy,asithaslargeregionsofnaturallyoccurringundergroundheat. A significant amount of exploration investmentisbeingdevotedtoexploitingtheseresources(refertotheEnergy chapter).

Themostobviousimprovementsinemissionssince1990havebeenthevirtualcessationoflandclearing,whichcanbeconsideredaoneoffemissionsreduction,andtheexpansionofforestry

What are the pressures?Angas River. Photo: EPA

Dry lake bed, Cooongie Lakes complex. Photo: Wetlands International


1990 2006 % Change

Electricity Generation 7.1 11.1 + 56%

Other Stationary Energy 5.4 5.9 + 10%

Venting, Flaring and Fugitives 4.0 3.2 -19%

Industrial Processes 3.0 3.1 + 6%

Road Transport 4.7 5.1 + 8%

Air, sea, rail and other transport 0.7 0.7 -4%

Agricultural soils 1.2 1.3 + 16%

Livestock 4.4 4.0 -10%

Solid and Liquid Waste 1.4 0.9 -35%

Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) 1.6 -4.1 -360%

33.3 31.2 -7%

TOTAL (exc. LULUCF)

TOTAL (inc. LULUCF)

31.7 35.3 + 11%

Note: Due to representation of numbers some change is realised outside of the decima places presented and is reported as such. Explanation of sectors: Stationary Energy – emissions from fossil fuel combustion for non transport energy use, for the generation of

electricity, heat production and by industry. Includes fugitive emissions from oil and gas production; Transport – emissions from the use of petrol, LPG and diesel; Agriculture – mainly the release of methane from the digestive processes of livestock and nitrous oxide emissions from soil management practices associated with crop production; Industrial processes – direct emissions generated by

chemical reactions from a range of production processes, including the production of cement, iron and steel. Solid and Liquid Waste– mainly emissions of methane from the anaerobic decomposition of organic waste in landfills and the management of sewage; Land

Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) – the net effect of removals of carbon dioxide by growing plants and emissions from deforestation for cropping and grazing purposes

Source: Department of Climate Change (2008)

Sources of greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia (Mt CO2-e)

Table 1.1: Sources of greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia (Mt CO2-e)

andrevegetationinthestate.Thissectorwentfrombeingasourceof1.6MtofCO2-ein1990tobeingasinkof4.1Mtin2006(AGEIS,2008).Thisreversalofmorethan5Mthasheldthestate’snetemissionsrelativelystabledespitegrowthinemissionsinalmosteveryothersector.

Anotherareathathasshownimprovement,althoughonlyaminorcontributoroverallistheemissionsfromthedecompositionofSolidandLiquidwastes.A35%improvementhasoccurredas a result of less waste going to landfill, particularlyorganics,andimprovedcaptureofmethaneforventingorpowergeneration.

Analysingtheemissionsinventorybyend-usershowsstrongupwardstrendsineachoftheresidential,commercialandindustrialsectorsasillustratedinTable1.2.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Gross State Product per tonne of greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia

Thisindicatorrepresentstheeconomicvaluederivedfromatonneofgreenhousegasemissionsforthestateandshowsanincreasesince1990.Thisfollowsageneraltrendwithindevelopedeconomiesthroughthelatterpartofthe20th century reflecting increased energy

efficiency and growth in their services sectors.However,economicdevelopmentthatfavoursenergyintensiveindustriessuchasminingandmineralsprocessing,will influence this trend in South Australia in thefuture.Therearesuggestionsinotherdevelopedeconomiesthatthismaybehappeningthereaswell(seeRaupach et al.2007).Inthefaceofanexpectedminingboom,thisissueneedsthoroughconsiderationwhenregulatingminingoperationsifthestateisgoingtoeffectivelyreduceitsenvironmentalimpact.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Net greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia indexed against population

Netoverallgreenhousegasemissionsperpersonhaveshownasmallincreasesince1990.However,afocusontheresidentialsectorrevealsamorepronouncedupwardtrend.Theaspirationtoraisethestate’spopulationtotwomillionpeopleby 2050 increases the pressure reflected bythisindicator.Ithighlightscompetingprioritiesandthetaskaheadtostabiliseandthenreduceemissions.Achievingthetargetofa30%reductioninthestate’secologicalfootprintwithapopulationoftwomillionpeoplewouldrequireapercapitareductioninexcessof50%.

A Challenge for all South AustraliansTheSouthAustralianStrategicPlanhassettargetsoftwomillionresidentsinSouthAustraliaplusreducinggreenhousegasemissionsforthestateby60%(basedon1990levels)by2050.

TheresidentialsectorisakeydriverofSouthAustraliangreenhousegasemissions.Althoughthepopulationincreasedby9.4%from1990to2006,residentialemissionsincreasedbya28%duringthisperiod.Thatmadeupaquarterofthestate’stotalnetemissionsin2006.

ThechallengeforSouthAustraliaistoaccommodateanestimatedadditional390,000householdsby2050whilesimultaneouslymorethanhalving1990greenhousegasemissionlevels.

Climate Change


ATMOSPHERE

Greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia, by end-use sector (Mt CO2-e)

1990 2006 % Change

Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 7.7 2.0 -74%

Mining 5.1 4.9 -4%

Manufacturing & Construction 7.6 8.0 + 5%

Utilities 1.8 2.2 + 25%

Commercial 2.7 3.4 + 26%

Transport and Storage Industry 2.5 3.0 + 21%

Residential 6.1 7.7 + 28%

TOTAL (inc. LULUCF) 33.3 31.2 -7%

TOTAL (exc. LULUCF) 31.7 35.3 + 11%

Source: Department of Climate Change (2008)

Annual greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia indexed against GSP

CO2-e Excluding LULUCF Including LULUCF

1990 2006 Change 1990 2006 Change

SA 1410 1846 31% 1342 2091 56%

Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Cat. No. 5220.0), Australian Greenhouse Office State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2006 and the Essential Services Commission of South Australia

Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Cat. No. 3101.4), Australian Greenhouse Office State and Territory Greenhouse GasInventories 2006 and the Essential Services Commission of South Australia

Total annual greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes) in South Australia per capita

Excluding LULUCF Including LULUCF

1990 2006 Change 1990 2005 Change

SA 22.3 22.6 1.7% 23 20 -14.6%

Table 1.2: Greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia, by end-use sector (Mt CO2-e)

Table 1.3: Annual greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia indexed against GSP

Table 1.4: Total annual greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes) in South Australia per capita

Figure 1.17: Annual greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia indexed against GSP

Figure 1.18: Total annual greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes) in South Australia per capita

$-

$200

$400

$600

$800

$1,000

$1,200

$1,400

$1,600

$1,800

$2,000

1989

-90

1990

-91

1991

-92

1992

-93

1993

-94

1994

-95

1995

-96

1996

-97

1997

-98

1998

-99

1999

-00

2000

-01

2001

-02

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

2005

-06

GSP

$ p

er t

on

ne

CO

2e (

exc

l LU

LUC

F)

Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Cat. No. 3101.4 and 5220.0),

Australian Greenhouse Office State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2006

and the Essential Services Commission of South Australia

Year

Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Cat. No. 3101.4 and 5220.0),

Australian Greenhouse Office State and Territory Greenhouse Gas

Inventories 2006 and the Essential Services Commission

of South Australia

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

1989

-90

1990

-91

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-92

1992

-93

1993

-94

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-95

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-06

Ton

ne

sC

O2e

pe

rca

pita

(SA

)(e

xcl.

LULU

CF)

Year

Thegreenhouseandclimatechangeissuehasdramaticallyincreasedinprominenceforthecommunity,businessandgovernmentssincethe2003 State of the Environment report.

In2004,South Australia’s Strategic Plansetatargetforachievingthestate’sKyotoTargetof108%of1990levelsby2012.Inthe2007updateofthePlan,thiswasextendedtoincludealong-termtargetofreducingemissionsto60%below1990levelsby2050.

In2007thestategovernmentreleasedTackling Climate Change, SA’s Greenhouse Strategy 2007-2020, aframeworkfor

respondingtoadverseclimatechangeinacomprehensiveandcoordinatedmanner. This Strategy sets out specific goals,objectivesandtargets,alongwiththemeansofachievingthem.

Importantly,StateParliamentalsopassed Australia’s first climate change legislationin2007.The Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 containsacommitmenttothe2050targetaswellasrenewableenergytargetsfor2014.Amongstotherthings,theActcommitsthegovernmenttoeffectivelymeasuring,managingandreportingtoparliamentonboththestate’sandthegovernment’sgreenhousegasemissionseverytwoyears,aswellasrequiringtheestablishmentofaClimateChangeCounciltoadviseonclimatechangeissues.

What are we doing about it?


EmissionstradingAcapandtradeemissionstradingschemeisamarket-basedmechanismforreducinggreenhousegasemissions.Acapandtradeemissionstradingschemeovercomestheexternalitiesthatarisewhendecisionsbycompaniesandindividualsdonotincludethecostofgreenhousegasemissionstothebroadereconomy.Itdoesthisbyexplicitlyplacingapriceongreenhouseemissions.

Thepricesignalisgeneratedbecausethecapandtradeschemeplacesalimitontheamountofcarbondioxideequivalentemissionsthatcanbereleased.Fixingsupplybelowabusinessasusualamountcreatesscarcity,whichdrivespricedevelopment.

The cap is set in part according to the scientific evidence regarding the level of cumulativeemissionsintheatmosphereandthepotentialforrelatedclimatechange.Otherobjectives,suchasinternationalcommitments,economicadjustment and the need for an emissions profile to adjust over time may influence thesettingofthecapinanyoneyear.

Oncethecapisestablished,permitsareissued(orauctioned)uptothelevelofthe cap. Each year, firms need to monitor and report their total emissions and acquitpermitsagainsttheseemissions.Firmscanbuypermitsasrequired,ortheycanchoosetoabateinordertoreducetheirpermitliability.Thetradingofpermitsmeans that the lowest cost abatement occurs first, because those who can abate cheaplydoso,whilethosewhocan’tpurchasemorepermits.

Thepricesignalcreatedbytheemissionstradingschemeencouragesamoreefficient use of energy and other greenhouse intensive products. In addition, some capandtradesystemsalsoallowtheuseofcarbonoffsetsfromcarbonsinks,suchasfromplantingtrees,whichgeneratesnewsindustries.

FurtherinformationabouttheproposedAustralianemissionstradingschemecanbefoundatwww.climatechange.gov.au/emissionstrading/about.html.

ATMOSPHERE

Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Cat. No. 3101.4), Australian Greenhouse Office State and Territory Greenhouse GasInventories 2006 and the Essential Services Commission of South Australia

Residential annual greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes) in South Australia per capita (energy use & transport)

1990 2006 Change

SA 4.2 5.0 17.0%

Table 1.2: Greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia, by end-use sector (Mt CO2-e)

Table 1.3: Annual greenhouse gas emissions in South Australia indexed against GSP

Table 1.5: Residential annual greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes) in South Australia per capita (energy use and transport)

Figure 1.19: Residential annual greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes) in South Australia per capita (energy use and transport)

Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Cat. No. 3101.4 and

5220.0), Australian Greenhouse Office State and Territory Green-house Gas Inventories 2006 and

the Essential Services Commission of South Australia

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

1989

-90

1990

-91

1991

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1992

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-94

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Inordertosatisfythesereportingobligations,SouthAustraliaisdevelopingitsownsetofannualgreenhouseaccounts.Atanationallevel,DCCsubmitsAustralianannualestimatesofgreenhousegasemissionstotheUNFCCCtomeetinternationalreportingrequirements.

TheUNFCCCreportingrulesdon’taccommodatesub-nationalgovernmentssoSouthAustraliaisdevelopingasetofaccountsthatconformstointernationalguidelinesandAustralianmethodologies,incorporatingstate-specific circumstances such as electricity flows across interconnectors.

Developingastate-basedemissionsinventoryisanextensivetask,particularly

Climate Change

fortheagricultureandlandusesectors,where quantification is based on detailedestimationprocessesratherthanactualmeasurement.SouthAustraliaisworkingwiththeDCCthroughtheNationalGreenhouseGasInventory (NGGI) Committee to refine a rangeoffactorsandmethods.

Atanationallevel,anemissionscapandtradingschemeareplannedtobeoperationalwellbeforetheendofthefirst Kyoto commitment period, i.e. prior to2012.TheEnergy chapteroutlinesthegrowthinrenewablefuelsinSouthAustraliaandtheexpectedincreasingtrends,andalsoprovidesinformationonincentivesinplacetopromotetheiruse.


ATMOSPHERE

AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofClimateChange,Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System (AGEIS),2008www.greenhouse.gov.au/inventory/index.html

AustralianNationalUniversity,Australian Dictionary of Biography,OnlineEdition,ANU,Canberrawww.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A040316b.htm

Basic Information on Greenhouse and Related Gases,excerptedfromtheWMOWDCGGDataSummary(WMOWDCGGNo.30)(March2006)WorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO),GlobalAtmosphereWatch,WorldDataCentreforGreenhouseGasesgaw.kishou.go.jp/wdcgg/gas.html,accessed19/7/7.

BureauofMeteorologywww.bom.gov.au/weather/sa/inside/history/#_goyder

Canadell,J.G.,LeQuéré,C.,Raupach,M.R.,Field,C.B.,Buitehuis,E.T.,Ciais,P.,Conway,T.J.,Gillett,N.P.,Houghton,R.A.andMarland,G.(2007).Contributions to accelerating

atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity and efficiency of natural sinks. ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmericawww.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0702737104.

ClimateAdaptationScienceandPolicyInitiative(2007),Evidence of Accelerated Climate Change,UniversityofMelbournefortheClimateInstitute,Sydney.

CSIROMarineandAtmosphericResearch(2006),Climate Change Impacts on Australia and the Benefits of Early Action to Reduce Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions,CSIRO,Melbourne.

CSIROMarineandAtmosphericResearch(2006),Climate change under enhanced greenhouse conditions in South Australia. An updated report on: Assessment of climate change, impacts and risk management strategies relevant to South Australia,CSIRO,Melbourne

CSIRO/BoM(2007).Climate Change in Australia.CSIROandAustralianBureauofMeteorology.TechnicalReport,ISBN97819211232930.www.climatechangein-australia.gov.au

References

Low water levels, Hindmarsh Island, Goolwa, 2007. Photo: Tim Goldsmith

Bushfire on Kangaroo Island 2007. Photo: DEH

What more should we be doing?TheEnvironmentProtectionAuthorityrecommendsthefollowing:

R1.2 Developadaptationstrategiesbasedonassessedvulnerabilityandopportunitiesunderdifferentclimatechangeandpopulationscenariosfor:

•Humanhealth•Watersecurity •Biodiversityandnaturalresources

•Assetprotection,infrastructureandemergencyservices,especiallyin relation to fire and sea level rise.

R1.3 Promotepublicdiscussionandunderstandingofthepossibleconsequencesofclimatechange,withanemphasisonwhatSouthAustralianscandotoreducetheiremissionsandadapttoclimatechange.

R1.4 Fast-track procurement of low emission vehicles for the government fleet (including smallervehicleswhereappropriate).

R1.5 Developandusemeasuresofgreenhousegasintensityasameanstoevaluatethesustainabilityofgovernmentpoliciesby2012.

R1.6 Progressworkonthe‘developmental’SouthAustralia’sStrategicPlantargetforadaptationtoclimatechangewithaviewtoincorporatingitintothe2010updateofthePlan.

Alignment of Recommendations with South Australia’s Strategic Plan targets

ForfurtherdetailonSouthAustralia’sStrategic Plan visit www.stateplan.sa.gov.au

R1.2 R1.3 R1.4 R1.5 R1.6

Growing Prosperity T1.1, T1.14, T1.22 T1.1, T1.14, T1.22 T1.1, T1.14, T1.22

Improving Wellbeing T2.4 T2.4 T2.4

Attaining Sustainability T3.5, T3.9, T3.12 T3.5, T3.9, T3.12 T3.5, T3.6, T3.7 T3.5, T3.9, T3.12 T3.5

Fostering Creativity and Innovation

Building Communities T5.9 T5.9 T5.9

Expanding Opportunities


www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/hadleycentre/news/new_sci_climate.pdf

NationalSnowandIceDataCentre,BoulderColorado2008,‘Permafrost Threatened by Rapid Retreat of Arctic Sea Ice,NCAR/NSIDCStudyFinds’http://nsidc.org/news/press/20080610_Slater.html

PopulationProjectionsforSouthAustralia(200131)andtheState’sStatisticalDivisions(200121),(Aug2007)dataserver.planning.sa.gov.au/publications/1173p.pdf

Pounds,J.A.,Bustamante,M.R.,Coloma,L.A.,Consuegra,J.A.,Fogden,M.P.L.,Foster,P.N.,LaMarca,E.,Masters,K.L.,Merino-Viteri,A.,Puschendorf,R.,Ron,S.R.,Sanchez-Azofeifa,G.A.,Still,C.J.&Young,B.E.(2006)Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature,439,161-167.

Raupach,M.R.Marland,G.,Ciais,P.,LeQuéré,C.,Canadell,J.G.Klepper,G.andField,C.B.(2007).Global and regional drivers of accelerating CO2 emissions. ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica104(24),10,288-10,293.

Scoping Study to Investigate Measures for Improving the Environmental Sustainability of Building Materials.DepartmentoftheEnvironmentandHeritage.(December2006)GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.www.greenhouse.gov.au/buildings/publications/building-materials.html

Tackling Climate Change South Australia’s Greenhouse Strategy 2007-2020.(2007)DepartmentofthePremierandCabinet,GovernmentofSouthAustralia,Adelaide.

UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram(2007),GlobalEnvironmentOutlook:environmentfordevelopment(GEO4),UNEP,Nairobi,Kenya.

South Australian Government www.climatechange.sa.gov.au www.sustainableliving.sa.gov.au

Australian Government Department of Climate Change www.climatechange.gov.au

Climate Change in Australia (CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology) www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch/

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change www.unfccc.int/

CSIROMarineandAtmosphericResearchandCapeGrimBaselineAirPollutionStation/AustralianBureauofMeteorology.TheCapeGrimBaselineAirPollutionStationisoperatedandmanagedbytheAustralianBureauofMeteorology,withthescienceprogrambeingjointlymanagedwithCSIROMarineandAtmosphericResearch.

Hennessy,K,Fitzharris,B,Bates,B,Harvey,N,Hughes,L,Howden,M,Salinger,J,andWarwick,R(2007),Australia and New Zealand Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergov-ernmental Panel on Climate Change, MLParry,OFCanziani,JPPalutikof,PJvanderLindenandCDHansen,Eds,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UK(pp507-540)

Howden,M.andHayman,P.(2007),Original climate benchmark makes a comeback,CSIRO,Canberrawww.csiro.au/news/GoydersLineMoving.html

Howden,M.andHayman,P.(2005),Will climate change affect the distribution of cropping in Australia? A case study using Goyder’s line. CSIRO,Canberragreenhouse2005.com/downloads/program/GH2005_Presentation_200511161600_3.ppt

HughesL(2003),Climate Change and Australia: Trends, projections and impacts, Austral Ecology,28,423-443.

IPCC(2007),Contribution of Working Group lll to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Mitigation of Climate Change,CambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork.

IPCC[Corewritingteam,Pachauri,R.KandReisinger,A.(eds.)].(2007), Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.IPCC,Geneva,104pp.

IPCC(2007),Contribution of Working Group l to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, The Physical Science Basis.CambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork.

IPCC(2007), Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, CambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork

Met Office Hadley Centre (2007), New science for managing climate risks,MetOffice, United Kingdom, Exeter

FeedbackeffectsEarth’sclimateiscomplexwithfeedbackmechanismsbeyondhumancontrolthatacceleratewarmingonceitstarts.

Positivefeedbacksinclude:

• increasedwatervapour(apotentgreenhousegas),inawarmeratmosphere,

• reduced reflective ability and therefore,increasedabsorptionofthesun’sheatwiththelossoficeandsnow

• thereleaseofmethanefrommeltingpermafrost;and

• thereleaseofcarbonfromecosystemsduetochangingclimaticconditions.

(UNEP,2007).

Further information

Cl imate Change