Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 1

Applied Linguistics

Assignment

Language Learning Theories

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 2

Contents

1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................4

1.1 Theory: ...............................................................................................................................4

1.2 Learning: ............................................................................................................................4

1.3 Language: ...........................................................................................................................4

1.4 Overview of Learning Theories ...........................................................................................5

2. Language Learning Theories ..................................................................................................6

2.1 The Theory of Behaviorism............................................................................................6

2.2 Classical Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach ............................................................7

2.3 Operant Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach ..........................................................10

2.4 Comparison and Analysis of classical and Operant Conditioning ......................................12

2.5 Similarities and Differences of classical and Operant Conditioning ....................................13

3. The Nativist Approach ........................................................................................................14

3.1 Chomskian Language Learning Theory ..............................................................................14

3.2 Skinner’s Language Learning Theory .................................................................................17

3.3 Comparison and Analysis of Chomsky’s and Skinner’s Theories ........................................17

3.4 Similarities and Differences of Chomsky and Skinner’s Theories ........................................18

4. The Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT) .................................................................................19

4.1 Ausubelian Meaningful Learning Theory: ..........................................................................20

4.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy: .........................................................................................................27

4.3 Comparison and Analysis of Bloom’s Taxonomy and Meaningful Learning ......................33

4.5 Similarities and Differences of Bloom’s Taxonomy and Ausbel’s Meaningful Learning .......34

5. Bruner’s Theory of Learning .............................................................................................35

5.1 Cognitive Development: ...................................................................................................35

5.2 Modes of .....................................................................................................................35

5.3 Vygotsky’s Socio cultural Theory: .................................................................................40

5.4 Comparison and Analysis of Vygotsky and Bruner ............................................................44

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 3

5.5 Similarities and Differences of Bruner and Vygotsky ..........................................................45

6.Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development .............................................................................47

7.Leading Language Learning Theories .......................................................................................57

7.1 Implications of Leading Language Theories on Class Rooms ..............................................59

7.3 Implications of Constructivism Learning on Class Rooms: .................................................61

7.4 Leading Language Theories to be Adopted in Class Rooms ....................................62

8.References ...........................................................................................................................67

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 4

1. Introduction

1.1 Theory:

In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of

explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with scientific method, and fulfilling the

criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that any

scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support

("verify") or empirically contradict ("falsify") it.

Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific

knowledge, in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply that

something is unproven or speculative (which is better defined by the word

'hypothesis'). Scientific theories are also distinguished from hypotheses, which are

individual empirically testable conjectures, and scientific laws, which are descriptive

accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.

1.2 Learning:

Learning can be defined as:

1. “A persisting change in human performance or

performance potential (brought) about as a

result of the learner’s interaction with the

environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).

2. “The relatively permanent change in a person’s

knowledge or behavior due to experience”

(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. “An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion,

which results from practice or other forms of

experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

1.3 Language:

Language is a code that we learn to use in order to

communicate ideas and express our wants and needs.

Reading, writing, speaking, and some gesture systems

are all forms of language.

‘Language is a set (f inite or

infinite) of sentences, each

finite in length, and constructed

out of a finite set of elements’.

---Chomsky, Synta ct i c

S t r uctu re s ( 1 957 : 13)

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 5

1.4 Overview of Learning Theories

Over the past century, educational psychologists and researchers have posited many

theories to explain how individuals acquire,

organize and deploy skills and knowledge.

Learning theories are grouped into six basic

categories:

1. Behaviorism

2. Cognitivism

3. Social Learning Theory

4. Social Constructivism

5. Multiple Intelligences

6. Brain-Based Learning

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 6

2. Language Learning Theories

2.1 The Theory of Behaviorism

“Behaviorism Confined to observable and measurable behavior.”

i. Definition

“A school of psychology that confines itself to the study

of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and

excludes subjective phenomena, such as emotions or

motives.”

Psychology should be seen as a science. Theories need

to be supported by empirical data obtained through

careful and controlled observation and measurement of

behavior.

Watson (1913) stated that:

“Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely

objective experimental branch of natural science. Its

theoretical goal is prediction and control” (p. 158).

ii. Background

Behaviorism (also called the behaviorist approach) was the primary paradigm in psychology

between 1920s to 1950 and is based on a number of underlying assumptions regarding

methodology and behavioral analysis:

Behaviorists explain maladaptive behavior in terms of the learning principles that sustain and

maintain it. Behaviorism is the theory that human nature can be fully understood by the laws

inherent in the natural environment

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like

thinking and emotion. Observable (i.e. external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically

measured. Internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or

eliminated altogether).

People have no free will – a person’s environment determines their behavior

When born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).

Behavior is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behavior, no matter how complex,

can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response association). Watson described the

purpose of psychology as: “To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place;

or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction”

(1930, p. 11).

All behavior is learnt from the environment. We learn new behavior through classical or

operant conditioning.

As one of the oldest theories of personality,

behaviorism dates back to Descartes, who introduced

the idea of a stimulus and called the person a

machine dependent on external events whose soul

was the ghost in the machine. Behaviorism takes this

idea to another level. Although most theories

operate to some degree on the assumption that

humans have some sort of free will and are moral

thinking entities, behaviorism refuses to acknowledge

the internal workings of persons. In the mind of the

behaviorist, persons are nothing more than simple

mediators between behavior and the environment

----Skinner, 1993, p 428

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him

to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,

penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors”

---Watson, 1924, p. 104.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 7

2.2 Classical Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach

Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of

association. It means that if two stimuli repeatedly experienced together, they will

become associated. For example, if a student frequently encounters unpleasant stimuli in

Mathematics class such as unfriendly teachers, difficult questions, and a lot of homework,

he may learn to dislike Mathematics.

The concept of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist, Ivan

Pavlov (1849-1936).

i. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov:

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, (born Sept. 14 [Sept. 26, New Style],

1849, Ryazan, Russia—died Feb. 27, 1936, Leningrad [now St.

Petersburg]), Russian physiologist known chiefly for his development

of the concept of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment,

he trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was

previously associated with the sight of food. He developed a similar

conceptual approach, emphasizing the importance of conditioning,

in his pioneering studies relating human behavior to the nervous

system. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine

in 1904 for his work on digestive secretions.

ii. The Pavlovian Experiment.

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by accident. The

discovery led to the real beginnings of behavioral theory originally;

actually he wanted to study the role of salivation of dog in

digestion (1890s). He measured how much saliva dogs produce

when given meat. After a few days in the experiment, Pavlov

(1902) observed that the ‘dogs in his laboratory started salivating

when the lab attendant entered the room with the meat dish,

before meat was placed in their mouth.

Pavlov’s interest raised more and he pursued the issue with more

experiments. For example, he sounded a bell just before presenting

his dogs with food. After hearing the bell many times right before

getting fed, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. In other word, the dogs

had been conditioned to salivate in response to a new stimulus (the bell) that normally

would not produce salivation. The dogs had learned to associate the bell with food.

Ivan Pavlov,

Russian physiologist

Astimulus is anything that can directly

influence behavior and the stimulus

produces a response.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning which based on the association of a stimulus that does

not ordinary elicit a particular response with another stimulus does elicit the response.

----Papalia, Feldman, & Olds 2007

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 8

iii. Types of Stimulus and Response

In classical conditioning, two types of stimulus and two types of response are examined. They are

the Unconditioned Stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and the

conditioned response as explained in following chart:

Response

Classical

Conditioning

Stimulus

Types of stimulus and responses in classical

conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

This is a stimulus that can

produce the response without

any learning.

Example: Meat.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

This is the unlearned or inborn

reaction to the unconditioned

stimulus.

Example: Salivation.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned stimulus acquired

the ability to produce the

response because it was paired

(associated) with the

unconditioned stimulus.

Example: Bell.

Conditioned response (CR)

When a response is produced

by the conditioned stimulus, it is

referred to as the conditioned

response.

Example: Salivation.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 9

iv. Figurative understanding of Classical Conditioning

Following Figure helps us understand the meaning of these stimulus and responses as well

as the steps in the process of classical conditioning.

Before conditioning the bell is neutral stimulus, Neutral Stimulus is a stimulus that, before

conditioning, does not bring about the response.

C No response

However, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) can produce and unconditioned response (UCR)

US UR

During the conditioned procedure, the neutral stimulus (NS) is presented. It is immediately

followed by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce unconditioned response (UCR).

UCS UCR

After classical conditioning procedures, the neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned

stimulus (CS). It alone can produce salvation. At this point, the production of salvation is

known as the conditioned response (CR). Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a

learned response.

CS CR

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 10

An operant is a response that occurs and acts on the environment to produce some kind of effect.

2.3 Operant Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach

Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment

to create associations between behaviors and the

consequences for those behaviors. For example, imagine that

a school teacher punishes a student for talking out of turn by

not letting the student go outside for recess.

i. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, more commonly known as B. F.

Skinner, was an American psychologist, philosopher, scientist

and poet. An important advocate of behaviorism, Skinner is

known for inventing the operant conditioning chamber, for his

utopian novel Walden Two (1948). and for his own

experimental analysis of behavior. He is widely considered as

one of the most influential psychologists of all time.

Synopsis:

Born in Pennsylvania in 1904, psychologist B.F. Skinner began

working on ideas of human behavior after earning his doctorate

from Harvard. Skinner's works include The Behavior of

Organisms (1938) and a novel based on his theories Walden

Two (1948). He explored behaviorism in relation to

society in later books, including Beyond Freedom and

Human Dignity (1971). Skinner died in Massachusetts in

1990.

ii. Operant Conditioning-Skinner’s Theory

Term operant conditioning (OC) was the idea got from

Thorndike’s experiments with cat’s evasion from puzzle

boxes. The theory known as the 'Law of Effect'’ it states

that:

“A behaviour that is followed by ‘satisfying’ consequences

is strengthened and a behaviour that is followed by

‘annoying’ consequences is weakened”

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action

and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

“All we need to know in order

to describe and explain behavior

is this: actions followed by good

outcomes are likely to recur, and

actions followed by bad

outcomes are less likely to

recur.”

---Skinner, 1953

B.F Skinner

Environmental

consequences shape behavior

--B.F Skinner

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 11

iii. Skinnerian Experiments

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting

experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner

Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. He

identified three types of responses or operant that can

follow behavior.

a. Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

We may say that reinforcement is a consequence or result that increases the likelihood that a

behavior will happen. On the other hand, we may say punishment is a consequence or result that

decreases the likelihood behavior will happen.

Put it another way, reinforcement will strengthen a behavior while punishment will weaken a

behavior. There are two forms of reinforcement and punishment as shown in chart:

Note it down that when something is added or presented, the process of learning is called

positive and when something is removed or taken away, the process of learning is called

negative. Above chart helps us to understand these forms of reinforcement and punishment.

Types of reinforcement and punishment in operant

conditioning

Both types of Reinforcement

are used to increase the

likelihood that a preceding

behavior will be repeated.

Punishment

Operant

Conditioning

Reinforcem

ent

Positive

Punishment

Negative

Punishment

Negative

Reinforcem

ent

Positive

Reinforcem

ent

Both types of punishment are

used to decrease the likelihood

that a preceding behavior will

be repeated.

“Behavior that brings about a satisfying

effect (reinforcement) is apt to be

performed again, whereas behavior

that brings about negative effect

(punishment) is apt to be suppressed.”

---Morris & Maisto, 2001.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 12

2.4 Comparison and Analysis of classical and Operant Conditioning

i. Comparison of classical and operant conditioning

The table below summarizes the comparisons:

Classical conditioning: Operant conditioning:

New behaviors are acquired by associative

learning.

New behaviors are acquired by associative

learning.

Behaviors may become extinct Behaviors may become extinct

Spontaneously recover. Spontaneously recover.

Stimulus generalization and discrimination occur. Stimulus generalization and discrimination occur.

Based on involuntary reflex behavior. Based on voluntary behavior.

Learner is the object of experience (passive

learning).

Learner is the subject of experience (active

learning).

Effectiveness of conditioning assessed by size of

response.

Effectiveness of conditioning assessed by

frequency of response.

ii. Analysis of Classical and Operant Conditioning

Behavior theorists define learning as a permanent change in

behavior. In behaviorism, the learner is considered as passively

adapting to their environment. Two of the most famous

experiments upon which proof of learning is based are the "Dog

Salivation Experiment" by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov and the

“Skinner Box" experiment with pigeons by B.F. Skinner.

According to the theories studied by I.P Pavlov and B.F Skinner,

human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment.

According to them you can change a person's environment, and

you will change his or her thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Here I want to share some of the limitations of behaviorism

theory:

1. Behaviorism does not see innate behaviors as significant. Animals have a predisposition to

perform some behaviors over others (theory of preparedness) and so will learn some

behaviors more readily than others.

2. The reduction of learning to stimulus-response associations is an oversimplification.

Learning is more about understanding the relationships between events in the

environment.

3. Learning does not necessarily involve measurable responses. A null response does not

mean that learning has not occurred.

4. Alternative explanations of learning include social learning and the cognitive approach.

Tolman's (1948) latent learning theory explains learning in terms of mental or cognitive

maps.

5. Learning in humans may involve conditioning (good evidence comes from phobia

acquisition) but it may not be valid to generalize the behavior of non-human animals to

humans.

"Give me a dozen healthy infants,

well informed, and my own

specified world to bring them up in

and I'll guarantee to take anyone at

random and train him to become

any type of specialist I might select--

doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-

chief; and yes, even beggar-man and

thief, regardless of his talents,

penchants, tendencies, abilities,

vocations, and race of his ancestors."

---John Watson

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 13

Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by

teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers and many others. In animal training, a

trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker

with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce

the same response that the taste of food would.

In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as

rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type

of reward such as treat or extra play time.

2.5 Similarities and Differences of classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts essential to behavioral

psychology. Both are related to learning, but their processes are relatively different. In order to

understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to

understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning are similar and differ from one

another.

Similarities Differences

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Acquisition Acquisition First described by Ivan Pavlov, a

Russian physiologist

First described by B. F. Skinner, an

American psychologist

Extinction Extinction Involves placing a neutral signal

before a reflex

Involves applying reinforcement

or punishment after a behavior

Spontaneous

recovery

Spontaneous

recovery

Focuses on involuntary, automatic

behaviors

Focuses on strengthening or

weakening voluntary behaviors

Stimulus

generalization

Stimulus

generalization

Classical conditioning involves

making an association between an

involuntary response and a

stimulus

Operant conditioning is about

making an association between a

voluntary behavior and a

consequence

Behavior Study Behavior Study In classical conditioning involves

no such enticements

In operant conditioning, the

learner is also rewarded with

incentives

Psychological

processes that lead

to learning.

Psychological

processes that lead

to learning.

Classical conditioning is passive on

the part of the learner

Operant conditioning requires the

learner to actively participate and

perform some type of action in

order to be rewarded or punished

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 14

“Language is an innate faculty”

3. The Nativist Approach

The nativist view of language development is traced

back to the work of Noam Chomsky (1957).

Language acquisition is innately determined.

Approach offers a systematic description of the

child’s language as either ruled-governed or

operating out of parallel distributed processing

capacities

i. Noam Chomsky:

Noam Chomsky is an eminent American theoretical

linguist, cognitive scientist and philosopher, who radically changed the

arena of linguistics by assuming language as a uniquely human,

biologically based cognitive capacity. He suggested that innate traits in

the human brain give birth to both language and grammar. The most

important figure in “cognitive revolution” and “analytic philosophy”,

Chomsky’s wide-ranging influence also extends to computer science and

mathematics.

3.1 Chomskian Language Learning Theory

Noam Chomsky has made a number of strong claims

about language: in particular, he suggests that language

is an innate faculty - that is to say that we are born with

a set of rules about language in our heads which he

refers to as the 'Universal Grammar (UG). The universal

grammar is the basis upon which all human languages

build.

Chomsky gives a number of reasons why this should be

so. Among the most important of these reasons is the

ease with which children acquire their mother tongue.

He claims that it would be little short of a miracle if

children learnt their language in the same way that they learn mathematics or how to ride a

bicycle. This, he says, is because:

1. Children are exposed to very little correctly formed language. When people speak, they

constantly interrupt themselves, change their minds, make slips of the tongue and so on.

Yet children manage to learn their language all the same.

2. Children do not simply copy the language that they hear around them. They deduce rules

from it, which they can then use to produce sentences that they have never heard

before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviorists believe,

but a grammar that generates infinity of new sentences.

Language is the

product of an

unlearned,

biologically-based,

internal mental

structure

-- Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 15

Chomsky suggests that all languages share a similar deep structure despite the differences in their

surface structure. For instance, “I did the homework” and “The homework was done by me”

have the same deep structure but differ in the surface structure. The LAD supplies humans with

the transformational grammar, which simply means the process of translating underlying meaning

into speech. Children use these rules but will sometimes make errors, such as goed and comed

(went and came). These are errors in performance not in competence, ----Chomsky claim.

ii. Evidence to Support Chomsky’s Theory:

Children learning to speak never make grammatical errors such as getting their subjects,

verbs and objects in the wrong order.

If an adult deliberately said a grammatically incorrect sentence, the child would notice.

Children often say things that are ungrammatical such as ‘mama ball’, which they cannot

have learnt passively.

Mistakes such as ‘I drawed’ instead of ‘I drew’ show they are not learning through

imitation alone.

Chomsky used the sentence ‘colorless green ideas sleep furiously’, which is grammatical

although it doesn’t make sense, to prove his theory: he said it shows that sentences can be

grammatical without having any meaning, that we can tell the difference between a

grammatical and an ungrammatical sentence without ever having heard the sentence

before, and that we can produce and understand brand new sentences that no one has

ever said before.

Following figure will help us to understand the concept of theory:

Some of the important points of Chomskian theory are as follows:

Chomsky (1968) proposed that children come equipped with an innate mental structure --

the language acquisition device (LAD) -- which makes learning easier.

Because the rules which underlie a language are too complex to be acquired by children

in a few short years, some aspects of language must be innately specified

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 16

According to Chomsky, the LAD

contains a set of features common to

all languages, which he termed a

universal grammar.

Universal grammar refers to the entire

set of rules or linguistic parameters

which specify all possible human

languages.

The learning of grammar occurs when

the LAD operates on speech to

abstract out the linguistic parameters which underlie the particular language used in the

child’s environment.

Chomsky termed this process of determining the parameters or rules of one’s native

language parameter setting.

According to him the brain is able to analyse the

language and work out the system that the

language uses. This explains why children can

quickly understand and then use their language

creatively and correctly without ever being

formally taught or ‘knowing’ the rules. In short,

many aspects of language are not learned but are

a part of our biological endowment

"…Language input is the evidence out of which

the learner constructs knowledge of language –

what goes into the brain. Such evidence can be

either positive or negative. … The positive

evidence of the position of words in a few

sentences the learner hears is sufficient to show

him the rules of a language."

----Cook, 1991: 154

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 17

3.2 Skinner’s Language Learning Theory

Skinner, who was a Behaviorist, argued that language acquisition is like any kind of cognitive

behavior – it is learnt by reinforcement and shaping. He also calls this operant conditioning –

where the child goes through trial-and-error, in other words, where the child tries and fails to use

correct language until it succeeds; with reinforcement and shaping provided by the parents

gestures (smiles, attention and approval) which are pleasant to the child. Parents, whom ignore

unfamiliar sounds and show increased attention to the reinforced phonemes, extinguish the

acquisition of phonemes and morphemes. The morphemes then become refined into words by

shaping. Parents’ accuracy will lead to total extinguishment of “baby” pronunciation and finally,

by selective reinforcement and behavior shaping, words will be shaped into telegraphic two-

word sentences, later into sentences until the full language has been acquired. Skinner

differentiated between two types of verbal responses that a child makes. One of them, the mand

is verbal behavior that is reinforced by the child receiving something it wants. For example, when

the child sees a chocolate, it can show its own demand by calling out “choc”. As the child used

appropriate verbal behavior, he then receives chocolate and reinforcement. The other one is tact,

which is verbal behavior caused by imitating others. For instance, when a parent points at an

object and says “ball”, the child imitates this word and the parent will then approve, which is just

another form of reinforcement.

3.3 Comparison and Analysis of Chomsky’s and Skinner’s Theories

The table below summarizes the comparisons and Analysis:

Chomsky Skinner

Chomsky a linguist Skinner a behavioral psychologist

Chomsky holding a stand of language being innate –

born with the ability

Skinner suggesting that the behavior of

language is learnt like any other cognitive

behavior

Chomsky advocated a model involving whole

sentence processing using some form of

`transformational' system

Skinner proposed a `finite', (single word)

processing system used in sentence

interpretation

Chomsky believed we were born with a Language

Acquisition Device... basically, weare born with

something in our brains that gives us the ABILITY to

learn and understand language. However, to actually

learn language, we must be exposed to this language

from the outside world.

Skinner believed everything was learned from

scratch. Humans are born knowing nothing,

and then they learn it all, via rewards and

punishments.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 18

3.4 Similarities and Differences of Chomsky and Skinner’s Theories

The two men share greatly differing views and ideas to the acquisition of grammar in humans.

Here I will share the similarities and differences between Skinner and Chomsky on language

learning theories

Similarities Differences

Chomsky Skinner Chomsky Skinner

The language

learners will

acquire the

target structures

easily.

The language

learners will

acquire the

target structures

easily.

The ability of language is innate Learner is passive and respond to the

environmental stimuli

Chomsky a linguist Skinner a behavioral psychologist

Chomsky believed that human beings

are born prepared to learn language

Skinner supports the idea that the

learner of a language depends the

principle of stimulus-response

Language is

developed by

practicing.

Language is

developed by

practicing.

Reinforcement of environment, such as

adults, correction of child’s linguistic

errors, contributes partly in developing

the child’s language acquisition

Skinner focused on the language

learning rather than the language

acquisition

The environment has secondary role The environment has major role in

acquiring the language

Deals with

language

acquisition

system.

Deals with

language

acquisition

system.

Children learn the easiest rule in the

language and apply in difficult situations

Language is a set of habits that can be

acquired by means of conditioning

Human is born with innate capacity,

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Human is born with no tools of

learning language, but as they grow,

they learn from environment

Errors is the indication that a child is

actually acquiring a language innately

Children are learning from trail and

error

It focus on first language theory It focus on second language theory

The learner filters what he sees and

hears from the environment (input) and

keeps what is important in the language

for him (intake) then according to that,

he makes his own rules of language to

produce sentence (output)

The learner repeats what he hears

from the environment to learn the

language

E.g: Audio-Lingual: Teachers use this

method to teach children through

repeating after them

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 19

“Cognitive Learning Theory - Using Thinking to Learn.”

4. The Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT)

The Cognitive Learning Theory explains why the brain is the most

incredible network of information processing and interpretation

in the body as we learn things. Learning results from internal

mental activity and not from externally imposed stimuli.

It is assumed that in cognitive process the learner comes with

knowledge, skills and related experiences to the learning situation

i. Cognitive Psychologists

Following psychologists focused on different cognitive conditions that impact on learning

ii. David Paul Ausubel (1918 – 2008)

Born: October 25, 1918

Died: July 9, 2008

Grew up in Brooklyn, New York

David Ausubel was an American psychologist who did his undergraduate

work at the University of Pennsylvania (pre-med and psychology). He

graduated from medical school at Middlesex University. Later he earned a

Ph.D in Developmental Psychology at Columbia University. He was

influenced by the work of Piaget. He served on the faculty at several

universities and retired from academic life in 1973 and began his practice in

psychiatry. Dr. Ausubel published several textbooks in developmental and

educational psychology, and more than 150 journal articles. He was

awarded the Thorndike Award for "Distinguished Psychological

Contributions to Education" by the American Psychological Association

(1976).

Observing, categorizing,

forming generalizations to

make sense of the

information provided.

--- Cognitive Learning

Theory

Piaget Bloom Bruner Ausubel

David Ausubel Ausubel

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 20

4.1 Ausubelian Meaningful Learning Theory:

Ausubel, whose theories are particularly relevant for

educators, considered neo-behaviorist views inadequate.

Although he recognized other forms of learning, his work

focused on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of

meaning, and believes the external world acquires meaning

only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by the

learner. Ausabel broke down the process of learning to three

steps: what will the person learn, what the person wants to learn, and what did the person learn?

He made the following difference between meaningful learning and rote learning

i. Ausbel’s Meaningful Learning:

Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to

ideas that the learner already possess. Ausbel believed that before new materials can be presented

effectively, the student’s cognitive structure should be strengthened.

According to meaningful learning:

Concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from

verbal/textual presentations in a learning activities.

Meaningful learning results when new information is acquired by linking the new

information in the learner’s own cognitive structure

Learning is based on the representational, superordinate and combinatorial processes that

occur during the reception of information.

A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant

ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a non-verbatim basis (previous knowledge)

Meaning is created through some form of representational equivalence between language

(symbols) and mental context. Two processes are involved:

1. Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning, and

2. Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving.

Meaningful Learning Rote learning

Relatable to what one already knows so

it can be easily integrated in one’s existing

cognitive structure.

When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material,

then rote learning, as opposed to meaningful learning, takes

place. This rote learning may eventually contribute to the

construction of a new cognitive structure which can later be

used in meaningful learning.

Learning must be meaningful

to be effective and permanent

David Ausbel

The importance of active mental participation in meaningful learning tasks

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 21

Ausubel's work has frequently been compared with Bruner's. The two held similar views about

the hierarchical nature of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented toward discovery

processes, where Ausubel gave more emphasis to the verbal learning methods of speech, reading

and writing.

ii. Ausbel’s Subsmuption Theory:

To subsume is to incorporate new material

into one's cognitive structures. From

Ausubel's perspective, this is the meaning of

learning. When information is subsumed into

the learner's cognitive structure it is

organized hierarchically. New material can

be subsumed in two different ways, and for

both of these, no meaningful learning takes

place unless a stable cognitive structure

exists. This existing structure provides a

framework into which the new learning is

related, hierarchically, to the previous

information or concepts in the individual's

cognitive structure.

Purpose of Subsmuption Theory:

Teachers are encouraged to teach prior

knowledge first rather than new information

to help information subsume:

• Helps introduce a new lesson, unit, or course

• Helps summarize major ideas in new lesson or unit.

• Based on student’s prior knowledge.

• Show similarities between old material and new material.

• Allows student to transfer or apply knowledge.

• Provides for structure for new information.

• Helps teach complex material that is similar to information learned previously.

iii. The processes of meaningful learning:

Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning occur:

Derivative Subsumption

Correlative Subsumption

Superordinate Learning

Combinatorial Learning

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 22

Derivative Subsumption

Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a

concept that pupils have already learned.

Example:

• Suppose I have acquired a basic concept such as

“tree” – trunk, branches, green leaves, and may

have some kind of fruit.

• Now, I learn about a kind of tree that I have

never learn before “persimmon tree” – conforms

to my previous understanding of tree.

• My new knowledge of persimmon trees is

attached to my concept of tree, without

substantially altering that concept in any way.

• So, I had learned about the persimmon trees through the

process of derivative subsumption.

• Correlative Subsumption

More valuable learning than that of derivative

subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level

concept.

Example:

• Suppose I encounter a new kind of tree that

has red leaves, rather than green.

• In order to accommodate this new

information, I have to alter or extend my

concept of tree to include the possibility of

red leaves.

• I have learned about this new kind of tree through the process of correlative

subsumption.

• In a sense, you might say that this is more “valuable” learning than of derivative

subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.

New material is

an extension or

elaboration of

what is already

known.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 23

• Superordinate Learning

In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of

the concept, but you did not know the concept

until it was taught to pupils.

• Example

• Imagine that I was well acquainted with

maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but I did

not know, until I was taught, that these

were all examples of deciduous trees.

• In this case, I already knew a lot of

examples of the concept, but I did not

know the concept itself until it was taught

to me.

• This is superordinate learning.

• Combinatorial Learning

It describes a process by which the new idea is

derived from another idea that is comes from his

previous knowledge (in a different, but related,

“branch”). Students could think of this as learning

by analogy.

Examples:

• Now, suppose I learn about how fish eggs

are fertilized.

• I might relate it to previously acquired

knowledge about pollination n in plants.

• Both of the ideas are different, but it is

related to the “process of breeding”.

• You could think of this as learning by analogy.

An individual is able to give a lot of

examples of the concept but does not know

the concept itself until it is taught.

Combinatorial learning is different; it

describes a process by which the new idea is

derived from another idea that is neither

higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the

same level.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 24

Information can be moved in

the hierarchy, or linked to other

concepts or information to

create new interpretation or

meaning. From this type of

subsumption, completely new

concepts can emerge, and

previous concepts can be

changed or expanded to include

more of the previously existing

information. This is "figuring

out".

Ausubel is a proponent of

didactic, expository teaching

methods. From this

perspective, expository

(verbal) learning approaches encourage rapid learning and retention, whereas discovery learning

(Bruner) facilitates transfer to other contexts.

iv. Advanced Organizers:

Ausubel contributed much to the theoretical body of cognitive learning theory, but not as much

to the practical classroom aspects as Bruner and others. Ausubel's most notable contribution for

classroom application was the advance organizer.

The advance organizer is a tool or a mental learning aid

to help students `integrate new information with their

existing knowledge, leading to "meaningful learning" as

opposed to rote memorization. It is a means of

preparing the learner's cognitive structure for the

learning experience about to take place. It is a device to

activate the relevant schema or conceptual patterns so

that new information can be more readily `subsumed'

into the learner's existing cognitive structures.

• Advance Organizer’s classification:

Advance organizer is classified into following two types:

i. Expository

ii. Comparative

Meaningful and Rote Learning

Allows student to already have a bird’s view at to see the “big picture” of the topic to be

learned even before going to the details.

---Advanced Organizers

They are part of Ausubel's

subsumption theory that "contends

that meaningful learning and

permanent retention of material is a

function of the stability of existing

anchoring ideas"

(Applin).

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 25

• Expository:

Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to

provide a preview of information to be learned.

Teachers could do this by providing a brief

introduction about the way that information that is

going to be presented is structured. This would enable

students to start with a "Big Picture" of the upcoming

content, and link new ideas, concepts, vocabulary, to

existing mental maps of the content area.

Example:

• The teacher discusses the process of the

absorption of water and minerals into the

plants through the tap and fibrous root

system.

• Comparative

This type of comparative method is useful when the

knowledge to be presented is new to learner. Teacher

should compares new material with knowledge

already known by emphasizing the similarities

between two types of material and showing the

information that is to be learnt. Ausubel’s teaching

approach is deductive in nature.

Example

A teacher shows the similarities and differences

among two major root system, the tap root

and the fibrous root system.

Iv. Advance organizers should:

Have a short set of verbal and visual

information

Be present prior to learning of a larger body

of to-be learned information

Contain no specific content from the to-be-learned information

Means of generating logical relationships among elements of new information,

Influence learner’s encoding process:

Provide a new general organization as an assimilative context

Summary

For Ausubel, meaningful learning

is a process that related new

information relevant to the

concepts contained in a person’s

cognitive structure.

In order to be meaningful to

students ‘learning, then learning

should be linked and relevant to

students’ cognitive structures.

Relevance to students’ cognitive

structures can happen when we

pay attention to early knowledge

of the concepts that preceded

the concept to be learned.

It is important for students to

construct knowledge through

learning.

The essential theory of meaningful

learning is a teaching which

Ausubel enables students can

associate the beginning of

knowledge with new knowledge

that will learn and how teachers

can facilitate learning by

preparing the facility as a

presentation of the subject matter

which allows students to build

knowledge in discovery learning

activities.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 26

Activate a general organization from learner’s existing knowledge that would not have

normally been used to assimilate the new material

Conclusion

Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful

material from verbal/ textual (lecture/ books) presentations in a school setting as opposed

to theories developed based on experimental settings.

Therefore, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and

combinatorial processes that occur during the presentation of information

Chart for Understanding Ausbel's theory

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 27

4.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy:

"Taxonomy” simply means “classification”, so the well-known taxonomy of learning

objectives is an attempt (within the behavioral paradigm) to classify forms and levels of

learning.

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist

Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as

analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just

remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing instruction or

learning processes

i. Benjamin S. Bloom:

Benjamin S. Bloom was born into the tumultuous time period

of World War I. Yet, his early life was shaped in many ways

by the typical Eastern American experience. Born on Februray

21, 1913, Bloom grew up in Lansford Pennsylvania. He was a

small and unassuming man with a sharp wit and a deep desire

to learn.

He attended Penn State University and later earned a PhD

from the University of Chicago. At the time he developed his

famous taxonomy, the United States was at the forefront of

educational theory. From John Dewey’s Progressive school to

the boom in Information Processing Theory to Skinner’s

science of Behaviorism, the U.S. paved the way in educational theory. As a Board

Examiner from 1943 to 1959, Bloom developed his famous Bloom’s Taxonomy. Unlike

other theorists, his grew out of a pragmatic need to re-tool the assessment of students.

Indeed, Benjamin Bloom was one of the first theorists to advocate the absolution of

norm-referenced tests.

To him, all learning must be individualized and criterion-referenced. Eventually, on their

own, students would reach the same level. Bloom had an affinity for science and

statistics, which enabled him to classify information quickly. Those who knew him would

often remark on his messy office, filled with books, notes, scribbles of information and

statistical research. To him, one of his greatest victories was the creation of the Head

Start Program.

Bloom

The cognitive processes involved in

learning

Taxonomy is an arrangement of ideas or a way to group things together

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 28

ii. The Three Domains of Learning

The three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, 1956) are:

Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude, values or self)

Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (involves development of the body and

skills it performs)

a. Domain Taxonomies:

Taxonomy classifies information into a hierarchy of levels. Domain

taxonomies reveal that what educators want students to accomplish

(expressed by educational objectives) can be arranged into levels of

complexity, and that those levels are best fulfilled sequentially.

Example: The food guide pyramid is taxonomy of levels based on

number of servings, or relative contribution of a particular food

group to total food intake.

b. Cognitive Domain:

The most-used of the domains, refers to knowledge structures (although sheer “knowing

the facts” is its bottom level). It can be viewed as a sequence of progressive

contextualization of the material. (Based on Bloom, 1956)

The cognitive domain involves the learning and application of knowledge. The

taxonomy contains six levels that can be remembered by the following mnemonic

device:

Knowledge Kickball

Comprehension Can

Application Almost

Analysis Always

Synthesis Seem

Evaluation Enjoyable

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 29

iii. Cognitive Domain Levels

Table of the Cognitive Domain (original)

Level Description Verbs Objective

Example, Key Words (verbs), and

Technologies for Learning

(activities)

Knowledge

Student recalls or

recognizes information,

ideas, and principles in

the approximate form

in which they were

learned

Define

Write

List

Label

Name

State

Define 6 levels

of cognitive

domain.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices

from memory to a customer. Know the

safety rules. Define a term.

Technologies: bookmarking, flash

cards, Internet search, reading

Comprehension

To understand

meaning of

information based on

prior learning.

Describe

Explain

Interpret

Paraphrase

Summaries

Illustrate

Explain

purpose of

cognitive

domain.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of

test writing. Explain in one's own

words the steps for performing a

complex task. Translates an equation

into a computer spreadsheet.

Technologies: create an analogy,

participating in cooperative learning,

taking notes, story telling

Application

To utilize information

to complete a task with

limited direction.

Compute

Solve

Use

Demonstrate

Apply

Construct

Write

objective for

levels of

cognitive

domain.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an

employee's vacation time. Apply laws

of statistics to evaluate the reliability of

a written test.

Technologies: collaborative learning,

create a process, material good, etc.),

blog, practice

Analysis

To distinguishes,

classifies, and relates

the assumptions,

hypotheses, evidence,

or structure of a

statement or question.

Analyze

Categorize

Compare

Contrast

Separate

Compare

cognitive &

affective

domains.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of

equipment by using logical deduction.

Recognize logical fallacies in

reasoning. Gathers information from a

department and selects the required

tasks for training.

Technologies: fishbowls, debating,

questioning what happened, run a test

Synthesis

To integrate or

combine ideas into a

new product or plan.

Design

Develop

Organize

Design way to

write

objectives that

combines 3

domains.

Examples: Write a company operations

or process manual. Design a machine to

perform a specific task. Integrates

training from several sources to solve a

problem. Revises and process to

improve the outcome.

Technologies: essay, networking

Evaluation

Critique idea based on

specific standards and

criteria.

Appraise

Judge

Justify

Judge

effectiveness of

writing

objectives

using

taxonomy.

Examples: Select the most effective

solution. Hire the most qualified

candidate. Explain and justify a new

budget.

Technologies: survey, blogging

The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be ignited. (Plutarch)

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 30

iv. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy:

The model above is included because it is still common currency,

but Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) have made some apparently

minor but actually significant modifications, perhaps the three

most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian,

Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000), to

come up with

changing the names in the six categories from noun

to verb forms

rearranging them as shown in the chart below

creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking

and is perhaps more accurate:

Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Remembering: Recall or retrieve

previous learned information.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety

rules.

Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines,

recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

Understanding: Comprehending the

meaning, translation, interpolation, and

interpretation of instructions and

problems. State a problem in one's own

words.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps

for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Key Words: Comprehends converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,

generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,

summarizes, and translates.

Applying: Use a concept in a new

situation or unprompted use of an

abstraction. Applies what was learned in

the classroom into novel situations in

the work place.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of

statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers,

manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves,

uses.

Analyzing: Separates material or

concepts into component parts so that

its organizational structure may be

understood. Distinguishes between facts

and inferences.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize

logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the

required tasks for training.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs,

differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,

selects, separates.

Evaluating: Make judgments about the

value of ideas or materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain

and justify a new budget.

Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends,

describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes,

supports.

Creating: Builds a structure or pattern

from diverse elements. Put parts

together to form a whole, with

emphasis on creating a new meaning or

structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform

a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and

process to improve the outcome.

Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs,

explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,

reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 31

v. Cognitive Domain Levels

Research over the last 40 years has confirmed the taxonomy as a hierarchy, with the

exception of the last two levels. It is uncertain whether synthesis and evaluation should

be reversed, or whether synthesis and evaluation are at the same level of difficulty, but

use different cognitive processes.

Creative Thinking Critical Thinking

vi. Affective Domain

The affective domain addresses the acquisition of attitudes and values. The taxonomy

contains five levels that can be remembered by the following

mnemonic device:

a. Affective Domain Levels

Level Description Verbs Objective

Receiving

Being aware of, or attending to

something in the environment.

Listen

Notice

Tolerate

Listen attentively to badminton

introduction.

Responding

Showing some new behavior as a

result of experience.

Comply Enjoy

Follow

Voluntarily help set up badminton

nets.

Valuing

Showing some definite

involvement or commitment. Carry out Express Attend optional badminton match.

Organization

Integrating a new value into one's

general set of values relative to

other priorities.

Choose

Consider Prefer Purchase own badminton racket.

Receiving Regular

Responding Rude

Valuing Vices

Organization Offend

Characterization Christ

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 32

Level Description Verbs Objective

Characterization

Acting consistently with the new

value; person is known by the

value.

Act on Depict

Exemplify

Join intramurals to play badminton

twice per week.

vii. Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain involves development of the body and skills it performs. The

taxonomy contains seven levels that can be remembered by the following mnemonic

device:

Perceiving Premium

Patterning Pandas

Accommodating Acquire

Refining Rare

Varying Value

Improvising In

Composing China

Psychomotor Domain Levels

Level Description Verbs Objective

Perceiving

Recognizing movement

position or pattern. Listen Observe

Discover headstand movement

principles.

Patterning

Reproducing movement

position or pattern. Imitate Practice

Perform headstand following

modeling.

Accommodating

Using or modifying

movement position or

pattern.

Adjust Modify Use headstand in routine.

Refining

Demonstrating efficient

control in performing

pattern.

Improve

Master

Perform headstand with

pointed toes.

Varying

Performing movement

pattern in different ways. Design Develop

Perform headstand in three

positions.

Improvising

Originating novel

movement or movement

combinations.

Construct

Invent

Combine headstand with new

skill.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 33

Level Description Verbs Objective

Composing

Creating unique movement

pattern. Create Invent Create floor exercise routine.

4.3 Comparison and Analysis of Bloom’s Taxonomy and Meaningful

Learning

Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher

forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing

and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures,

and principles, rather than just remembering facts

(rote learning). It is most often used when

designing instruction or learning processes

Taxonomy of educational objectives “could do

much to bring order out of chaos in the field of

education. It could furnish the conceptual

framework around which our descriptions of educational programs and experiences

could be oriented. It could furnish a framework for the development of educational

theories and research. It could furnish the scheme needed for training our teachers and

for orienting them to the varied possibilities of education” (Bloom, 1949)

As for as David Ausubel is concerned he was a cognitive learning theorist who focused on

the learning of school subjects and who placed considerable interest on what the student

already knows as being the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns next.

Ausubel viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your

environment. Learners seek to make sense of their surroundings by integrating new

knowledge with that which they have already learned.

The key concept for Ausubel is the cognitive structure. He sees this as the sum of all the

knowledge we have acquired as well as the relationships among the facts, concepts and

principles that make up that knowledge.

To him all learning happens the same way by being compared and contrasted with prior

knowledge that exists in a person's cognitive structure. If a person has relevant content in

his or her existing cognitive structure to which the new information can be related, then

Taxonomy = Classification

Classification of thinking =

Six cognitive levels of

complexity

Bloom’s taxonomy may be

depicted as a set of stairs

that students climb from

one level to the next

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 34

the learning can be meaningful. Likewise if the person does not have relevant content in

his or her cognitive structure, then the new information can only be learned in a rote

manner.

4.5 Similarities and Differences of Bloom’s Taxonomy and Ausbel’s

Meaningful Learning

Bloom’s Taxonomy Ausbel’s Meaningful Learning

Dealt with classification of forms and levels of

learning. Dealt with the nature of meaning

To promote higher forms of thinking in education,

such as analyzing and evaluating concepts,

processes, procedures, and principles

The primary process in learning is that new

information is related to relevant knowledge that

is already existing in an individual’s cognitive

structure

Concerned with how to classify forms and

levels of learning.

Concerned with how individuals learn large

amounts of meaningful material.

The process by which taxonomy classifies

information into a hierarchy of levels.

It is classification of thinking organized by levels

of complexity

The process by which new knowledge is changed

/ modified / merged in our minds to fit into what

we already know

Bloom broke down the process of classification

of learning into following three domain:

Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or

emotional areas (attitude, values or

self)

Psychomotor: manual or physical

skills (involves development of the

body and skills it performs)

Ausabel broke down the process of learning to

three steps: what will the person learn, what the

person wants to learn, and what did the person

learn? The more emphasis is on the verbal

learning methods of speech, reading and writing

Bloom’s taxonomy relate to learning of the

learner do not know

Ausbel’s theory related to the existence of specific

prerequisite knowledge in their cognitive

structures

The learner learned to recall, restate or

remember learned information

The learner’s considerable interest on what the

student already knows as being the primary

determiner of whether and what he/she learns

next.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 35

About Jerome Bruner:

1915: Born in NYC

Learning theorist

In WW2 worked for U.S. Army

intelligence reviewing the

effectiveness of propaganda.

1947 : Ph. D. , Psychology from

Harvard

Positions on faculties of Harvard,

Oxford, and currently NYU

Associated with the Constructivist

view of learning

Originated Discovery method of

learning

Founded Center for Cognitive

studies with Leo Postman

rooted mainly in the study of

cognition

Reacted against behaviorist model

of learning

founded “New Look” movement in

psychology

Change from behaviorist model

5. Bruner’s Theory of Learning

5.1 Cognitive Development:

Bruner was influenced by Piaget's ideas about

cognitive development in children.

During the 1940's his early work focused on

the impact of needs, motivations, &

expectations (“mental sets”) and their

influence on perception.

He also looked at the role of strategies in the

process of human categorization, and

development of human cognition. He

presented the point of view that children are

active problem-solvers and capable of

exploring “difficult subjects”.

Bruner believed that children have an innate

capacity that helps them make sense of the

work and that cognitive abilities develop

through active interaction. His focus was on

the development of conceptual

understanding, cognitive skills and learning

strategies rather than the acquisition of

knowledge. Bruner argued that social factors,

particularly language, were important for

cognitive growth. These underpin the concept

of ‘scaffolding’.

Bruner was also concerned with how

knowledge is represented and organized

through different modes of representation

5.2 Modes of Representation:

Bruner suggested that different ways of thinking (or representation) are important at

different ages.

He said that knowledge and understanding can take 3 different forms:

“Language is the key to knowledge”

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 36

1. The enactive mode (used in 1st 18 months)

2. The iconic mode (develops from 18 months)

3. The symbolic mode (6-7 years onwards)

1. The enactive mode (used in 1st 18 months):

In the first stage the first kind of memory is called enactive when a person

learns about the world through actions on physical objects and the

outcomes of these actions. This mode is used within the first 18 months of

life. A baby represents world through actions (corresponding with Piaget’s

sensorimotor stage). The infant stores information in the form of muscle

memories: remembering the feel of actions. – baby may carry on shaking

arm even if you take rattle away thought arm movement made the noise!

Thinking is based entirely on physical actions. Infants learn by doing,

rather than by internal representation (or thinking). This mode continues

later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike. They

become automatic through repetition. Like Piaget, Bruner sees onset of

object permanence = amajor qualitative change in way child thinks.

2. The iconic mode (develops from 18 months):

The second stage was called "Iconic" where learning can be obtained

through using models and pictures. Information is stored as sensory

images: usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. Mode begins to

develop from 18 months. Some children develop an extreme form of

this known as eidetic imagery (photographic memory), but they usually

lose it as they grow older.

Thinking is based on the use of mental images (icons), which may be

based on sight, hearing, smell or touch. Baby can represent rattle as

a visual image so it is now an independent “thing” = object

permanence – child’s thinking is dominated by images -things are as

they look in this mode.

3. The symbolic mode (6-7 years onwards)

The final stage was "Symbolic" in which the learner develops the capacity to think in

abstract terms. In this stage child has the ability to store things in the form of symbols.

Words are powerful symbols and we can store a lot of information as verbal memory.

This mode is acquired around six to seven years-old (corresponding to Piaget’s operation

stage). Representation of the world is principally through language, but also other

Learners create

their own

subjective

constructs of reality

---Bruner

I’m in I’m in iconic mode – leave my rattle alone!

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 37

symbolic systems such as number and music. Children began to use symbols to represent

people, things, etc. They have the ability to think and talk about things in abstract terms.

They can better understand mathematical principles and use symbolic idioms.

Information can now be categorized and summarized, can be more readily manipulated.

i. Social Learning

Bruner argued that aspects of cognitive performance are facilitated by language. He also

mentioned that the setting is very important in the acquisition of language.

The earliest social setting is the mother-child dyad, where children work out the

meanings of utterances to which they are repeatedly exposed. Bruner identified several

important social devices including joint attention, mutual gaze, and turn-taking

a. Cultural Learning:

Bruner adopted the point of view that culture shapes the mind and

provides the raw material with which we constrict our world and our

self-conception. He explained this in his book ‘The Culture of

Education’ by suggesting that people from different cultures make sense

of their experiences in different ways because of the differences in the

society in which they live.

e.g. Categorizations structures for birds may be different in UK and Africa

b. The Process of Education:

In 1960 Bruner published The Process of Education. This was a landmark book which led

to much experimentation and a broad range of educational programs

c. The organization of knowledge:

Thinking based on categorization (similarities and differences - system of coding to store

info). Hierarchy -general at top getting more specific e.g classification of animals

d. Four Key themes

Four Key themes emerged in Bruner's early work:

Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made

central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and

techniques.

Readiness for learning. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any

stage of development in a way that fit the child's cognitive abilities.

“Language starts to influence thought”

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 38

Spiral curriculum. Refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over,

building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and

mastery.

Intuitive and analytical thinking. Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical

thinking should both be encouraged and rewarded.

e. Effective Instruction Theory:

1. Predisposition to learn/Personalized:

Instruction should relate to learners' predisposition, and facilitate interest toward

learning.

2. Content Structure:

Content should be structured so it can be most easily grasped by the learner.

3. Sequencing:

Sequencing is an important aspect for presentation of material (visual, words, symbols).

4. Reinforcement:

Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately.

ii. Constructivist Theory:

Bruner was one of the founding fathers of constructivist theory. Bruner's theoretical

framework is based on the theme that learners construct new ideas or concepts based

upon existing knowledge. Learning is an active process. Facets of the process include:

selection and transformation of information, making decision, generating hypotheses,

and making meaning from information and

experiences.

a. Categorization:

Bruner's theories emphasize the significance of

categorization in learning. "To perceive is to categorize,

to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form

categories, to make decisions is to categorize."

Interpreting information and experiences by similarities

and differences is a key concept.

To form a category is necessary follow four rules to specify an object:

Categorization is the

process in which ideas

and objects

are recognized, different

iated and understood.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 39

1. Criterial attributes - required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.

2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.

3. The third rule assignees weight to various properties.

4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes.

b. Modes of Thought:

Bruner also suggested that there are two primary modes of thought:

1. The narrative (intuitive) mode:

2. The paradigmatic (analytic) mode:

1. The narrative (intuitive) mode:

The mind engages in sequential, action-oriented, detail-driven thought. Based on logic,

traditional type of thinking emphasized in schools, leads to construction of categories and

hierarchies

2. The paradigmatic (analytic) mode:

The mind transcends particularities to achieve systematic, categorical cognition. More

interpretive, complex and rich phenomena of life better represented in stories or

narratives (Lieblich et al 1998)

iii. Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a temporary support structure around that child’s attempts to understand

new ideas and complete new tasks as the child is able to work more independently.

Bruner and colleagues Wood et al (1976) first to introduce the term Scaffolding to

describe the Vygotskian idea of helping children through the ZPD.

a. Scaffolding Purposes

The purpose of the support is to allow the child to achieve higher levels of development

by:

o Simplifying the task or idea

o Motivating and encouraging the child

Highlighting important task elements or errors

Giving models that can be imitated.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 40

Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

Background

Vygotsky was called "The Mozart

of Psychology“.

He was born in 1896- same year

as Piaget - in the small Russian

town of Orsha.

Middle-class Jewish family.

He entered into a private all

boys secondary school known

as a gymnasium—a secondary

school that prepared students

for the university.

In 1913 entered Moscow

University through lottery.

In December of 1917, he

graduated from Moscow

University with a degree in law.

Vygotsky completed 270

scientific articles, numerous

lectures, and ten books based

on a wide range of Marxist-

based psychological and

teaching theories.

He died on June 10, 1934, at the

young age of thirty-seven after

long battle with TB.

Vygotsky’s work did not

become known in the West until

1958, and was not published

there until 1962.

5.3 Vygotsky’s Socio cultural

Theory:

i. Socio cultural theory states that:

Cognitive development occurs in a

sociocultural context that influences the form

it takes. Most of a child’s cognitive skills

evolve from social interactions with parents,

teachers, and other more competent

associates.

Theory’s Principles and Concepts

Children construct their knowledge.

Knowledge is not transferred passively, but is

personally constructed.

The learning is mediated.

Cognitive development is not a direct result

of activity, but it is indirect; other people

must interact with the learner, use mediatory

tools to facilitate the learning process, and

then cognitive development may occur.

Language plays a central role in mental

development.

The most significant sociocultural tool is

language, as it is used to teach tool use and is

vital in the process of developing higher

psychological functions.

According to Vygotsky: Thought and

language eventually emerge. A child’s

nonsocial utterances, which he termed private

speech, illustrate the transition from

paralinguistic to verbal reasoning

“Cognitive development depends on social/cultural/ linguistic factors”

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 41

Private speech plays a major role in cognitive development by serving as a cognitive

self-guidance system, allowing children to become more organized and good problem

solvers

As individuals develop, private speech becomes inner speech.

Learning appears twice.

First on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people

(interpsychology), and then inside the child (intrapsychology). This applies equally to

voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher

functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.”

Development cannot be separated from its social context.

The context needed for learning is that where the learners can interact with each other

and use the new tools. This means that the learning environment must be authentic, that

is, it must contain the type of people who would use these types of tools such as

concepts, language, symbols in a natural way.

i. Social Plane:

Where development first takes place

Child: observes, listens, and tries to imitate

Parent: guides, makes corrections, provides challenges

Ii Internal Plane:

As the child becomes more competent, information becomes internalized.

Example: learning language

Tools of intellectual adaptation in Culture Setting

Vygotsky (1930-1935/1978) proposed that infants are born with a few elementary mental

functions – attention, sensation, perception and memory – that are eventually

transformed by the culture into new and more sophisticated mental processes he called

higher mental functions.

Example: Young children’s early memory capabilities are limited by biological constraints

to the images and impressions they can produce. However, each culture provides its

children with tools of intellectual adaptation, which is Vygotsky’s term for methods of

thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize from their interactions

with more competent members of society.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 42

The role of culture in intellectual development:

Vygotsky proposed that we should evaluate human development from four interrelated

perspectives:

Microgenetic-changes that occur over brief periods of time-minutes and seconds

Ontogenetic-development over a lifetime

Phylogenetic-development over evolutionary time

Sociohistorical- changes that have occurred in one's culture and the values, norms and

technologies such a history has generated

Culture can act as:

guide (e.g., to what can be done)

prompt (to do something)

model (for what should be done)

explanation (for why something is done)

encouragement (to do something)

Culture scaffolds development

The Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

The difference between what a child can do

independently and what the child needs help from a

more knowledgeable person to do is the ZPD. Range of

tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can

be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from

a more skillful partner

Scaffolding:

A knowledgeable participant can create by means

of speech and supportive conditions in which the

student (novice) can participate in and extend

current skills and knowledge to a high level of

competence.

In an educational context, however, scaffolding is

an instructional structure whereby the teacher

models the desired learning strategy or task then gradually shifts responsibility

to the students.

In general Scaffolding:

“Role of teachers and others

in supporting the learner’s

development and providing

support structures to get to

the next stage or level”

---Vygotsky.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 43

Provides support

Extends the range of what a learner can do.

Allows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossible

Used only when needed

Example:

An example of scaffolding in the classroom setting could include a teacher first instructing

her children on how to write a sentence using commas and conjunctions. As the week

goes on, she has her students practice writing these sentences with peers, gives students

feedback and eventually has the kids to complete this skill without her guidance.

Vygotsky agreed with Piaget that young children are curious explorers who are actively

involved in learning and discovering new principles. However, unlike Piaget, Vygotsky

believed that many of the truly important discoveries that children make are the result of

dialogues that occur between a skillful tutor who models the activity and transmits verbal

instruction and a novice learner who seeks to understand the tutors instruction.

Apprenticeship in Thinking and Guided Participation:

Guided participation, adult-child interactions in which children’s cognitions and modes of

thinking are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally

relevant activities. Our culture is one that uses what Vygotsky termed context-

independent learning

In many cultures, children do not learn by going to school with other children,

nor do their parents formally teach such lessons as weaving and hunting, instead

they learn through guided participation. This is a kind of “apprenticeship in

thinking.”

Context-independent learning is asking children question that adults already know

the answers to, learning and discussing things that have no immediate relevance-

knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

The idea of an apprenticeship or guided participation may seem reasonable in cultures

where children are integrated early into the daily activities of adult life, such as the

agrarian Mayans of Guatemala and Mexico, or the !Kung of Africa whose hunting-and-

gathering lifestyle has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 44

Implications for Education:

Children are seen as active participants in their education. Teachers in Vygotsky’s

classroom would favor guided participation in which they:

Structure the learning activity

Provide helpful hints or instructions that are

Carefully tailored to the child’s current abilities:

Monitor the learner’s progress

Gradually turning over more of the mental activity to their pupils

Promote cooperative learning exercises

5.4 Comparison and Analysis of Vygotsky and Bruner

Vygotsky:

Sociocultural theory of Vygotsky considers

learning as a semiotic process where

participation in socially-mediated activities is

essential. The theory regards instruction as

crucial to cognitive development in the

classroom. Instruction should be geared to the

ZPD that is beyond the learner’s actual

development level. Social instruction actually

produces new, elaborate, advanced

psychological processes that are unavailable to the organism working in isolation

Bruner:

Children as they grow must acquire a way of

representing the "recurrent regularities" in their

environment. So, to Bruner, important outcomes of

learning include not just the concepts, categories, and

problem-solving procedures invented previously by the

culture, but also the ability to "invent" these things for

oneself.

A clear application of sociocultural theory

principles in second language classroom is

obvious in the task-based approach. This

approach emphasizes the importance of

social and collaborative aspects of learning.

sociocultural theory focuses on how the

learner accomplishes a task and how the

interaction between learners can scaffold

and assist in the second language acquisition

process (Turuk, 2008).

The outcome of cognitive

development is thinking. The

intelligent mind creates from

experience "generic coding

systems that permit one to go

beyond the data to new and

possibly fruitful predictions"

(Bruner, 1957, p. 234).

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 45

For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to

facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a

range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in

children.

Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and

"culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities." These

culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and

television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes

phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that language

serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual's response.

Strengths and Limitations of Bruner’s Theory

Limitations - not concerned with infant development as much as Piaget and Vygotsky

so not a lifespan theory of Cog Dev - more a general approach to learning Paradigmatic

and Narrative thinking difficult to test and so theory can’t be demonstrated to be true

Strengths - Focus on Education have had a profound effect on education

5.5 Similarities and Differences of Bruner and Vygotsky

Similarities Differences

Bruner Vygotsky Bruner Vygotsky

Stresses role of

language &

interpersonal

communication

Stresses role of

language &

interpersonal

communication

Development occurs through

in relative

social vacuum

Development occurs through

Social interaction.

Emphasizes need

for active

involvement by

experts

Emphasizes need

for active

involvement by

experts

Not concerned with infant

development

Concerned with infant

development

Introduce the term

Scaffolding

helP children

through

the ZPD

Introduce the

idea of Scaffolding

helping children

through

the ZPD

Bruner argued that aspects of

cognitive performance are

facilitated by language. He

also mentioned that the setting

is very important in the

acquisition of language

Cognitive development occurs

in a sociocultural context that

influences the form it takes.

Most of a child’s cognitive skills

evolve from social interactions

with parents, teachers, and

other more competent

associates.

Bruner emphasize

a child's

environment,

especially the social

environment

Vygotsky

emphasize a child's

environment,

especially the

social environment

Bruner believed that children

have an innate capacity that

helps them make sense of the

work and that cognitive

abilities develop through

Vygotsky believed that infants

are born with a few elementary

mental functions – attention,

sensation, perception and

memory – that are eventually

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 46

Similarities Differences

Bruner Vygotsky Bruner Vygotsky

active interaction. transformed by the culture into

new and more sophisticated

mental processes he called

higher mental functions

Adults should play

an active role in

assisting the child's

learning

Adults should play

an active role in

assisting the child's

learning Bruner was concerned with

how knowledge is represented

and organized through

different modes of

representation

Vygotsky was concerned with

guided participation, adult-child

interactions in which children’s

cognitions and modes of

thinking are shaped as they

participate with or observe

adults engaged in culturally

relevant activities. Our culture is

one that uses what Vygotsky

termed context-independent

learning

Emphasized the

social nature of

learning, citing that

other people

should help a child

develop skills

through the

process of

scaffolding

Emphasized the

social nature of

learning, citing

that other people

should help a child

develop skills

through the

process of

scaffolding

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 47

Jean Piaget (1896-1980).

• 1896-1980

• Born in Neuchatel,

Switzerland

• Was the eldest child, and as

such was precocious (bright

for his age)

• Strong interest in seashells,

initially

• Piaget was interested in

philosophy, psychology &

religion

• He worked with Simon, of the

Simon-Binet intelligence

testing, but Piaget was more

concerned with how children

learn, rather than

distinguishing right/wrong

• His academic work forms the

basis for our current

educational system

• He married Valentine

Chatenay in 1923 and

together they had

• 2 daughters followed

• by 1 son

• After a lifetime of efforts he

was known as ‘one of the

most significant psychologists

of the 20th century’

6.Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned

for constructing a highly influential model of child development and

learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the

developing child builds cognitive structures–in other

words, mental “maps,” schemes, or networked

concepts for understanding and responding to physical

experiences within his or her environment.

Piaget further attested that a child’s cognitive structure

increases in sophistication with development, moving

from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking

to highly complex mental activities.

i. The Beginning

Piaget was interested in the study of knowledge in

children. He administered Binet’s IQ test in Paris and

observed that children’s answers were qualitatively

different.

Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the

developing child builds cognitive structures (schemes

used to understand and respond to physical

environment).

ii. Genetic Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Genetic is

development

• Definition of Genetic Epistemology:

Study of developmental changes in the process of

knowing and in the organization of knowledge.

Piaget wanted to know how children learned through

their development in the study of knowledge.

The child’s cognitive structure increased with development (Brainerd, 1978).

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 48

According to Piaget, Intelligence is a basic life function that enables an organism to adapt

to its environment. All intellectual activity is undertaken with one goal in mind-cognitive

equilibrium. Piaget described children as constructivist.

iii. Cognitive Schemes: the structure of intelligence

Scheme is a term used by Piaget to describe the models, or mental structures, that we

create to represent, organize, and interpret our experiences. Represent the way that

people organize and understand the things around them

There are 3 kinds of intellectual structures:

1. Behavioral schemes: First intellectual structures to emerge

2. Symbolic schemes: Appears ~2 year of life

3. Operational schemes: 7 years+

Piaget theory of cognitive development suggested that human's unable automatically

understand and use information that they have been given because they need to

construct their prior knowledge through prior personal experiences to enable them to

create mental images. He says that humans learn by constructing their own knowledge.

He believed that children develop knowledge through active participation in their

learning Learners will build their own knowledge through experience. This experience

will help them build mental models which they will further develop through assimilation

and accommodation. He believed that cognitive development was a product of the

mind achieved through observation and experimentation. For Piaget learning is cyclical.

Piaget's learning cycle includes an exploration, concept introduction and concept

application phase.

Structuralism: the relationship between the parts and the whole

(Brainerd, 1978; Piaget, 1952).

Evaluation and discussion

Exploration Phase:

Students Interaction

with Materials and

Each

Concept Application

Phase:

Students Apply

Information to New

Situation

Concept Introduction Phase: Naming Of Objects

And /Or Events

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 49

How we gain knowledge: Piaget’s Cognitive Processes

Organization (or

equilibrium)

Organization refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are interrelated

and that any new knowledge must be fitted into the existing system. It is the

need to integrate the new information, rather than adding them on, that

force our cognitive structure to become more elaborate.

Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and

accommodation

Assimilation

The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the

environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to

make it fit.

Accommodation

The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of

assimilation.

Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one

without the other.

Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.

Class Inclusion

The understanding more advanced than simple classification, that some

classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class

of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are

also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs)

Conservation The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they

are changed about or made to look different.

Decentration The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as

appropriate.

Egocentrism

The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves

around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else

does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of

psychological development.

Operation

The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the

sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in

the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and

adults can do more in their heads.

Schema (or scheme) The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions,

which go together.

Stage A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of

understanding some things but not others

Assimilation + Accommodation = Learning

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 50

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 51

iv. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget did many experiments on children’s way of thinking and concluded that human

beings go through several distinct stages of cognitive development. Each stage involves

the acquisition of new skills and rest upon the successful completion of the preceding

one.

According to Piaget, a child’s development progresses through 4 qualitative stages and an

invariant developmental sequence or universal pattern of development, which are:

1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

2. The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

3. The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

4. The Formal-Operational Stage (11-12 Years

and Beyond)

1. Sensorimotor Stage

In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through motor

activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the

world is limited (but developing) because it is based on

physical interactions and experiences. Some symbolic

abilities are developed at the end of this stage. This is the

stage where a child does not know that physical objects

remain in existence even when out of sight.

6 Stages of Sensorimotor Stage:

Modification of reflexes (0-

1months)

Primary Circular Reaction

(1-4 months)

Rigidity of

Secondary Circular

Reaction

(4-8 months)

Coordination of

Secondary Schema

(8-12 months)

Tertiary

Circular

Reaction (12-

18 months)

Invention of New Means

through Mental

Combinations

(18-24 months)

Strengthens and

differentiates reflexes

Circular patternof having

a stimulus and responding

Focus is on own body

Focus is on the

outside world

Goal oriented

behavior

Apply ability to other

things

Active

potential

Explore

object’s

potential

Child moves from overt to

covert thoughts

The child can use mental

representation instead of

physical objects (Piaget, 1952;

Brainerd, 1978).

Children explore world around them through their senses

Sensori-motor Stage (0 – 2

years)

Baby can differenciate from self

and objects

Parent: Where’s the ball?

Child: *points to ball* Ball!

P: Yess! And now where’s

Tommy?

C: *points to self*

P: Yesss!

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 52

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)

In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of

symbols. Language use matures. Memory and imagination are

developed. Thinking is done in a non-logically nonreversible

manner. Ego centric thinking predominates

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize,

creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.

Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage.

Operation: internalized action part of organized structure.

Mentally carried out actions.

Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic

manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.

Egocentric thought diminishes.

Operational thinking develops.

Some examples of operational thought

Conservation Classification Relational Logic

Reversibility

Logic

Ability to create

relationships

between things.

Mental

serration

Transitivity

For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just

with objects.

Semiotic Function

Language develops

Uses symbols to represent ideas

Verbal and written language develops

Egocentrism

It is all about them

They cannot differentiate between themselves

and the world

Rigidity of Thought Centration: focus on one aspect of an object

Semi-logical Reasoning

They get the general idea

Limited social cognition

Morality of Constraint No of bending of the rules

Morality of Co-Operation They bend the rules a little bit

The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.

Pre-operational

Stage (2 – 7 years)

Can classify objects

as a single feature

P: Tommy, can you

make a pile of all the

yellow bricks?

C: Yes mummy look!

P: Well done!

Still thinks

egocentrically

C1: Dolly is sad

C2: No! Dolly is

happy!

C1: No!

C2: Yes!

C1: No!

Concrete operational

Stage (7 – 11 years)

Can think logically

about objects and

events and achieve

conservation of

number

C: Tomorrow I start

ballet, and then I will

go every week

Teacher: Oooh! Thats

lovely! How old are

youy now?

C: 7!

T: Now – please can

you put these in order

for me?

C: Yep! *gets it right*

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 53

4. The Formal-Operational Stage (11-12 Years and Beyond)

During adolescence, the developing child becomes able to

comprehend highly abstract and hypothetical concepts. When faced

with a problem, children at this stage should be able to review all

possible ways of solving it and go through them theoretically in order

to reach a solution. By this point, the child’s cognitive structures are

like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.

Hypothetico-

Deductive

Reasoning

Thinking Like a Scientist Personal and Social

Implications

A formal

operational ability

to think

hypothetically

Inductive reasoning-

type of thinking where

hypotheses are

generated and then

systematically tested in

experiments.

The formal

operation stage

paves the way for:

Identity formation

Richer understanding

of other peoples

psychological

perspectives

The ability to way

options in decision

making

Some major points are:

• Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract

concepts.

• There could be a return to egocentric thought early in the period.

• Many people do not think formally during adulthood.

• Many people do not make it to this stage.

According to Piaget, the first three stages of development are general, but not all adults

come to the formal operational stage. The development of formal operational thought

relies in part on the process of schooling. Adults of limited educational achievement tend

to remain to think in more concrete terms and retain large traces of egocentrism

(Giddens, 1994).

Formal operational

Stage (11 years +)

Becomes concerned

with the

hypothetical, the

future, and

ideological

problems

C: When I grow

up I want to be a

doctor

P: And how will

you achieve that?

C: I’m going to

work really, really

hard at school and

then get lots and

lots of money and

then get married,

and have children,

and live happily

ever after!

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 54

v. Characteristics of Piaget’s Stages:

1. Each stage is a structured whole and in a state of equilibrium

The stages are qualitative within the structures and quantitative

between structures

2. Each stage derives from the previous stage and incorporate and transform to

prepare for the next

3. The stages follow an invariant sequence.

There are no skipping stages.

4. The stages are universal.

Culture does not impact the stages. Children everywhere go through

the same stages no matter what their cultural background is.

5. Each stage is a coming into being.

There is a gradual progression from stage to stage (Brainerd, 1978).

vi. An Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory:

Convinced us that children are curious, active explorers who play an

important role in their own development.

His theory was one of the first to explain, and not just describe, the

process of development.

His description of broad sequences of intellectual development provides

a reasonably accurate overview of how children of different ages think.

Piaget’s ideas have had a major influence on thinking about social and

emotional development as well as many practical implications for

educators.

Piaget asked important questions and drew literally thousands of

researchers to the study of cognitive development.

vii. Challenges to Piaget’s cognitive developmental theor

Underestimated developing minds

Failed to distinguish competence from performance

It is believed by some that Cognitive development does not evolve in a

qualitative and stage like manner- it tends to develop gradually

Provides a vague explanation on cognitive maturation

Devoted little attention to social and cultural influences

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 55

viii. How Piaget’s Theory Impacts Learning:

• Curriculum: Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that

enhances their student’s logical and conceptual growth.

• Instruction: Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences, or

interactions with the surrounding environment play in student learning (Bybee &

Sund, 1982).

xi. Comparisons of Theories of Cognitive Development:

i. Vygotsky vs. Piaget

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

Cognitive development varies across cultures

Cognitive development is mostly universal across

cultures

Stems from social interactions Stems from independent explorations

Social processes become individual-

physiological processes

Individual (egocentric) processes become social

processes

Adults are important as change agents Peers are important as change agents

Both agree children are active learners who actively construct knowledge

Thinking develops in recognisable stages which

depend on natural maturation

Development of thinking is dependent upon language

and culture

Role of teacher important but use of “more-

expert other” not central

Use of “more-expert other” seen as fundamental part

of cognitive development

Readiness is a central concept in education –

children need to be ready to progress in their

learning

Children should be actively encouraged to move

through ZPD – do not need to be ready but should be

given opportunity to engage in problems which are

beyond current level of ability but within ZPD

Scaffolding not a key concept Scaffolding is a central concept

Language reflects level of cognitive

development Language helps to develop cognitive abilities.

This theory was very influential in education

but has need revising and underestimation of

children’s abilities still a problem

This theory is still very influential in education

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 56

ii. Bruner and Piaget

BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGET BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET

1. Children are PRE-ADAPTED to

learning

1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS –

not a series of stages

2. Children have a NATURAL

CURIOSITY

2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause

not a consequence of cognitive development

3. Children’s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES

develop over time

3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development.

You don’t have to wait for the child to be

ready

4. Children are ACTIVE participants in

the learning process

4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE

KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big

difference

5. Cognitive development entails the

acquisition of SYMBOLS

5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE

EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 57

7.Leading Language Learning Theories

i. Background Information:

Learning theories allow teachers to better understand the process of learning. Together

with the use of technology, learn theories have made a significant impact in the

classroom. Children begin developing language at birth as they interact with their

caregivers. Children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are exposed to

diverse experiences; this diversity creates the concepts to which children attach symbols,

or words.

There are many learning paradigms; however, behaviorism, cognitivism and

constructivism are the leading theories.

ii. Behaviorism:

The theory originates from the works of Ivan Pavlov’s, classical conditioning, and B. F.

Skinner’s, operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning is when an unconditioned stimulus and response is

manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning is a controlled response with a reward/ punishment

system according to the behavior.

The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest. Stimuli are effective in controlling

behavior. As a result, the behaviors can be measured to record learning success.

iii. Cognitivism:

Information Processing looks at how

information is retrieved and stored. This

theory focuses on how to store and

retrieve information. Learning is attained

through rehearsal and consistent use of the

information. Retention strategies such as

breaking down information and comparing

the information to long term storage are

great techniques

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 58

iv. Constructivism:

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner constructs knowledge

based on their past experiences. The teacher only acts as a facilitator who encourages

students to explore within a given framework. Learners may collaborate with others to

organize their ideas and learn from each other to construct their own knowledge.

Putting It All Together:

Learning Theory Learning Process Technology Support

Behaviorism

Through positive/ negative

reinforcement and punishment

Educational software can be

used to measure the students

assessment

Cognitivism

Rehearsing information and then

storing it for long term use

Flashcards and memory

games can help retain

information taught in a lesson

Constructivism

Constructing one’s own knowledge

through past experiences and group

collaboration

Group PowerPoint projects

allow students to work

together and combine their

knowledge to learn

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 59

7.1 Implications of Leading Language Theories on Class Rooms

i. Implications of Behaviorism Learning on the Classrooms

This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on

observable behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior. Its

positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effective–both in

animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and antisocial

behavior. Teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors, often use

behaviorism.

ii. Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classrooms

The key element in classical conditioning is association. Therefore, teachers are encouraged to

associate variety of positive and pleasant events with learning and classroom activities. For

example, a teacher may:

• Use attractive learning aids.

• Decorate the classrooms.

• Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks.

• Greet the students and smile at them when he comes to the classroom.

• Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations.

• Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms.

• Give ample time for students to prepare for and complete the learning tasks.

iii. Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability

that the behavior will occur. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main concepts in

operant conditioning. The following are some examples on how operant conditioning can

be applied in the classrooms.

Recognize and reinforce positive behaviors and genuine task accomplishments.

Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher approval (praise, smiles, attention,

and pats on the shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies, candies, and stationeries)

and privileges (longer recess time and more time with friends).

Reinforce good behaviors and punish bad ones consistently.

Use schedule of reinforcement, such as surprise rewards, to encourage persistence.

Use positive punishment as the last option. Use negative punishment, such as

detention class, instead.

Punish students’ behavior, not their personal qualities.

Tell the students which behavior is being punished

There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 60

Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the

activities of the mind.

Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new

language patterns by young children–for which there is no reinforcement

mechanism.

Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new

information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the

layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcements.

iv. Implications of Congnitivism Learning on Class Rooms:

Implications of cognitivism on the class room learning are prominent throughout the task

analysis. Cognitivists believe learners develop learning through receiving, storing and

retrieving information. Unlike behaviorism, which is environment-focused, cognitivism

directs instructional designers to consider the learner as the focus of the design process.

v. Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classrooms

a. Piaget and Vygotsky:

Piaget's cognitive development theory mentioned some points. First is schema, he think since that

time when people were born, they acquire knowledge by using our basic behavior model and

reacting with environment, and he call it schema, when people encounter things, they use

schema to deal with things, when children learn language, they can easily distinguish the word’s

shape and meaning is also because they have schema about the word. Second is assimilation,

accommodation and equilibration, if people get well with assimilation and accommodation,

equilibration happens; but if people don’t get well with them, then disequilibrium happens.

Piaget through experiment arranged stages of cognitive development to improve from child to

teenagers, how cognitive development change. From Piaget’s theory, we can see Piaget proved

that child mind development is active, he also proved that every children through the same

cognitive development stages and he points out the change in quality and quantity, and every

children’s cognitive development speed is not all the same.

Vygotsky’s idea is a little different with Piaget, Piaget thought people change because of inherent

change, and ignored the importance of social reaction, but Vygotsky thought people start to

react with society when they were born, so social culture not only effect adult, children as well,

Vygotsky’s cognitive development is from outside to inside, and he thought egocentric speech is

very important, because it's the way they can relieve emotion but help them thinking, it's also

different from Piaget. From Vygotsky's idea we mentioned above, he inferred zone of proximal is

important, he thought teacher should give children proper help that children can achieve best

performance.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 61

b. Bruner and Ausubel

In cognitivism, another two famous theorists are Bruner, who invented discovery learning theory.

And Ausubel, who invented meaningful learning theory. There are two points in Bruner's theory,

one is discovery learning theory, and another is cognitive representation theory. Although he

invented representation theory, but he didn’t stand that teach should broke into age or grade,

because people have individual difference, so teacher should teach by individual students’ mind

development, teach them how to think and get notions from activities, then process to their own

experience, it’s the main point of discovery learning theory.

Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory, just like discovery learning theory, all belongs to cognitive

structure theory, but there are some differences between them, Ausubel’s meaningful learning

theory demonstrate learning can only created by students who have enough prior knowledge,

it’s the main idea of meaningful learning, Ausubel also divided cognitive structure into derivative

and correlate subsumption, superordinate and combinatorial learning.

Implication in class rooms

How do we apply cognitivism into Class Rooms?

From information we learned above, we clearly understand how to apply cognitivism into

instruction class rooms instructional material should design, and make knowledge meaningful.

Second, we should use the concept of information processing theory to arrange the easiest

method and help student memorize, we also need to organize new information and relate to

existing memory, it's also make student easy to memorize information. Third, we should let

student active research, give proper help when students have question, this idea fits discovery

learning theory and zone of approximate development.

7.3 Implications of Constructivism Learning on Class Rooms:

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on

our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us

generates our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to make sense of our

experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to

accommodate new experiences.

There are several guiding principles of constructivism:

Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues

around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.

Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be

understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on

primary concepts, not isolated facts

In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to

perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 62

The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning,

not just memorize the “right” answers and regurgitate someone else’s meaning.

Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure

learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it

provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

Constructivism merges a lot of different theories, such as Bruner's discovery learning

theory and Ausubel's meaningful learning theory, discovery learning theory focus on

intuitive thinking and active research, meaningful learning focus on the importance of

prior knowledge, constructivism use both of these concepts. Besides these two concepts,

we can see the picture what concepts constructivism use.

Implication in the Classrooms:

How to apply constructivism into practical instruction. First. Post good problems. It's very

important, because a good problem can force students search lot more concepts in their mind

and retrieve, consider it's proper to use or not, this action helps mind more easily understand

how to use concepts ,and good problem provide a chance to let us do more, before we post

problem, we can use some questionnaire to ensure what type your student is and make problems

fit all students. Second. Creative group learning activities. We know another factor of

constructivism is group activity, because in group activity, students can discuss and cooperate

with each other, it facilitate the speed of thinking and expand the point of view. Third. Model

and guide the knowledge construction process. Forth. Search and solve problems with students

and give proper cue.

7.4 Leading Language Theories to be Adopted in Class Rooms

It is important to understand that there is no single set of recommendations as to how to

incorporate any single learning theory’s approach to learning into the classroom. Each of the

major theorists has specific recommendations and they do not always agree with each other. As

for as the question is concerned about which learning theory should be adopted in classroom

setting, is not an easy question to be answered, as all learning theories have something very

important to be adopted.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 63

Learning to me is:

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience. Depends on

many factors:

the quality of instruction

student motivation

student engagement

student’s developmental readiness to learn

Teaching can be defined as:

One person’s interpersonal effort to help others acquire knowledge, develops skill, and realizes

their potential

Constructivism- Adopted Theory in Classrooms:

The leading theory whichI have selected for the purpose of teaching and learning is

constructivisim. The common thread that runs throughout a constructivistic approach is that the

development of meaning is more important that the acquisition of a large set of knowledge or

skills that are easily forgotten.

In constructivism, there are 10 basic learning principles.

1. learning is a process of structuring meaning in an active way.

2. Learning includes conceptual changing.

3. Learning is a reconstruction for developing students ‘apprehension to more complex and

effective mode.

4. Learning is subjective.

5. Learning is internalization of studets‘learning with different symbols, graphics, metaphors

and models.

6. Learning is shaped with situations and the condition of environment. Students learn

solving problems such as real life problems instead of making exercises.

7. Learning is social process. It means that learning develops thanks to communication such

as sharing their perspective, exchanging of information and solving problems

collaborated.

8. Learning is an emotional process because mind and emotion are associated with each

other so the nature of learning are affected from these items: the student‘s ideas about his

abilities, the clearness of learning goals, personal expectations and motivation for

learning. The appropriateness of learning to students‘ development in terms of difficulties,

its association with student‘s need or real life is important in learning process.

9. Learning is developmental and is affected from person‘s physical, social emotional and

logical development. Learning is student, centered and learning focuses on students‘

interests and needs not teacher‘s need or lesson book‘s needs.

10. Finally, learning doesn‘t start at definite time or doesn‘t finish at definite time. In contrast

it continues in a permanent way.

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 64

Some of the most important concepts for applying this theory relate to matching learning

experiences are following.

Student Readiness:

One of the most important considerations to be made in designing instruction from the

constructivistic perspective is that education and schooling should be done for the purpose of

preparing the student to live in a democratic society. Students also need to understand the

practical applications of the knowledge or skills (Dewey, 1997). A student is therefore ready to

learn when the student has the necessary prerequisite experiences that allow him or her to be

curious or interested in the learning and to have some understanding about its usefulness.

Piagetian (2001) theory also advocates the importance of the readiness of the student to learn

new information. This readiness is based on one of two main factors. Stage theorists hold that the

developmental stage or age of the child is the determining factor while interactionalists would

argue that it is the child’s expertise level (Driscoll, 2000). Regardless of the theory, the result is

the same: educators must activate previous experiences, knowledge, and learning strategies in

order to effectively present new information in a context that students can readily process.

Bruner (1990) makes another case for the importance of readiness. He suggests that children need

social and cultural experiences that prepare them to understand the meaningfulness of their

actions as well as those of others. Bruner distinguishes between behavior, whether mental or

physical, and action, which he defines as intentional behavior displayed within a specific cultural

setting that includes the reciprocal actions of other participants. Bruner therefore advocates

providing children with the kinds of experiences that would allow them to create meaning

through their interaction during instructional activities and to assist students in creating that

meaning. This then creates the readiness for the next learning experience.

Motivation in Constructivism:

In learning, motivation is one of the key points. Indeed, motivation is not just a helpful for

learning, it is crucial for learning (Hein, E.G.). Thanks to the motivation, learner becomes willing

to learn and one cannot learn anything without wishing to learn. Therefore, learners should be

motivated to provide learning.

Motivation in constructivism is a bit different than the other motivation types.

Generally, motivation is thought as something coming from outside. In a classroom enviroment

for example, teacher is seen as the motivator. However, in constructivism it is not the teacher but

the learner is the motivator of his/her own. Although external motivators help learning because

learning is a social incident, learners intrinsic motivation is more powerful than external factors

because knowledge is constructed by the learner (Theories, 2007).

Unless the learners set their own goals and motivate themselves to reach these goals, extinct

motivation types such as reward or punishment won‘t have any use. Moreover,it is generally

thought that if the learner don‘t want to learn and do something to please his teacher, parents;

to avoid punishment; to gain reward or something else, learning do not emerge (William, 2003).

In constructivist motivation, there is no prize and reward. The key point is the learner. Learners

motivate themselves and then learning motivate the learnersfor further learning. They take the

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 65

responsibility of their own learning. They want to learn sincerely not because of the external

factors such as pleasing someone or gaining acceptance.

Social Interaction/Communication in the classrooms:

Social communications are a critical feature of a democracy and children must be allowed and

encouraged to develop their skills in this area. It is the continuous experience of interacting in

groups to achieve a practical purpose that provides the foundation on which these skills develop

Vygotsky’s (1978) theory focuses on the learner’s utilization of the signs and symbols of the

culture as a basis for knowing. One of the most important skills is the ability to get along with a

wide variety of people of different backgrounds, ethnicities, personalities, etc. Cooperative

learning provides a method for addressing this vital aspect of schooling (e.g., Holt, 1997). At the

same time, cooperative learning provides a strategy whereby students can learn from one

another.

Constructivist Teaching Methods

Constructivist teachers use methods in which students are encouraged to discover principles for

themselves. The main goal of using constructivist teaching is that studendts learn how to learnby

giving them to training to take initiative for their learning experiences.

Constructivist teachers facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to de

responsible for their learning

Teacher encourages direct student intellectual involvement trhough:

Small group work

Student presentation

Debate

Simultations

Brain-storming

Individual study

Real and authentic problems.

Moreover Constructivist learning is based on the active participation of learners in problem-

solving and critical thinking–given real and authentic problems.

Constructivist curriculum.

A constructively oriented curriculum presents an emerging agenda based on what children know,

what they are puzzled by, and the teachers' learning goals. Thus, an important part of a

constructivist-oriented curriculum should be the negotiation of meaning.

Constructivist assessment.

Assessment of student learning is of two types: formative and summative. Formative assessment

occurs during learning and provides feedback to the student. It includes evaluations of ongoing

portfolios, and demonstrations of work in progress. Student collaboration also provides a form

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 66

of formative assessment. Summative assessment occurs through tests and essays at the end of a

unit of study. Summative assessments provide little specific feedback.

Examples of Social Constructivist Classroom Activities

Reading/ Writing Workshop Whole Language Situated Learning

Collaborative Learning Anchored Instruction

Games, Simulations,

Case-Based Instruction,

Problem-Solving

Assignment: Language Learning Theories – Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET 67

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