3rd GradeAstronomy Lessons

1) Star, Sun and Sky Stories: Using Mythology to explain our universe.

2) Our Closest Star, The Sun! Examination of the Sun’s movement through the sky.

3) Shadows of Time: Using a stick’s shadow to examine the Sun’s movement and the passage of time

4) Day and Night on the Spinning Globe: Exploration of the how and why of darkness and light.

5) Reason for the Season: Discover the causes behind our seasonal changes.

6) Phases of the Moon: Each student will create the phases of the moon.

7) Where did the Moon Go? The story behind eclipses and who’s in the way of whom.

Daily Classroom Routinesa. Daily charting of sunrise and sunset.b. Daily temperature recording including: high, low and at one designated time.

GlossaryEnchanted Learning’s Astronomy Glossary located at:http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/glossary/index.shtml

Star, Sun and Sky Stories: Using Mythology to Explain the Universe

Purpose:

Human cultures have attempted to make sense of our Universe and its varied phenomenon since men and women have been able to talk and draw. The primary source for many of these stories is within a culture’s mythology and folktales. Over the last couple thousand years science has replaced traditional mythology’s attempts to answer, explain and debate the happening in our Universe. As you begin to explore the universe with your students read to them explanations from traditional mythology and then guide your students to create their own myths. Later in this unit your students will discover the scientific facts but when it comes to reading and writing mythology, there’s no right or wrong answers but only wonderful literature. This lesson begins within the imaginative world of Scandinavian and Native American mythology and their explanations for astronomical activities.

Teacher Background:

The first myth Gangleri: A King's Search for Answers is from Scandinavia and the Icelandic writer Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241). The myth contains a king, giant wise men or the gods of Scandinavia and explanations for the seasons, the moon and Sun. Sturluson’s style has the king asking questions and the giant men providing explanations. This myth has been told over and over again and this version is a rebuilt edition of a pre-Christian myth written in Snorri’s Christian nation.

(Adapted from http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/carl_edda.html)

Cherokee mythologyThe Cherokee are a tribe of Native Americans who live in the southeastern United

States. Recent archeological discoveries by archaeologist/ethnologist Dr. Tim Jones of the University of Arizona place the Cherokee on the Ozark Plateau immediately after their invasion from South America, from whence they moved to occupy large parts of the southeastern and eastern United States from what is now southern Pennsylvania south to what is now Florida.

The Cherokee venerated the horned serpent Sint Holo, who appeared to extremely intelligent and resourceful male youths, as well as Tsul 'Kalu, a god of the hunt and Oonawieh Unggi ("the oldest wind"), a wind god. The Ani Yuntikwalaski were people of thunder and lightning; they caused fires in trees (usually hollow sycamore). Asgaya Gigagei was a thunderstorm spirit, also called Asagaya Gigaei. (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Maidu History

“Our ancestors lived along the various streams and tributaries of the Feather River in the area that is now Butte County, California. First contact with Euro-Americans in the 1830s brought diseases that killed many of our people. The results of the gold rush of 1849 were devastating to the native peoples. The US Congress secreted away the 18 Treaties made with the California Tribes. The miners and settlers coming into the area led to predation on the native's traditional food sources resulting in starvation. The new State of California passed many discriminatory laws which allowed raids by slave traders; legal indenture; a policy of deportation to reservations; and finally, extermination of those that would not be corralled and herded to the Round Valley Reservation, in 1863.”

(taken from http://www.maidu.com/maidu/)

Introduction:

Why do we have light and darkness? How do you explain the different shapes or phases of the moon? For centuries people have told and written mythological explanations to describe our universe. These imaginative myths and folktales contain gods, goddesses, animals, ancestors, heroes and villains who played a part in shaping and explaining the world’s conditions. While scientifically inaccurate, a culture’s imagination, values and beliefs can shine through in these ancient stories. This lesson will introduce the students to three myths (Icelandic and two Native American tribes, the Cherokee and Maidu) and allow them to write their own myths to explain the sky, sun, moon, seasons and stars.

The Activity:

1) Ask the students if they were a king or queen and many of the people in their kingdom asked them “Where does light and darkness came from?” or “Why winter is so cold?” where would they go to find out the answer? Imagine you are living three thousand years ago and there were no astronomers or other scientists to scientifically explain the movement of the sun, moon or earth? Who would you go to in order to answer your people’s questions? Describe to your students that you are going to read a myth about gods and a king in Sweden. Explain that the story is over a thousand years old and was told as a story of how the gods or “Big Men” explain where the Sun came from and why it gets so cold in winter. Two very critical questions in the life of any Icelander.

Ask your students to name any myths they have heard before and to explain what the myths explain. Ask your students, “What makes a myth a myth?” Listen to their responses and then explain that most often when people use the word myth they are describing an ancient or very old tale. Most myths were often only passed on through spoken words long ago and later written down. Many myths have several different versions. Use a map of the world to display where Iceland is related to your classroom. Ask why it would be important for the people of Iceland to have a story or answer for “Why it is so cold in winter?” And “Where does the Sun come from?”

2) Read the story to the class and if possible provide each student with their own copy. After or during reading discuss other comprehension related topics: Why did the king have to change his name before visiting the “big men”? Would you have changed your name? Where does the myth explain that the sun came from? Did anything they did or said make you laugh or smile? Why is summer’s father named “Agreeable” and Winter’s dad called “Cold-Wind”? Can you explain how the myth describes the reason for night and day? When finished ask them to list the myth’s characters, location, action, and plot (CLAP).

3) Have students talk with their table group for three/five minutes about questions they may have asked adults about the world around them especially in respect to the sky, moon, sun and earth. For example, "What are the stars?” “Where do the stars go at night?”, “Why does the moon change shape?” "What does the sun do at night?" Spend some time discussing the students' own personal experiences or their experiences with younger children asking them such questions. After table discussion ask students to share their questions. Explain that for as long as humans could talk or communicate they have asked these questions and tried to seek answers. Stories such as the myth of Gangleri were created to answer these questions. These ancient stories were used to explain and describe how and why things are the way they are in the universe. Explain to your students they will be writing their own myths. Have your students brainstorm a list of five different topics or questions they would like to write a myth about concentrating on topics connected to the sun, moon, stars and earth.

Day Two:

1) Ask your students to remember yesterday’s myth, Gangleri: A King’s Search for Answers, and its characters. Tell them that today they will be listening to two creation myths from Native American groups, one from the Cherokee of North Carolina and another from the Maidu of California. The myths today have animals as main characters but are not fables because they don’t teach a lesson but explain how and why things are as they are. Read the myths, “Stealing the Sun” and “Rock House”. Before reading Stealing the Sun describe the animals’ problem: They have no light and it’s dark all the time. The animals know that there is light on the other side of the world. How can they get the light that is half way around the world? What are some of the sources of light? (thunder, fire).

2) During and after reading ask additional comprehension questions especially focusing on the attributes of the characters. After each myth, discuss four elements of the story: character, location, action, and plot (CLAP).

3) Remind the students that their characters are extremely important to the making of the stories. Usually mythic characters are supernatural or have superpowers and they may have lived long ago. More important is the topic or question you want to write about and research. Go through Jane Yolen’s myth writing workshop with your students at http://teacher.scholastic.com/writewit/mff/myths_brainstorming.htm. If you don’t have computer access for your students to follow her lessons on line then print a copy for yourself and incorporate her sequential writing process into your instruction. The Scholastic site offers a list of objectives and goals and a scoring rubric.

Be sure to have several group reading of your students’ myths so they can listen to the variety of topics and imaginative explanations about our surrounding world.

Gangleri: A King's Search for AnswersThe Storybook Adaptation

By Tania Ruiz Based on a translation from the Prose Edda A very very long time ago, there was a king named Gylfi. Gylfi was a king of Sweden, and he lived among his people there happily for many years. The Swedish people trusted their king and expected him to know answers to all questions. But Gylfi soon found that the questions his people asked of him were becoming too difficult for him to answer himself. The people wanted to know where the Sun came from, why it got so cold in the winter, and what will happen to the world in the future. Gylfi did not know the answers to these questions, and felt he could not be a good king for his people until he knew all things. Isn't it sad that Gylfi should feel this way?

So, one night, Gylfi secretly left his home in his kingdom and went on a long journey. He was going to see the gods called the Aesir. Gylfi said to himself as he walked, "They would know the answers. They will help me to be a better king." Gylfi was a bit worried about going to see the Aesir. He was afraid that if they found out he, a king, did not know so many things, they would punish him or take away his kingdom. So, Gylfi decided to call himself Gangleri instead. He trekked on with his new name; practicing all of the questions he would ask the Aesir. Soon he reached the hall of the gods.

Three Aesir greeted him when he arrived, and he told them his new name, but not his real name. Their names were High One, Just-as-High, and Third. "We greet you, Gangleri. You have traveled far to see us. What is it that you need from us?" High One said.

Gylfi was very excited, these Aesir seemed rather friendly, and blurted right out, "I would like to know how the world began!"

The Aesir looked at him strangely, and then Just-as-High told Gangleri of the three mighty brothers, Odinn, Vili, and Ve: "It was once that the universe was cold, all ice and snow, and the ruler of this place was an enormous giant named Ymir. Ymir was also the universe, do you understand?"

Gylfi frowned for bit. He thought maybe he understood, but was not sure. High One raised an eyebrow and grinned, saying, "You are still confused. The whole universe was a cold giant named Ymir. Because he was the universe, he ruled it, see?"

Gylfi's frown flatted until he smiled, "Yes, I see. Yes..."

Third sniggered a bit. Gylfi heard this, and blushed. It is not very nice to make fun of people who do not understand.

Just-as-High continued, "There was only ice to eat, so a giant cow fed Ymir milk all day to keep him alive."

Gylfi interrupted, "What did that poor cow eat, if there was only ice?"

Third smirked, and whispered something to Just-as-High. Gylfi was more nervous than ever, and began to wring his hands a little. It was a good question, really.

High-One cleared his throat and said, "Well she licked the ice, see?"

Gylfi nodded with furrowed brow. His hands were all sweaty.

Just-as-High began again, this time speaking in a very slow way, "She found people in the ice when she licked it."

Just-as-High stopped, looked at Gylfi. Gylfi motioned for Just-as-High to continue. He completely understood that a cow could like people free from ice. Why just the other day...he began to think to himself, but Just-as-High went on, "The grandchildren of these people were three boys named Odinn, Vili, and Ve. They were so very powerful that we, as gods you know, decided that these boys should rule over the universe."

Gylfi was concerned, "Uh, what about Ymir, the giant?"

High-One widened his eyes, and clapped Gylfi on the shoulder, "Good question, Gangleri! Very good question. When these three boys grew to be men, they decided to kill the giant."

"Oh," Glyfi said, thinking that was a rather rude thing to do to the giant who spent all of his life lying in the cold snow and having only milk for food.

Third began, sensing Gylfi's unhappiness with Odinn's choice, "Well, they needed to do this, Gangleri. Imagine being a man like Odinn or his brothers and trying to live in a universe made of a huge frozen giant who drinks milk all day."

"You've got a point there," said Gylfi. High One and Just-as-High shook their heads in agreement.

Third continued, "Well, Odinn and Vili and Ve had to use the giant's body to make the whole world, since there was little in the universe but him. They took his huge skull and made the sky. To keep the sky hanging above the earth, they made four dwarfs stand at the corners. The dwarfs were called Austri, Vestri, Nordri, Sudri."

"East, West, North, and South...oh, yes, I see..." mumbled Gylfi.

"Odinn and his brothers took embers from distant very hot and fiery lands and put them up into Mighty Space so they could exist over the sky and the Earth. A chariot called Sun was made of embers and sent across the sky to measure a day. A chariot called Moon also raced across the sky. In the time before Odinn:

The Sun knew not where she had her halls.The Moon knew not what might he owned.The stars knew not where their places were.

Now, the length of a day and the count of the year were found from the hard work of Odinn, Vili, and Ve! This is why they are rulers and gods, and not the lazy Ymir!" Gylfi smiled proudly, for he himself and his people were all great-great-great grandchildren of the resourceful brothers. He was standing there for some time, smiling, when he realized that Third had stopped talking. Gylfi looked up to see the three great Aesir staring at him expectedly.

He remembered his other questions. "Uh, well, I am wondering what happened to the universe after Odinn created it? And then where did light and dark come from?" Gylfi asked.

High One spoke long about how humans were created and where the gods came to live. He got to the part about the Day and Night, and Gylfi listened very carefully.

"Narfi was the name of a very dark giant who lived in Giantland. He had a daughter whose name was Night, and she was also very lovely and dark. She was married to a man called Naglfari. They had a son called Audr. Her second husband was called Other, and together they too have a daughter, named Earth. Her last husband was called Shining One, a relative of ours, actually," High-One smirked proudly, and continued, "and they had a son called Day."

Gylfi tried to keep track of all of the children and husbands.

High-One then said, "Odinn took Night and her son, Day, and gave them each a horse and chariot. He set them in the sky and told them to ride around every two half-days. Night was to ride in her chariot at the front with her horse Frosty-Mane. Every morning the foam Frosty-Mane makes from chewing his bit falls to the earth and makes the morning dew."

"Yuck," said Gylfi, and promised he would never walk barefoot in the morning grass ever again.

Third giggled, and Just-as-High thumped him in the chest.

"Day rides behind in his chariot with his horse called Shining-Mane. His glowing mane sheds light over the air and Earth." High One finished.

Gylfi was then wondering about the gods of Sun and the Moon, and how they fit in with all of the horses and chariots and embers and things.

High One answered again, "A certain man who was called Mundilfari had two children. They were fair and beautiful. He called them Moon and Sun. The gods were angry with Mundilfari because he called his children after the names Odinn had given to the ember chariots! As punishment, the gods took Muldilfari's children and made them work in the sky. Sun was made to drive the speedy horses of the Sun chariot, which was very difficult, since the chariot was very hot, filled with embers! So the gods kept the horses, named Early-Waker and All-Strong, cool by putting bellows underneath them. Poor Moon was made to steer the Moon's course across the sky and control its shape."

Gylfi wondered about poor Sun driving those horses, keeping them so cool at the same time. He knew the Sun could move very fast across the sky. He was so curious, he finally asked, "Why does the Sun move so fast?"

Third and Just-as-High seemed alarmed at this question. High-One laughed, and said, a bit sarcastically, "Well, it is not surprising she goes so fast, considering who is following her so closely! She has no way out except to run away!

Gylfi felt very very stupid, but he had to know, "Who is it that makes her this trouble?"

Third fell off of his seat laughing and excused himself. Just-as-High sighed deeply.

"Ahem, Gangleri, everyone knows that there are two wolves surrounding her. The one who is behind her is Skoll. He frightens her and he will eventually catch her, when the world ends. The one in front of her is Hati Hrodvitnisson, and he is running after the moon. He will catch it, of course, when the world ends. It is so in the Great Poem, Gangleri."

Gylfi was so very nervous. He knew about the wolves, really. He didn't realize that they were chasing Sun and Moon all of this time. He thought they only showed up at the end of the world, when they eat Sun and Moon. He looked down at his feet and shivered a bit, thinking about the end of the world always made him cold. Cold....winter was coming soon to his kingdom, and the people would ask him again why it was so very cold.

Third returned from wherever he had wandered off, and sat back down, wiping his eyes a bit and coughing. Just-as-High nudged him a bit.

Gylfi swallowed very hard and thought about all he had learned. There was a lot of warmth coming from the embers, so much that the horses carrying the chariot had to be cooled! So

why should it get so cold on Earth in the winter with all of that heat driving about in the sky? He had to ask this last question of the Aesir. He had to know not just for his people.

Gylfi took a deep breath, closed his eyes so he could not see them smile, and asked, "Why is there such a great difference that summer should be hot but winter cold?"

When they heard this, the Aesir were very surprised. Third laughed so hard he nearly choked to death. Just-as-High sat in his chair with his mouth open so wide that Gylfi could see all of his teeth. Even the High One seemed annoyed and shocked.

Gylfi felt about three inches tall and slumped. He wanted to crawl away and leave this place. To Gylfi these gods seemed to find his lack of knowledge amusing. But how is one ever to know a thing if one does not search for the answer or ask for one?

However, eventually High One said to Gylfi, "A well-informed man would not ask this, because this is known by everyone. But if you alone have come so lacking in knowledge that you have never ever heard this, then I think it is better that you ask just this once than forever not know this."

Gylfi shook his head in agreement, that's why he was here: to learn not to be tested. He listened carefully.

"Summer's father, named Agreeable, is so fortunate in life that his name is used to describe everything in the world which is nice and pleasant. So Summer grew up to be this way. But Winter's father is grim and mean, and he is called Wind-Bringer or Cold-Wind. That's why Winter himself is so nasty and grim."

Gylfi didn't think this really answered his question. He was about to open his mouth, but High One said, "If you can ask anything more, then I do not know from where an answer will come. I have never heard any man tell more about the universe than I just have. Go, Gangleri, and use this as you can."

Third made shoo-shoo gestures towards Gylfi, and Just-as-High still sat with his mouth gaping. High One waved cheerily to Glyfi, and the three Aesir disappeared. Gylfi was left in an empty room. He found the door and headed back home to his people with all of the new information he had found. It all sounded so fantastic, so many fathers and children and horses and things. But at least he had decided to seek answers, and he would have lots to tell his people when next they asked.

Stealing the SunA Cherokee of North Carolina told this story to explain how light and pottery came to

their people.

Long ago the Cherokee people lived in a dark world. They had no Sun or Moon or light of any kind. It was so dark that the animals, birds, and insects kept bumping into each other.  One day the animals called a meeting to see what could be done.

Woodpecker spoke first. "I've heard," he said, "that people on the other side of the world havelight. Maybe if we go there, they will give us some."

I'll go," said Owl. "I can see in the dark."

"No, I should go," Opossum said. "If they are stingy with their light, I'll steal some and hide it under my bushy tail."

They all agreed, so Opossum started at once. As he headed East, the world grew lighter. Soon he had to squint to keep from being blinded, but he kept on going until he found the Sun.

Carefully he placed a small piece of it under his tail. He set out for home as fast as his short legs would go, but that piece of Sun was so hot it set his tail on fire.

The people who lived in the land of the Sun demanded that he return the piece he took. Poor Opossum. He now had to squint, his fine bushy tail was ruined, and the animals still had no light.

The animals called another meeting, and this time Buzzard volunteered. "I can fly far and fast," he boasted. "I can bring back the light in no time."

He flew East and stayed up high so the people couldn't see him. Then he dived straight down, snatched a piece of the Sun, and hid it on top of his head. But as he was flying away, his beautiful head feathers caught on fire. Buzzard dropped the piece of Sun at once, but his head had turned bright red and was completely bald, just as it is today.

The animals met once more, "What shall we do now?" they asked. "We must have light!"

Grandmother Spider crawled out of the nearby grass. "You big creatures have done all you can," she said. "Perhaps a smaller creature could do better."

"You'll get burned up!" squawked the Owl. "Maybe not," answered Grandmother Spider. They were so desperate for light they agreed to let her go.

Grandmother Spider felt around until she found some damp clay. Then she rolled it into the shape of a bowl. "It will dry slowly as I travel in the dark," she said to herself. "That way it won't crack."

As she traveled, she spun a trail of thread to find her way home.

When she came to the place of the Sun people, she quickly reached out and took a piece of the Sun. She dropped it into her bowl and covered it. Then she quietly followed her thread-trail back home.

When the animals uncovered Grandmother Spider's bowl, they could hardly believe their eyes. The first light they had ever seen shot out its rays. Even today, the spider's web is shaped like the rays of the Sun.

From that time on, not only did the Cherokee people have light, but also pottery making became honored work among them.

Stealing the Sun Myth found at http://www.earthbow.com/native/cherokee/sun.htm

Rock House: Why the Sun Follows the MoonCalifornia Indian Legend

Southern Maidu

Re-told by Barbara Shining Woman WarrenThis story was collected in Yuba County by Don May, a Cherokee and told to Barbara Warren in 1990. Don originally heard the story in 1980 from his eighty-year-old Southern Maidu friend, Frazier Edwards. Frazier had lived in this area all his days; this was the home of his ancestors. The Maidu are a Northern-Central Valley tribe of California. Originally their territory encompassed both sides of the Sacramento River. The Maidu are among the most gifted basket makers in the world.

As a legend, which has never been previously recorded, it is being placed on Cherokees of California's web page so that others may "hear the words" once again.

Rock House is the Southern Maidu name for Paines Peak. The twelve hundred foot high Paines Peak is a jagged out-cropping of volcanic rock. It is located within a circle of the foothill roads of Old Marysville, Fruitland, Loma Rica and Scott-Grant in northern Yuba County.

The Legend:Father Sun and Mother Moon lived inside the huge hollow rocks of Rock House. Their light did not shine from the sky, so the People and the Animals lived in darkness. Now Coyote, who was always playing tricks, thought it would be great fun to dump some fleas on Father Sun and Mother Moon. So he began to gather the fleas and place them in bags. On his way to Rock House he met Rabbit. When Coyote bragged about his bags of fleas, Rabbit would not believe him. They began to argue. Between them, Rabbit and Coyote began to tug on one of the bags. As Rabbit yanked it from Coyote's grasp, the bag opened and the fleas spilled out on the ground. And to this day, Rabbit and Coyote are always scratching fleas.

Rabbit liked Coyote's idea of taking the fleas to Rock House. So together they trudged up the peak to Rock House carrying the bags of fleas. As they walked they tried to think of a plan to get the fleas inside of Rock House.

Along the path they found Gopher digging a hole. They decided to include Gopher in their trick. Gopher could dig a hole down through the soil to Rock House. When they reached the top of the peak, Gopher began to dig quietly so Father Sun and Mother Moon would not be alarmed. As soon as Gopher backed out of the hole, Coyote and Rabbit shook the bags of fleas down the opening. Then they plugged up the hole and ran away feeling very pleased with themselves.

The fleas soon covered Father Sun and Mother Moon. When Mother Moon could no longer stand the fleas, she flew out of Rock House and began to circle the Earth. Father Sun

followed Mother Moon out of Rock House. They raced around the Earth trying to get rid of those fleas.

That is why, to this day, the Sun follows the Moon across the sky.

The Rock House myth can be found at http://www.powersource.com/cocinc/articles/rockh.htm

Our Closest Star, The Sun!

Purpose:

People long ago wrongly believed the Earth stood still and the Sun moved around us, rising in the East and setting in the West. The Earth was believed to be flat and when you think about it that made sense because the Earth is so big and we are so small. The tiny pieces of Earth we can see at one time don’t seem to curve and honestly the curve is too small for us to notice.

We now know that neither of these is true. The apparent daily motion of the Sun (and Moon and stars) across the sky in fact reflects the rotation of Earth about its axis, and its spherical shape. The annual motion of the Earth as it orbits the Sun, together with the tilt of Earth’s axis, modify the Sun’s apparent motion so that it does not repeat the same path through the sky, but changes its path daily. Understanding all of this is the goal of the next four activities.

This activity allows students to observe the path of the Sun through the daytime sky in order to establish the regularity of this familiar phenomenon as a basis for later work. The Earth’s rotation about its axis is uniform, therefore making the Sun arc overhead and move at the same rate over our heads daily. The Earth “spin time” (it’s important to use one term to describe the rotation cycle) is twenty-four hours so that the Sun’s apparent motion repeats with this interval. The division of this interval into light hours and dark hours changes daily, reflecting the Earth’s motion about the Sun. Through direct observation, recording and guided interpretation of their data the students will discover the Sun’s path is directly connected to the Earth’s spherical shape spinning on its axis. Finally, if this activity is repeated three times during the year in three different seasons (fall, winter and spring), the student’s data collection of the Sun’s overhead path will differ and when compared will ‘shed light’ onto how the Earth’s tilt on its axis and orbital motion around the Sun create the seasons.

Materials:

- Compass- 3’x 6’ sheet of paper for large horizon representation- Digital camera or panoramic camera

- Yellow construction paper for cut-out Suns- The Sun’s Path Across the Sky sheet generated by teacher - Class list with students divided into groups of fours to be “Sun Trackers”

Teacher Background:

The Sun is the brightest object for a human to observe in the sky. The Earth’s rotation causes it to move in our sky throughout the day. What makes it shine so brightly? Scientists have discovered that at its core the Sun is converting hundreds of millions of tons of hydrogen into helium every second. So, the Sun like other stars is an incredibly hot ball of glowing, bubbling gas. The Sun appears very different than other stars simply because it is so close to us. The distance to the Sun – 93 million miles – is dwarfed by the distances to other stars, the nearest of which is almost a million times as far from Earth as is the Sun. The Sun was once thought to be unique in having planets orbiting it; since 1998 many other stars have been found with orbiting planets, and more are discovered regularly. At this point in time, Earthlike planets are difficult to detect, and most of the planets we have detected are Jupiterlike gas giants. As our nearby star, the Sun’s influence dominates conditions on Earth, principally through the energy it radiates into space, which is ultimately the source of most energy on Earth (nuclear energy is the only exception). Earth would be a frozen rock without the Sun’s warmth and life on Earth would be impossible. Now how large is the Sun? Approximately 1.3 million Earths could fit inside of the Sun. In other words, if the Sun were a soccer ball the earth would be half the size of a pea. How much longer will the Sun shine? It’s believed that our Sun will continue to shine in its current form for another five billion years; it has been shining for about that long, so is about halfway through this phase of its history.

The Sun Path Chart(Taken from Washington State University, Energy Program at http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/eb1857e/eb1857e.html)

The sun path across the sky is a function of two things: the earth's daily spin and its annual orbit about the sun. On December 21 the sun path is at its lowest altitude and of shortest duration. (See

Figure 5.)Figure 5

Lowest winter sun path.

As summer approaches, the sun path gets higher and of longer duration until it peaks on June 21, the longest day of the year. The sun path attains its highest altitude at midday. (See Figure 6).

Figure 6

Highest summer sun path.

After June, the sun path gets lower and the days get shorter until the cycle is completed on December 21 and begins all over again.

By facing south it's possible to visualize the paths the sun follows on the 21st day of four months of the year and generate a graphic representation of the sun's various positions in the sky. (See Figure 7, page 5.)

Figure 7

Four specific sun paths.

Developmental Issues:

Eight and nine year olds are becoming more adept at holding and comparing two different objects in their mind when problem solving. The use of a physical Earth-Sun model is critical in the students’ attempts to visualize and remember the Earth-Sun system. Eight and nine year old students are becoming competent at collecting information and representing data pictorially in order to interpret what was observed and recorded. Lastly, cooperative teamwork is advancing to a point where academic problem solving can be aided by providing specific roles for students within a team structure.

Inquiry Activity

Activity Preparation:

a) The day before the activity go out to the location where you will have the kids draw their Sun drawings and use a compass to locate the direction of magnetic South. Find a location that has an expansive view of the southern horizon from East to West, that is not shaded at any time of the day, and to which you can return every hour throughout the school day. Note that the Sun should appear due South around Noon but not exactly at Noon due to daylight savings, seasonal variations, and our longitude. Mark an arrow on the ground with chalk pointing South and be sure to have the kids facing South the next day.

b) Take a series of photos (digital, panoramic disposable, or 35mm will do fine) of the horizon where the students will be drawing. Attempt to piece together your photos and print out a representation of the horizontal landscape that your students will use to help keep track of the Sun. Ideally, print out your landscape onto an 8”x11” piece of paper for each child to use as their “The Sun’s Path Across the Sky” sheet and also duplicate the outline of your landscape onto butcher block paper that’s about 3’ x 6’ for the entire class. The large horizon representation will be mounted in the class for your student to use as groups record their hourly observations.

c) If you are unable to make a photo representation draw a free hand representation of the horizon from your observation location. Be sure to make distinct landmarks on the landscape. (e.g. trees, buildings, etc…). Create an 8”x11” horizon recording sheets for your students and a large 3’x6’ horizon representation to be mounted in your classroom.

d) Divide your class into groups of four students to be “Sun Trackers”

Activity:

1. Early in the school day, possibly in your morning meeting, ask your students, “Did anyone see the Sun this morning as you were coming to school?” As you see hands rise ask the follow up question of “When you were in the bus, in the car, or walking outside where in the sky would you describe the Sun was located? Close to the trees and building or higher up in the sky more straight overhead away from the trees and buildings?” “Does anyone see the Sun in the morning close to the same place each day?” “Does the Sun stay in the place you saw it in the morning all day long?” “What is going on?”

2. Describe to the students that today they will be drawing the path or movement of the Sun in the school day sky. Noticing and drawing the Sun’s path has been done by scientists for thousands of years and has lead to many discoveries. Let’s see what discoveries your students’ drawing and discussions led to in this activity.

☼Prior to going outside clearly explain that we will find out the Sun’s place in the sky without looking directly at it, not even for a glimpse. Describe the safety hazards of looking directly at the sun. ☼

3. Explain the importance of drawing or recording what we notice today about the Sun’s path so that others can understand what we saw and discovered. Hand out copies of the “The Sun’s Path Across the Sky” recording sheet you have drawn or photographed. Describe how you drew or photographed the horizon and the importance of making the horizon representation accurate so their collected data or recordings are accurate.

4. Have your students gather a pencil, clipboard, and their “The Sun’s Path Across the Sky” recording sheet and travel to your outdoor observation location. Be sure to have your own clipboard, pencil and recording sheet. Once at your location, have everyone face the south. Explain the need to have the same viewpoint so we can draw and talk about the same thing. Brainstorm ways they can connect where the Sun is in the sky by noticing or feeling the Sun as it relates to other objects. Possible suggestions include: seeing shadows, feeling warmth on the right or left side of your face, and noticing a landmark on the horizon. Explain to the students they will be following the Sun’s path along the horizon in the South. Define the horizon as the place where the Sky and Earth meet. Discuss the objects that are on the horizon especially the heights and shapes of different trees and buildings. Have them compare what they see in the actual horizon to what is on their representational “The Sun’s Path Across the Sky” recording sheet. Describe the importance of landmarks on the horizon in identifying where the Sun is in the sky. Teach your students how to measure the height of the Sun above the horizon using their fists. Model how to place one fist vertical or thumb up on the horizon and continue to alternate fists, counting up until you reach the bottom of the Sun. Next draw the Sun in the sky where everyone agrees it to be. Record the time above the sun and return to the classroom.

5. Once in the class, discuss how the Sun they drew was a model. Explain how what we observe and record outside will be duplicated or copied onto our larger 3’x6’ horizon representation in the class. Explicitly show how the enlarged landscape model in class is similar to the smaller “The Sun’s Path Across the Sky” sheet. Ask for a volunteer to place a pre-cut out yellow construction paper Sun in the place where they recorded the Sun to be in the sky. Be sure the student labels the recording time above the Sun and describes what landmarks he/she used to decide where to exactly place the Sun. Ask the class, “If you go out and draw the Sun’s position in one hour, how will its position be different from out first drawing?” “Why will it be different?” Have groups of students discuss their predictions together and be prepared to share their thinking with the class. Invite one student from a group to come up and place a new pre-cut yellow construction paper Sun in the place where the Sun will be in one hour. Ask them to explain why they think the Sun will be in this location.

6. In one hour, have the first group of “Sun Trackers” (a group of four students) return to the exact location outside to observe and record the Sun’s new location in the sky on their “The

Sun’s Path Across the Sky” sheet. Explain the importance of accuracy and using the landmarks to assist in locating the Sun’s location. Instruct the “Sun Trackers” that they will need to locate and draw the Sun’s position in connection to a landmark or object on the horizon and record the exact time of their observation. Once back in the classroom after their outdoor drawing, gain the class’ attention and ask the group that returned from outside, “How did the group’s predictions an hour ago match where the Sun is now?” Next ask them, “Where do you think the Sun is going to be next hour and explain your thinking?” and have them place a new pre-cut out sun on the large sheet.

7. Have a new group of “Sun Trackers” go out each hour and make a drawing of the Sun’s location in the sky above the horizon. After each group returns follow the same steps as outlined above in #6. Each group observes, records, predicts and explains. After several drawings a definite shape is forming from the Sun’s path. Ask, “What type of shape is the Sun’s path making and how would you describe it?” Listen for what names the children give to describe the Sun’s arc. Additionally ask, “What shapes can be made from the Sun’s path? Half-circle? Circle?” Now probe them about how to explain the Sun’s path, “Who has an explanation for how the Sun could be making this path or shape?” If someone already doesn’t mention probe “Is the Sun moving or is something else moving?” By now the theory that the Earth is spinning but the Sun is staying still should have been expressed. Be sure to acknowledge that this is for sure what is happening and you can even ask two students to come up to act it out with one person being a spinning Earth and the other being a stationary Sun. In closing you want to ask, “Does the Sun’s Path stay the same all year long? Explain how it changes at different times of year?” After several responses are given acknowledge that the path does not stay the same because of our earth’s tilt and our position in our yearly rotation around the Sun. 8. Finally ask, “”What happens to the Sun at night?” Be sure to have a globe and model of the sun in class for the students to demonstrate their thinking. With a Sun –Earth model available in the class ask, “Point to a spot on the globe that is experiencing night when we are having day? How do you know this?”

9. Access an Internet site that gives a “live cam” of a part of the world experiencing night and darkness and display it for the class to see and comment on. Provide the Earth-Sun model with the globe to solidify their understanding of the spinning of the Earth and our view of the Sun’s ‘movement’.

Internet Live Cam address: http://www.rt66.com/~ozone/cam2.htm

10. After completing the entire day’s observation keep the large The Sun’s Path Across the Sky up for display in the class. If you have a South-facing window try to make the Mid-Day marks outlined below.

Class Noon-Line Project

Another project could be making a window Noon Line. This was a device used by farmers in Skåne, Sweden to mark Midday. Find a south-facing window, which has several panes of glass. Notice how the solid framework between the panes casts shadows onto the window sill. When the Sun is at its highest point (at Midday) you can mark the line of the shadow cast by the pane frame with masking tape. This effectively turns the window into a simple sundial. Whenever the shadow of the pane frame matches the line of tape that means it is Midday.

Shadows of Time:Using a stick’s shadow to examine the Sun’s

movement and the passage of time

Purpose:

We will extend discovering connections between the path of the Sun across the sky and the passage of time using direct observation and recording. While the last activity helped solidify our understanding of the Earth’s shape and movement, this activity will continue to use the Sun’s path across the sky but this time so we can make accurate measurements of its path. The measurements will keep track of the stick’s shadow and allow us to read a sun clock. The sun clock will enable students to visually understand the relationship between the sun’s motion and our concept of time.

Optimally, you should do this activity three times during the year. Allowing your students to record the changes in the sun’s movement during three different seasons translates into understanding the tilt of the Earth on its axis and its relation to the differing amount of sunlight hitting the Earth. The three recommended times are:

- In the late fall after you have taught lessons on the properties of light- Mid-February (approximately two months from start date)- Late April or early May (four months from start date)

Materials:

-stick (an old broomstick works if cut approximately to 1’6” long) secured in a coffee can of stones or something to secure it -4’ x 8’ sheet of plywood-waterproof markers for recording (chalk can get smudged, washed away, and ruined)-class list of students divided into groups of four students aka “Shadow Trackers”

Teacher Background:

Our understanding of the passage of time is based upon the motion of the sun or should we say the “spin cycle” of the Earth. This activity relies on the students remembering and understanding from their Light Unit activities that the height and direction of a light source will change the lengths and orientation of the shadow. Using a stick measuring system to

collect data about the size and orientation of the Sun’s shadow the students will begin to learn:

the stick’s shadow pattern will look like a fan of lines, long then short and finally long again,

The shadows will begin to the West of the stick, therefore the light source must be on the East,

The shadows will continue to the East with steeper angles to the edge of the paper, There is a direct correlation between the angle of the Sun above the horizon and the

length of the shadows behind objects – the higher the Sun, the shorter the shadow, The stick’s shadow is shortest at mid-day.

The construction of a Sun Clock will assist students to apply systematic observation skills in order to have a better sense of “time” as it connects to the movement of the Sun.

Inquiry Activity:

Preparation:Use the exact outdoor location where you made your observations in the Our Closest Star, The Sun! Activity and secure a 4’ x 8’ sheet of plywood down at your location with one side facing due south. Position the stick near the south side of the wood. If you can’t use plywood use a 3’ x 6’ piece of butcher-block paper. The plywood is ideal so that you can paint over it and have a permanent location but the paper is ideal if you want to compare several different representations of the shadow’s path.

1. Intro: “Does anyone remember the path of the sun across the sky from Our Closest Star, the Sun! Activity? If you do, who can draw it on the board?” Compare the student’s drawing from memory with your saved and hopefully displayed large representational drawing from the last activity. If it hasn’t been stated already reinforce that the Sun is moving from left to right or from East to West. Next ask, “How do shadows change throughout the day?” Ask them to remember back to our light and shadow experiments as we moved the flashlights to make the shadow longer and slanted. Connect their understanding about the position of the flashlight to what we will discover about the position of the Sun. Explain that we will be collecting data outdoors today of how a stick’s shadow changes each hour over the course of a school day. Discuss how we will use a large sheet of wood, a stick and markers to record the shadows and times each hour.

2. Once outside with the students have them sit on the north or top edge to avoid human shadows on the wood. Ask, “Does anyone know what time it is?” Mark the tip of the stick’s shadow with a dark marker and label the time and date near the mark. Ask,

“Where is the Sun?” and your answers should include to the left or east. Follow up by asking, “Where is the shadow?” and your answer should include to the right. Using a meter stick ask someone to measure the shadow. Ask, “In an hour who can predict where and how long the stick’s shadow will be? Remember from our drawings of the Sun’s path across the sky and think how that will change the shadow.” Have a student use a stone to mark how high and in what new position they predict the next shadow will fall.

3. Use the same groups of student “Sun Trackers” but this time they’re called “Shadow Trackers”. In one hour send the first group outside to examine where the stick’s shadow is falling. Ask them to examine how the shadow has changed and without looking at the Sun directly describe how the Sun has changed position in the sky. Have the students mark the shadow’s position with a marker and label the time near the mark on the plywood. Have the group make a prediction for the next hour and place a stone at the predicted position. Additionally, ask the group when they return “How could the change in the shadow’s size and position be connected to the Sun’s changing position?” If they do not see the connection don’t give them the answer yet but keep asking each group the question after each shadow marking. When you think they get the connection ask, “When do you think the stick’s shadow will be the shortest? Longest?”

4. Attempt to go outside with a couple of the “Shadow Trackers” groups throughout the day and discuss how the changes in the shadow’s size are connected to the position of the Sun. Ensure that the students are labeling the times near the shadow marks. If possible, when its time to record the last hour’s shadow mark, have a whole class session out at the observation site. If this is not possible, have a class meeting first thing the following morning. During the whole group session, initially ask, “How did the stick’s shadow change throughout the day?” If the group is not mentioning the role of the Sun’s position in the sky, ask, “Why do the shadows’ position and height change? How is the shadow size and position affected by the position of the Sun? Does anyone notice a pattern connected to where the shadows fall and their lengths? Explain why you see a pattern? Is the Sun directly overhead at any time? Why is the shortest shadow around noon? Why does the shortest shadow point North? Briefly discuss how Sun Dials have been used for thousands of years to tell the time based on shadows much like we figured out today.

5. Finally ask the children, “Are our days having more or less light? Is the Sun setting after school earlier or later?” From June 21 until (Summer Solstice) around December 21 (Winter Solstice) the number of sunlight hours decreases and from December 21 to June 21 the number of sunlight hours increases. Now ask, “If we come out in February will our shadow marks and pattern be the same or different? Explain your answers.” It is not necessary to go into detail to correct their misconceptions but acknowledge any answer that mentions that the Sun’s path will get higher in the sky and will take longer to pass through the sky therefore decreasing the length of the shadows and changing their hourly positions.

6. Ideally, you are able to repeat this activity twice before the end of the year. Take a recording following the same methods in the same location, two months later in winter and four months later in Spring. Allowing the students to compare and discover the change in the shadow’s arched path in three different seasons will assist in their ability to connect the Sun’s altitude or height in the sky, the time of day, the passage of time, the changing temperature in each season, and the differing amount of sunlight.

Day and Night on the Spinning GlobeA similar activity can be found at

http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/the_book/Chap1/Chapter1.html

In the previous activity, students saw how shadows changed during a day. This activity uses a globe and indoor light source to create a classroom model showing day and night on a spinning Earth.

This activity requires a darkened room.Materials: Earth globe; strong focused light source (such as an overhead projector or a slide projector) ; golf tees; small figurines; fun tack or similar material for each group of five if possible; a picture of Earth taken from space can be helpful.

1. Set up the light source so that it can shine from left to right across the front of the classroom, without blinding any students with its glare. The students should all be able to see the globe, when held in the beam of light, from about the same direction so that they can see both the illuminated and the dark side of the globe at once.

2. Show students the globe and discuss its use as a model for the Earth. Explain the idea of scale. You can suggest that if the globe were the real Earth, they would be rather large, since they are far larger than the globe! Mark your geographic location on the globe. One of the first concepts that need to be understood is the effect of the Earth’s shape on our ideas of orientation. The globe should be held with the North pole approximately at top; for today’s purpose the tilt of the axis is irrelevant. Use a figurine to represent a person standing on the Earth near the North pole. Ask students where the person would be looking if they were to look “up.” Where would they look if they looked “down?”For a person near the pole, these directions align quite well with “up” and “down” in the classroom, so they should see this. Now position the figure in the southern hemisphere, and repeat the question. There will be some confusion, and you will need to help them see that at any point on Earth, “up” is the direction away from Earth, while “down” is toward the Earth. It is sometimes helpful to show the figuring performing exaggerated “jumps” off the Earth and “falling” back to Earth, at various locations. Repeat this until students are comfortable with the relative nature of “up” and “down” on a spherical planet.

3. Guide them through questions to the realization that if the globe in your hand were the real Earth, their location in class, off the Earth, would represent outer space. Encourage them to imagine they are out in space, and ask for some differences they would notice. You should get “no air,” to which you can respond by offering imaginary spacesuits; you

may get “no gravity,” to which the response is that in fact gravity does extend to space, but is not felt in an orbiting spacecraft (only bring this complication up when necessary to correct a very pervasive misconception). Eventually, they should come up with “it’s dark,” at which point you can turn off the lights to simulate this situation.

4. Ask then what they might see if they looked down at Earth from their location in space. Is the Earth glowing, like the Sun? The answer is no; the Earth is visible from space only because it is illuminated by Sunlight. Explain that we will use the overhead to represent the Sun today – note that unlike the real Sun this projects light only in a particular direction – convenient for our purposes today. Turn on the overhead. Half of the globe will seem to “glow” because Sunlight is reflected. Also, people on Earth can now see things around them because the Earth is illuminated. But not all people on earth. Not only half the Earth is illuminated. Place the figurine on the globe at a location where the Sun is “overhead.” Ask them whether the person can see the Sun, whether they create a shadow. Move the figurine to a location on the side of the globe away from the “Sun” and repeat the questions.

5. It seems as though half of the world should be in perpetual darkness and half in perpetual light. Ask them why this is not the case. You should hear that Earth rotates, causing light and dark to alternate at each point. Attach a figurine to the globe at your location with fun tack. Slowly turn the globe from West to East so that the figurine "sees" the Sun rise in the east and set in the west. Have them identify a time the figurine would consider “day” and a time it would consider “night.” Ask them how long they think it takes the Earth to complete a full rotation; the relation to night and day should lead to the right answer.

6. Now attach a second figurine to another part of the globe. Does the Sun rise earlier or later in this new location? Are the figurines always both in light or both in darkness? Or can one be in light while the other is in darkness? What if the two figurines were on opposite sides of the Earth? Explain the concept of time zones and the reason day at your location is night at other locations on Earth.

6. Attach a golf tee to the globe at your latitude. Again, slowly turn the globe eastward and notice the fan-like shadow pattern that the golf tee casts. Is it similar to the pattern cast by the shadow stick in the previous activities? Note that the shortest shadow points towards the North Pole.

7. Ask, “Have you ever been on a smoothly riding car or train and looked out the window ad it looked like everything on the outside was moving and you felt like you were standing still?” Describe now how in the same way because we ride on the spinning earth it seems the Sun and the stars are moving as day and night changes and we fell we are staying still. Do you feel the earth move? But in fact we are rotating on our axis at close to 1,000 miles per hour. Get the Earth to rotate slowly and ask them “How long it takes for the earth to rotate once?” Ask “when you are on a carousel and you look at the carousel horse you are riding, does it appear to be moving?” After some confusion, they should realize it will appear to be moving up and down only. Ask “if your mother is waiting near the carousel, does she appear to be moving?” They should discover that objects off the carousel appear to be revolving around it, in a direction opposite to the

direction in which the carousel spins. If Earth is like a carousel, what should we notice about things that are “off the carousel?” Ask them to name things that are not on Earth; try to get them to realize that the apparent motion of the Sun (and all other objects in space) is precisely of this nature.

8. Attach three golf tees to the globe at various latitudes along the same meridian of longitude. One should be on the equator, one should approximate your latitude, and one should be near the poles. Ask three students to each observe one of the golf tees. As the globe slowly spins, ask the students to call out their golf tee- "top", "middle", or "bottom"- as they cross the day-night boundary. Also, be sure to observe the midday shadows and to note in which direction they point.

Discussion: How do we know if we're spinning the globe in the right direction? Where does the Sun rise if we were standing on the globe? Where does it really rise? Set? What if we spun the globe in the other direction? Would this also match our observations? It is only by such comparisons with observations that we can verify our models. Are the golf tee shadows longer or shorter at the equator? What about at noon, when the Sun is highest in the sky? Is there any shadow at the equator? What about at your latitude? Where do all the shortest shadows point? Does the pattern made by the golf tee reasonably match that made by the shadow stick of the previous activities? Might a spinning earth, then, not be a reasonable model for the passage of day and night? What if the Earth didn't rotate? What if the North Pole were pointed towards the Sun? Where would it be day and night? Would all locations still have both day and night?

Can you think of any other ways to test this model of a spinning Earth? Maybe shadow stick patterns from schools at other latitudes could be compared to yours. Are they consistent with the differences seen on the spinning globe? Have the students observed any complications that our model does not account for? (More on these, such as the tilt of the Earth in the next chapter.)

Name _______________________________________________

Day and Night

In each of these pictures, we see the Sun on the left and the Earth on the right. We are looking down at the Earth from above the North pole. The arrow shows the direction of Earth’s rotation (to the East).

1. Sunlight will hit one side of the Earth. Color the part of the Earth where it is day in yellow, and the side of the Earth where it is night in black.

2. Draw a stick figure on the Earth where it is noon, so that the person would see the Sun right over their head. Will the person make a shadow?

____________________________________________________________

3. Draw a stick figure of a person for whom it is morning. Will the person make a shadow? Draw an arrow to show the direction of the shadow.

4. Draw a stick figure of a person for whom it is evening. Will the person make a shadow? Draw an

arrow to show the direction of the shadow.

5. Draw a stick figure of a person for whom it is midnight. Will the person make a shadow? Draw an arrow to show the direction of the shadow.

Daily Monitoring of Sunrise and Sunset TimesThe tilt of the Earth in its orbit about the Sun affects not only the intensity of the solar radiation at a given location, but also the number of daylight hours. These two effects combine to create the weather we usually associate with each season.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Summer Solstice (longest day, shortest night) occurs around June 21. From June 21 to December 21, the days grow shorter and the nights longer. There are two equinoxes, during which the hours of daylight and night are equal: the Vernal Equinox (around March 21) and the Autumnal Equinox (around September 22). One can observe these changes by recording the times of sunrise and sunset and measuring the length of the day. Changes in these times are large enough (about a minute a day) to be seen on a graph. The figure below shows such a graph made from sunrise and sunset times at the National Optical Astronomical Observatory located on Kitt Peak near Tucson, Arizona for September to December. If begun in September and continued through the Winter Solstice (about December 22), the graph should show the gradual decrease in the number of daylight hours (in the Northern hemisphere) with the minimum at the Winter Solstice. It would be interesting to include either of the equinoxes on the graph as well.

Materials: Large paper from roll (3'X6'); markers; yardstick; pencil; circle labels; paints; adhesive dots; daily local newspaper.

1. On a large sheet of paper, make a grid on which to plot the sunrise and sunset times. The time of day should run along the vertical axis, leaving about one inch for every hour. The date of the observation will be recorded along the horizontal axis.

2. Look up the times of sunrise and sunset in a daily newspaper. Plot these times on the graph, marking the points with adhesive dots. After plotting for several weeks, connect the dots with a line.

3. Optional: These coordinates can be stored and plotted with a computer spreadsheet like AppleWorks.

Discussion The figure below shows a plot of sunrise and sunset times taken once a week from September through December. Notice that the shortest day occurs around December 21, as expected. In order to reinforce the connection between the number of daylight hours and average daily temperature, try making a wall-sized chart combining sunrise-sunset data with the daily temperature, as collected in the previous activity. While daily fluctuations in the temperature will be apparent, it is the general trends, which we seek. How does the length of the day change with season? Does the daily temperature match this trend also?

Recording Daily High and Low TemperaturesWeather is the result of an almost incalculable number of events. As such, it would be folly to attempt to predict a given city's temperature for a given date, far into the future. It would be equally foolish to point to an exceptionally cold day in June and declare "Winter's coming!" There are just too many variables for such a simplistic view. However, hidden among the randomness are trends which can be measured, and from which conclusions like "winter's coming" can be made.

The class can measure the outside temperature at a particular time each day, perhaps noon or lunchtime. From newspapers or broadcast newscasts, the class can collect local high and low temperature readings for each day. These can be plotted on a graph or entered into a database. For younger students, a classroom chart with cartoon thermometers with daily temperature marks can be made. The exact form of this activity is not important. One should emphasize the importance of recording data in an appropriate way. Sometimes making a simple graph can explain pages and pages of numbers. Simplicity is the key. With clear presentation of data, it is much easier to move forward and, for example, correlate the temperature measurements with the shadow stick and dome measurements.

taken from Everyday Classroom Tool’s: Chapter 2 The Earth’s Orbithttp://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/the_book/Chap2/Chapter2.html