assessment of invasiveness potential of pterois miles by the...
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J. Black Sea/Mediterranean Environment Vol. 23, No. 1: 17-37 (2017)
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Assessment of invasiveness potential of Pterois miles by the Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit Halit Filiz*, A. Serhan Tarkan, Gökçen Bilge, Sercan Yapıcı Faculty of Fisheries, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Kötekli, Muğla, TURKEY *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Risk screening tools to identify species with a high or low risk of invasiveness are being increasingly used for effective management purposes. Whilst non-native freshwater fish species have been studied more widely, there is little effort for implementing the risk-screening tools for Lessepsian or invasive marine fish species in the Mediterranean. The aim of the present study was therefore to assess the invasiveness risk of Pterois miles in the eastern Mediterranean using the recently-developed Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit (AS-ISK). Calculated Basic Risk Assessment (BRA= 45.5) and Climate Change Assessment (CCA= 57.5) scores indicated a high risk of invasiveness of P. miles for the Mediterranean. The factors increasing overall AS-ISK scores were; high climate match, tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions, flexibility in utilising food resources, high fecundity, small size at maturity, high reproductive effort and high invasiveness potential elsewhere while factors decreasing scores were; no hybridization with native fish, no parental care, and no data about parasite transmission. This information is expected to allow managers and agencies that are responsible for risk assessment and management of P. miles to perform a better decision-making. Keywords: AS-ISK, Lessepsian fish, biological invasion, Mediterranean Received: 31.01.2017, Accepted: 27.02.2017 Introduction Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828) naturally occurs in the Indian Ocean from South Africa to the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and east to Sumatra (Froese and Pauly 2016). P. miles is currently considered amongst the most successful marine invaders in the history of aquatic invasions (Bariche et al. 2013). In the Mediterranean Sea, a single specimen of P. miles was recorded from the Levantine coast in 1991 (Golani and Sonin 1992). In 2012, two P. miles individuals were captured separately off the village of Al Minie (34°29'26.15"N; 35°54'47.73"E) in the northern part of Lebanon (Bariche et al. 2013). Soon
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after, additional sightings were reported along the coasts of Cyprus (Iglésias and Frotté 2015; Oray et al. 2015; Kletou et al. 2016), Turkey (Turan et al. 2014; Turan and Öztürk 2015) and Rhodes (Crocetta et al. 2015) between 2014 and 2015. These records were reported indicating a westerly migration of the species towards the Aegean Sea. To confirm this, a specimen of P. miles has recently been recorded from the southern Aegean Sea (off Datça) (Bilge et al. 2016). Previously, it has been suggested two introduction ways for P. miles: (i) entered through the Suez Canal, like other hundreds of marine organisms (Zenetos et al. 2012), and (ii) released from captivity (Golani et al. 2002). Considering that P. miles is a common fish in the Red Sea and the proximity of the Suez Canal to the recent sightings, the Suez Canal seems to be the most likely pathway for the introduction of the species into the Mediterranean Sea (Bariche et al. 2013). The recent findings of P. miles may be an indication of a new wave of arrivals of the species in the Levant, raising justifiable concerns of a possible onset of a new invasion in the Mediterranean Sea (Bariche et al. 2013). Risk screening practices are part of risk assessment systems and used to estimate a potential invader colonizing into a new environment (Daehler et al. 2004). Risk screenings are based on a synthesis of information about the biological, ecological and developmental characteristics of a target organism and the bio-geographical region in which it is found or may be found (Pheloung et al. 1999). The characteristic features of the risk screening methods include question-answer format information scans, use of simple computer programs, high reliability estimates, and flexibility in usage for many different taxonomic groups (Pheloung et al. 1999; Daehler et al. 2004). Risk scanning tools have a wide range of use and application strategies. These systems can be particularly useful in distinguishing between a number of potential invasive and non-invasive alien species with a fast and efficient way (Baker et al. 2007). In addition, risk screening tools can also be very useful in recognizing shortcomings in the quality and reliability of data in the literature (Copp et al. 2009), which plays an important role in determining management and research priorities. Even in some countries, risk scans are used when the importation status of some non-native species has been decided (Pheloung et al. 1999). More commonly, risk scans make initial assessments of the species studied and then decide whether to conduct further risk analysis and management actions (Kolar and Lodge 2002; Daehler et al. 2004; Baker et al. 2007; Gordon et al. 2008). The first application of species-risk analysis was on potentially invasive freshwater fish (Copp et al. 2005) and is known by the abbreviation FISK (Fish Invasiveness Scoring Kit). This tool has been replaced by a generic decision-support tool for screening all plants and animals in marine, brackish and fresh waters: The Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit (AS-ISK: Copp et al., 2016) that has been developed to incorporate the ‘minimum requirements’ (Roy et al. 2014) for the assessment of species with regard to the recent EU Regulation on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species (European Commission 2014). AS-ISK and FISK v2 have
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been used successfully for the screening of non-native and translocated fish species in the freshwater systems (e.g. Almeida et al. 2013; Copp 2013; Simonović et al. 2013; Vilizzi and Copp 2013; Tarkan et al. 2014; 2017). However, only one attempt (Uyan et al. 2016) has been made for marine Lessepsian fish species, Nemipterus randalli, in the Mediterranean Basin. It is expected that the native/endemic fish fauna of the seas can be affected to a different extent by the introduction of non-native fish species. Clearly, there is a need to assess risks posed by non-native fishes at local scales. The aim of the present study was therefore to assess the invasive potential of Lessepsian Pterois miles in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS) using a tool recently developed, AS-ISK, and to evaluate the applicability of AS-ISK to a large risk assessment (RA) area for a single fish species. Notably, the outcomes of the present study are expected to assist local environmental managers and stakeholders in the implementation of suitable policies for the prevention and management of potential, existing and future undesired translocations of Lessepsian/invasive fishes in the Mediterranean Sea. Materials and Methods Before starting the risk screening, through literature reviews were carried out to obtain all available information on biogeographical and historical traits (AS-ISK Section 1) and biological and ecological characteristics (AS-ISK Section 2) of P. miles, together yielding Basic Risk Assessment (BRA) score. Peer-viewed publications were priority sources in retrieving this information, with Internet databases, dissertations and, occasionally, reports used whenever necessary to fill in gaps in the peer-reviewed literature. For Climate Change Assessment (CCA) section (AS-ISK Section 3), Demir et al. (2008) and Poursanidis (2015) that provided several likely future scenarios for the Mediterranean region were used. Notably, most scenarios in these paper predicted 0.5 and 1˚C increase of air temperature in near future (i.e. next fifty years). Likely future change in water temperature was calculated from this prediction based on the relationship between water temperature (Tw) and air temperature (Ta) as per Erickson and Stefan (1996): Tw= 3.47+0.898Ta. Using AS-ISK v1 (available at https://www.cefas.co.uk/nns/tools/), the eastern Mediterranean Sea was identified as the risk assessment (RA) area. Assessment was carried out by the first author of the study, who is knowledgeable in the Lessepsian/invasive marine fish fauna in the eastern Mediterranean. As each response in AS-ISK for a given species is allocated a confidence category (1= low; 2=medium; 3=high; 4=very high), a confidence factor (CF) was computed as:
∑(CQi)/(4 × 55) (i = 1, …, 55) where CQi is the certainty for question i, 4 is the maximum achievable value for certainty (i.e. ‘very certain’) and 55 is the total number of questions comprising
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the AS-ISK tool. The CF therefore ranges from a minimum of 0.25 (i.e. all 55 questions with certainty score equal to 1) to a maximum of 1 (i.e. all 55 questions with certainty score equal to 4). Results Overall, the results of the assessment indicated that P. miles under study have a high chance to survive and establish in the eastern Mediterranean. Considering the high Basic Risk Assessment (BRA) score 45.5, P. miles should have a high risk at different levels for almost all ecoregions of the Mediterranean. Climate Change Assessments (CCA) revealed score of 57.5 meaning maximum score (12) on top of BRA score of 45.5. This suggests that risks of entry, dispersal and establishment, impact on biodiversity, ecosystem structure and socio-economic factors of P. miles in the eastern Mediterranean under predicted future climatic conditions are highly likely (Table 1).
Table 1. AS-ISK (v1) scoring output for Pterois miles in the eastern Mediterranean Statistics Scores BRA Score 45.5 CCA Score Score partition 57.5
A. Biogeography/Historical 19.5 1. Domestication/Cultivation 4.0 2. Climate, distribution and introduction risk 2.0 3. Invasive elsewhere 13.5 B. Biology/Ecology 26.0 4. Undesirable (or persistence) traits 9.0 5. Resource exploitation 7.0 6. Reproduction 3.0 7. Dispersal mechanisms 4.0 8. Tolerance attributes 3.0 C. Climate change 12.0 9. Climate change 12.0 Confidence factor 0.65
The factors increasing overall AS-ISK scores were; high climate match, tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions, flexibility in utilising food resources, high fecundity, small size at maturity, high reproductive effort and high invasiveness potential elsewhere whereas factors decreasing scores were; no hybridization with native fish, no parental care, and no data about parasite transmission (Table 2). Finally, the assessor confidence in responses to questions was relatively high, with 60% of the responses ranging from ‘high’ to ‘very high’ confidence and with the most uncertain answers being related to questions regarding undesirable traits, resource exploitation and dispersal mechanism.
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Discussion We have faced a rapid invasion of P. miles in the Mediterranean, from a single specimen in 1991 to several sightings between 2014 and 2016 (for further information see Bilge et al. 2016). This increase is similar to the pattern of invasion recorded in some other areas (e.g. Albins and Hixon 2013). P. miles first appeared in the eastern Mediterranean at about the same time that they were first reported off Florida where it spread rapidly and colonised almost all warm parts of the east coast of United States, the Gulf of Mexico and the entire Caribbean Sea (Schofield et al. 2016) whereas more than two decades passed for a second sighting to occur in the Mediterranean Sea. For P. miles in the western Atlantic, Morris (2009) reported that females mature at approximately 175 mm total length or 1 year of age and release approximately 25000 eggs per spawning event. Based on the presence of hydrated oocytes, mature females appeared capable of spawning every 3.6-4.1 days throughout the year, although the proportion of females with ovaries in spawning condition was higher in summer (June-August). The combination of its high spawning frequency (year round, ~every 4 d) and protracted pelagic larval phase (~26 d, Ahrenholz and Morris 2010), coupled with release in a region with multiple oceanographic currents has resulted in the rapid dispersal of lionfishes into the western Atlantic Ocean (Fogg et al. 2013). Quantitative analyses of reproductive characteristics for P. miles in the Mediterranean will enhance our understanding of how reproduction supports the spread and establishment of this invader. In 2008, P. miles were observed in the waters surrounding Little Cayman Island, and they were considered established there by 2009 (Schofield 2010). At this location, they have reached densities of up to 650 fish ha-1 (Frazer et al. 2012), which is far greater than the 26.3 fish ha-1 recorded in the native range (Kulbicki et al. 2012). Judging from the recent increase in P. miles in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, its few natural predators, the dispersal capabilities of their planktonic larvae and its ability to adapt to a range of habitats, we suspect that a rapid expansion throughout the Mediterranean Sea may soon be followed by significant impacts on local ecosystems and fisheries. In accordance with this, the high risk ranking of P. miles found in BRA in AS-ISK seems appropriate due to its potential for establishment, with the potential for associated adverse impacts. Additionally, given predicted climate change scenarios for the Mediterranean, potential translocation and establishment success of this species are expected to exacerbate according to climate change assessment (CCA) in AS-ISK. Indeed, in both its native and introduced ranges, P. miles thrives in warm waters, so the predicted increases in water temperature of the Mediterranean resulted in positive responses to all of questions on how future climatic conditions are likely to affect the invasiveness of P. miles in the risk assessment area (Table 1). It is known that the number of introduced Lessepsian fish species is correlated significantly and positively with the Mediterranean water temperature (r= 0.77, p< 0.05; Ben Rais Lasram et al. 2010).
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Controversially, lionfishes (Pterois spp.) can potentially spread and survive in a large part of the Mediterranean Sea because they have shown extensive dispersal capabilities and can survive to a minimum temperature of 10°C (Kimball et al. 2004). These risks may be compensated by local mitigation factors such as predation. However, dramatic invasive success of P. miles results from a combination of factors such as early maturation and reproduction, anti-predatory venomous defences and ecological versatility, coupled with native prey and the overfishing of native predators (Côté et al. 2013). Furthermore, CO2 emissions warming the Mediterranean Sea and the construction of a deeper and wider Suez Canal are expected to increase invasion rates (Galil et al. 2015). The possibility of P. miles invasion in the Mediterranean Sea and the potential ecological and socio-economic impacts that may follow have been largely neglected by the regional scientific community, managers and other stakeholders. This information is expected to allow managers and agencies that are responsible for risk assessment and management of Lessepsian/invasive species to perform a better decision-making. In the case of P. miles, the results derived from AS-ISK suggests a more detailed (i.e. full) risk assessment is necessary (cf. NAPRA: Baker et al. 2007). Specifically, lower confidence factors observed in AS-ISK assessments on undesirable traits, resource exploitation and dispersal mechanism of the species call for the need for more detailed studies on these subjects. Although risk identification tools such as FISK and its updated version AS-ISK have been largely used for freshwater fishes so far (Copp et al. 2009; Simonović et al. 2013; Lawson et al. 2013; Almedia et al. 2013; Tarkan et al. 2014), AS-ISK can be used for all relevant aquatic non-native organisms including in the marine environment as proved in the present study. Given increasing concern regarding Lessepsian fishes in the Mediterranean, this risk identification tool may be useful for identifying which non-native and translocated species in the Mediterranean are likely to become invasive. Using this tool is strongly recommended for multiple assessments of species that are likely to be invasive (e.g. Almeida et al. 2013). Besides, single assessor assessment should be avoided for more reliable results (e.g. Tarkan et al. 2014). Finally, this tool can be applicable also for small risk assessment areas such as separate ecoregions in the Mediterranean as previously done for river or lake basins (i.e. Glamuzina et al. 2017; Tarkan et al. 2017).
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Pterois miles’in istila potansiyelinin sucul türlerde istilacılık tarama aracı ile değerlendirilmesi Öz Etkin yönetim için, bir türün istilacılık riskinin düşük ya da yüksek olduğunu belirlemede risk tarama araçlarının kullanımı gittikçe artmaktadır. Her ne kadar yerli-olmayan tatlısu balık türleri çok geniş olarak çalışılmışsa da, Akdeniz’de risk tarama araçlarının Lesepsiyen veya istilacı deniz balığı türleri için kullanımı bulunmamaktadır. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışmanın amacı doğu Akdeniz’deki Pterois miles’in istilacılık riskini son zamanlarda geliştirilmiş olan Sucul Türlerde İstilacılık Tarama Aracı (ST-ITA) kullanılarak değerlendirmektir. Hesaplanan Temel Risk Değerlendirme (TRD= 45.5) ile İklim Değişim Değerlendirme (İDD= 57.5) puanları Akdeniz için oldukça yüksek bir istilacılık riskini işaret etmiştir. Genel olarak ST-ITA puanlarını arttıran etkenler yüksek iklim benzerliği, çevre şartlarına olan yüksek tolerans, besin kaynaklarının kullanımındaki esneklik, yüksek fekondite, küçük boyda olgunluk, yüksek üreme çabası ve herhangi bir yerdeki yüksek istilacılık potansiyeli iken, puanları azaltan etkenler yerli türler ile melezleme olmaması, ailesel ilginin bulunmaması ve parazit taşınımı ile ilgili veriye rastlanmaması olarak bulunmuştur. Bu bilginin, Lesepsiyen/istilacı türlerin risk değerlendirme ve yönetiminde sorumlu olan yöneticiler ile ajanslara daha iyi bir karar vermede yardımcı olması beklenmektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: ST-ITA, Lesepsiyen balıklar, biyolojik istilalar, Akdeniz References Ahrenholz, D.W., Morris, J.A. (2010) Larval duration of the lionfish, Pterois volitans along the Bahamian Archipelago. Environ Biol Fish. 88: 305-309. Albins, M.A., Hixon, M.A. (2013) Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environ. Biol. Fish. 96:1151-1157. Almeida, D., Ribeiro, F., Leunda, P.A., Vilizzi, L., Copp, G.H. (2013) Effectiveness of FISK, an invasiveness screening tool for non-native freshwater fishes, to perform risk identification assessments in the Iberian Peninsula. Risk Anal 33: 1404-1413. Azzurro, E., Soto, S., Garofalo, G., Maynou, F. (2012) Fistularia commersonii in the Mediterranean Sea: invasion history and distribution modelling based on presence-only records. Biol Invasions 15: 977-990. Baker, R.H.A., Black, R., Copp, G.H., Haysom, K.A., Hulme, P.E., Thomas, M.B., Brown, A., Brown, M., Cannon, R.J.C., Ellis, J., Ellis, E., Ferris, R., Glaves, P., Gozlan, R.E., Holt, H., Howe, L., Knight, J.D., MacLeod, A., Moore, N.P., Mumford, J.D., Murphy, S.T., Parrott, D., Sansford, C.E., Smith,
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Ricciardi, A., Rasmussen, J.B. (1998) Predicting the identity and impact of future biological invaders: a priority for aquatic resource management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55: 1759–1765. Roy, H., Schonrogge, K., Dean, H. et al. (2014) Invasive Alien Species - Framework for the Identification of Invasive Alien Species of EU Concern. European Commission DG Environment, Brussels. doi: ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0026. Ruttenberg, B.I., Schofield P.J., Akins, J.L., Acosta, A., Feeley M.W., Blondeau, J., Smith, S.G., Ault, J.S. (2012) Rapid invasion of indo-pacific lionfishes (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles) in the Florida Keys, USA: evidence from multiple pre- and post-invasion data sets. Bull. Mar. Sci. 88(4): 1051-1059. Schofield, P.J. (2010) Update on geographic spread of invasive lionfishes (Pterois volitans [Linnaeus, 1758] and P. miles [Bennett, 1828]) in the Western North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Aquatic Invasions 5(1): 117- 122. Schofield, P.J., Morris, Jr. J., Langston, J., and Fuller, P. (2016) Pterois volitans/miles FactSheet. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database online Gainesville, FL. (http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?species ID=963 Revision Date: 18/09/2012.) (Accessed on 03.02.2017). Simonović, P., Tošić, A., Vassilev, M., Apostolou, A., Mrdak, D., Ristovska, M., Kostov, V., Nikolic, V., Škraba, D., Vilizzi, L. et al. (2013) Risk identification of non-native freshwater fishes in four countries of the Balkans Region using FISK. Medit. Mar. Sci. 14: 369-376. Tarkan, A.S., Ekmekçi, F.G., Vilizzi, L., Copp, G.H. (2014) Risk screening of non-native freshwater fishes at the frontier between Asia and Europe: first application in Turkey of the Fish Invasiveness Screening Kit (FISK). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 30: 392-398. Tarkan, A.S., Sarı, H.M., İlhan, A., Kurtul, I., Vilizzi, L. (2017) Risk screening of non-native and translocated freshwater fish species in a Mediterranean-type shallow lake: Lake Marmara (West Anatolia). Zoology in the Middle East. Doi: 10.1080/09397140.2017.1269398. Turan, C., Öztürk, B. (2015) First record of the lionfish Pterois miles from the Aegean Sea. J. Black Sea/Mediterr Environ. 21: 334-338. Turan, C., Ergüden, D., Gürlek, M., Yağlıoğlu, D., Uyan, A., Uygur, N. (2014) First record of the Indo-Pacific lionfish Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828)
-
29
(Osteichthyes: Scorpaenidae) for the Turkish marine waters. J. Black Sea/Mediterr. Environ. 20: 158-163. Uyan, U., Filiz, H., Top, N., Tarkan, A.S. (2016) Assessment of invasiveness potential of Nemipterus randalli in Mediterranean Sea by Aaquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit (AS-ISK). In: Proceedings of Workshop on Risk Assessment Tools in Aquatic Species, 28-29 Apr. 2016 (eds. A.S. Tarkan, F.G. Ekmekçi, P. Göç Rasgele), Ankara, Turkey. 63 pp. Vilizzi, L., Copp, G.H. (2013) Application of FISK, an invasiveness screening tool for non-native freshwater fishes, in the Murray-Darling Basin (south-eastern Australia). Risk Analysis 33: 1432-1440. Zenetos, A., Ballesteros, E., Verlaque, M. (2012) Alien species in the Mediterranean Sea by 2012. A contribution to the application of European Union’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Part 2. Introduction trends and pathways. Medit. Mar. Sci. 13: 328-352.
-
30
Tabl
e 2.
AS-
ISK
(v1)
out
put r
epor
t for
the
Pter
ois m
iles a
sses
sed
for t
he e
aste
rn M
edite
rran
ean.
Q
uest
ion
Res
pons
e Ju
stifi
catio
n C
onfid
ence
A. B
ioge
ogra
phy/
His
tori
cal
1.
Dom
estic
atio
n/C
ultiv
atio
n
1 1.
01
Has
the
taxo
n be
en th
e su
bjec
t of d
omes
ticat
ion
(or
culti
vatio
n) fo
r at l
east
20
gene
ratio
ns?
Y
They
are
thou
ght t
o ha
ve b
een
intro
duce
d to
the
wes
tern
Atla
ntic
in th
e m
id
1990
’s (R
utte
nber
g et
al.
2012
). 2
2 1.
02
Is th
e ta
xon
harv
este
d in
the
wild
and
like
ly to
be
sold
or
use
d in
its
live
form
? Y
Fi
shBa
se re
ports
that
it is
usu
ally
use
d as
com
mer
cial
ly in
the
aqua
rium
3
3 1.
03
Doe
s the
taxo
n ha
ve in
vasi
ve ra
ces,
varie
ties,
sub-
taxa
or c
onge
ners
? Y
Few
wor
ldw
ide
fish
inva
sion
s of s
imila
r mag
nitu
de a
re d
ocum
ente
d; th
e in
trodu
ctio
n of
the
red
lionf
ish
Pter
ois v
olita
ns a
nd th
e de
vil f
irefis
h P.
mile
s in
the
wes
tern
Atla
ntic
is o
ne o
f the
fast
est a
nd m
ost e
colo
gica
lly h
arm
ful m
arin
e fis
h in
trodu
ctio
ns to
dat
e (A
lbin
s and
Hix
on 2
013)
.
4
2. C
limat
e, d
istr
ibut
ion
and
intr
oduc
tion
risk
4 2.
01
How
sim
ilar a
re th
e cl
imat
ic c
ondi
tions
of t
he R
A
area
and
the
taxo
n's n
ativ
e ra
nge?
2
Lion
fishe
s can
pot
entia
lly sp
read
and
surv
ive
in a
larg
e pa
rt of
the
Med
iterr
anea
n Se
a be
caus
e th
ey h
ave
show
n ex
tens
ive
disp
ersa
l cap
abili
ties a
nd c
an su
rviv
e to
a
min
imum
tem
pera
ture
of 1
0°C
(Kim
ball
et a
l. 20
04).
3
5 2.
02
Wha
t is t
he q
ualit
y of
the
clim
ate
mat
chin
g da
ta?
2 N
ew m
odel
ling
appr
oach
es a
re n
eede
d (H
all-S
penc
er a
nd A
llen
2015
). 2
6 2.
03
Is th
e ta
xon
alre
ady
pres
ent o
utsi
de o
f cap
tivity
in th
e R
A a
rea?
Y
Th
e ta
xon
is al
read
y in
the
risk
asse
ssm
ent a
rea.
3
7 2.
04
How
man
y po
tent
ial p
athw
ays c
ould
the
taxo
n us
e to
en
ter i
n th
e R
A a
rea?
>1
It
has b
een
sugg
este
d th
at th
is sp
ecim
en e
nter
ed th
roug
h th
e Su
ez C
anal
(Zen
etos
et
al.
2012
; Bar
iche
et a
l. 20
13),
or re
leas
ed fr
om c
aptiv
ity (G
olan
i et a
l. 20
02).
3
8 2.
05
Is th
e ta
xon
curr
ently
foun
d in
clo
se p
roxi
mity
to, a
nd
likel
y to
ent
er in
to, t
he R
A a
rea
in th
e ne
ar fu
ture
(e
.g. u
nint
entio
nal a
nd in
tent
iona
l int
rodu
ctio
ns)?
Y
Th
e ta
xon
is al
read
y in
the
risk
asse
ssm
ent a
rea.
4
3. In
vasi
ve e
lsew
here
9 3.
01
Has
the
taxo
n be
com
e na
tura
lised
(est
ablis
hed
viab
le
popu
latio
ns) o
utsi
de it
s nat
ive
rang
e?
Y
Info
rmat
ion
from
Gol
ani a
nd S
onin
(199
2), B
aric
he e
t al.
(201
3), T
uran
et a
l. (2
014)
, Cro
cetta
et a
l. (2
015)
, Igl
ésia
s and
Fro
tté (2
015)
, Ora
y et
al.
(201
5),
Tura
n an
d Ö
ztür
k (2
015)
, Kle
teu
et a
l. (2
016)
, and
Bilg
e et
al.
(201
6).
4
10
3.02
In
the
taxo
n's
intro
duce
d ra
nge,
are
ther
e kn
own
adve
rse
impa
cts t
o w
ild st
ocks
or c
omm
erci
al ta
xa?
Y
Acc
ordi
ng to
Gar
dner
et a
l. (2
015)
, in
the
Car
ibbe
an a
nd w
este
rn A
tlant
ic, t
he
spre
ad o
f lio
nfis
h ex
acer
bate
s con
cern
for t
he h
ealth
of c
oral
reef
s alre
ady
thre
aten
ed b
y ot
her s
tress
es. F
or e
xam
ple,
man
ipul
ativ
e fie
ld st
udie
s in
the
Baha
mas
hav
e sh
own
that
lion
fish
can
redu
ce re
crui
tmen
t of n
ativ
e re
ef fi
sh b
y up
to 7
9%, w
ith p
reda
tion
bein
g th
e lik
ely
mec
hani
sm
Afte
r lio
nfis
h in
vade
d a
mes
opho
tic re
ef, L
esse
r and
Sla
ttery
(201
1) re
porte
d a
shift
from
cor
al a
nd sp
onge
com
mun
ities
to a
lgal
dom
inat
ed c
omm
uniti
es.
Few
wor
ldw
ide
fish
inva
sion
s of s
imila
r mag
nitu
de a
re d
ocum
ente
d; th
e in
trodu
ctio
n of
the
red
lionf
ish
Pter
ois v
olita
ns a
nd th
e de
vil f
irefis
h P.
mile
s in
the
wes
tern
Atla
ntic
is o
ne o
f the
fast
est a
nd m
ost e
colo
gica
lly h
arm
ful m
arin
e
4
-
31
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
fish
intro
duct
ions
to d
ate
(Alb
ins a
nd H
ixon
201
3).
11
3.03
In
the
taxo
n's
intro
duce
d ra
nge,
are
ther
e kn
own
adve
rse
impa
cts t
o aq
uacu
lture
? Y
It
may
be
a ne
gativ
e ef
fect
on
natu
ral f
ish
spec
ies
usin
g as
feed
raw
mat
eria
l in
aqua
cultu
re
1
12
3.04
In
the
taxo
n's
intro
duce
d ra
nge,
are
ther
e kn
own
adve
rse
impa
cts t
o ec
osys
tem
serv
ices
?
Y
Acc
ordi
ng to
Gar
dner
et a
l. (2
015)
, in
the
Car
ibbe
an a
nd w
este
rn A
tlant
ic, t
he
spre
ad o
f lio
nfis
h ex
acer
bate
s con
cern
for t
he h
ealth
of c
oral
reef
s alre
ady
thre
aten
ed b
y ot
her s
tress
es. A
fter l
ionf
ish
inva
ded
a m
esop
hotic
reef
, Les
ser a
nd
Slat
tery
(201
1) re
porte
d a
shift
from
cor
al a
nd sp
onge
com
mun
ities
to a
lgal
do
min
ated
com
mun
ities
. Inc
reas
ed p
reda
tion
on h
erbi
voro
us fi
sh w
as im
plic
ated
as
the
caus
e of
the
shift
bec
ause
it w
as n
ot a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith b
leac
hing
, fis
hing
, st
orm
s and
dise
ase
(Les
ser a
nd S
latte
ry, 2
011)
.
3
13
3.05
In
the
taxo
n's
intro
duce
d ra
nge,
are
ther
e kn
own
adve
rse
soci
o-ec
onom
ic im
pact
s?
Y
Econ
omic
ally
, the
app
eara
nce
of th
e lio
nfis
h ca
n ca
use
a se
rious
impa
ct o
n th
e lo
cal’s
eco
nom
y. It
s pre
senc
e in
oth
er a
reas
has
resu
lted
in a
redu
ctio
n on
the
num
ber o
f gro
uper
s and
oth
er c
omm
erci
al s
peci
es, a
ffect
ing
the
econ
omie
s of t
he
coas
tal f
ishi
ng. T
he li
onfis
h ca
n al
so h
ave
an im
pact
on
artis
anal
fish
erie
s and
the
naut
ical
or d
ivin
g to
uris
m a
s it i
s hi
ghly
toxi
c an
d its
pre
senc
e co
uld
inhi
bit
tour
ists a
nd d
iver
s alik
e. T
he li
onfis
h st
ing
shou
ld b
e tre
ated
as s
oon
as p
ossib
le
as it
can
cau
se a
llerg
ic re
actio
ns. O
n th
e ot
her h
and,
som
e no
n-M
edite
rrane
an
coun
tries
hav
e be
gun
to c
omm
erci
aliz
e th
is fis
h as
edi
ble
com
mer
cial
spec
ies,
whi
ch c
ould
be
an a
ltern
ativ
e w
ay, a
mon
g ot
her m
easu
res,
to b
ette
r con
trol t
he
popu
latio
ns (h
ttps:
//ww
w.iu
cn.o
rg/n
ews/
new
-lion
fish-
sigh
tings
-turk
ey-a
nd-
cypr
us-m
arin
e-pr
otec
ted-
area
s). A
ccor
ding
to K
lete
u et
al.
(201
6), t
he p
ossi
bilit
y of
a li
onfis
h in
vasi
on in
the
Med
iterr
anea
n Se
a an
d th
e po
tent
ial e
colo
gica
l and
so
cio-
econ
omic
impa
cts.
4
B. B
iolo
gy/E
colo
gy
4.
Und
esir
able
(or p
ersi
sten
ce) t
raits
14
4.01
Is
it li
kely
that
the
taxo
n w
ill b
e po
isono
us, o
r pos
e ot
her r
isks t
o hu
man
hea
lth?
Y
The
dors
al- a
nd a
nal-f
in sp
ines
of t
he li
onfis
h co
ntai
n a
pote
nt v
enom
that
can
ad
min
iste
r a p
ainf
ul st
ing.
Lio
nfis
h ve
nom
has
bee
n fo
und
to c
ause
ca
rdio
vasc
ular
, neu
rom
uscu
lar,
and
cyto
lytic
effe
cts r
angi
ng fr
om m
ild re
actio
ns
such
as s
wel
ling
to e
xtre
me
pain
and
par
alys
is in
upp
er a
nd lo
wer
ext
rem
ities
(K
izer
et a
l. 19
85).
4
15
4.02
Is
it li
kely
that
the
taxo
n w
ill s
mot
her o
ne o
r mor
e na
tive
taxa
(tha
t are
not
thre
aten
ed o
r pro
tect
ed)?
Y
In w
este
rn A
tlant
ic, l
ionf
ish
are
mor
e ab
unda
nt th
an in
thei
r nat
ive
regi
on a
nd
have
bec
ome
the
dom
inan
t pre
dato
r on
cora
l ree
fs w
ith a
gre
at im
pact
on
nativ
e re
ef fi
shes
, dec
reas
ing
the
abun
danc
e of
>40
pre
y sp
ecie
s by
65%
on
aver
age,
in
just
2 y
ears
(Gre
en e
t al.
2012
).
3
16
4.03
A
re th
ere
thre
aten
ed o
r pro
tect
ed ta
xa th
at th
e no
n-na
tive
taxo
n w
ould
par
asiti
se in
the
RA
are
a?
N
No
data
3
-
32
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
17
4.04
Is
the
taxo
n ad
apta
ble
in te
rms o
f clim
atic
and
oth
er
envi
ronm
enta
l con
ditio
ns, t
hus e
nhan
cing
its p
oten
tial
pers
isten
ce if
it h
as in
vade
d or
cou
ld in
vade
the
RA
ar
ea?
Y
For t
he M
edite
rran
ean
no d
ata
is av
aila
ble.
But
, the
com
bina
tion
of th
eir h
igh
spaw
ning
freq
uenc
y (y
ear r
ound
, ~ev
ery
4 d,
Mor
ris 2
009)
and
pro
tract
ed p
elag
ic
larv
al p
hase
(~26
d, A
hren
holz
and
Mor
ris 2
010)
, cou
pled
with
rele
ase
in a
re
gion
with
mul
tiple
oce
anog
raph
ic c
urre
nts (
e.g.
, Gul
f Stre
am, C
arib
bean
C
urre
nt, Y
ucat
an C
urre
nt a
nd L
oop
Cur
rent
) has
resu
lted
in th
e ra
pid
disp
ersa
l of
lionf
ishe
s in
to th
e w
este
rn A
tlant
ic O
cean
, inc
ludi
ng th
e C
arib
bean
Sea
and
Gul
f of
Mex
ico
(Kle
tou
et a
l. 20
16, a
nd re
fere
nce
ther
ein)
. The
rece
nt fi
ndin
gs o
f Li
onfis
h m
ay b
e an
indi
catio
n of
a n
ew w
ave
of a
rriv
als o
f P. m
iles i
n th
e Le
vant
, ra
ising
just
ifiab
le c
once
rns o
f a p
ossib
le o
nset
of a
new
inva
sion
in th
e M
edite
rrane
an S
ea (B
aric
he e
t al.
2013
). Li
onfis
hes c
an p
oten
tially
spre
ad a
nd
surv
ive
in a
larg
e pa
rt of
the
Med
iterra
nean
Sea
bec
ause
they
hav
e sh
own
exte
nsiv
e di
sper
sal c
apab
ilitie
s and
can
surv
ive
to a
min
imum
tem
pera
ture
of
10°C
(Kim
ball
et a
l. 20
04).
3
18
4.05
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to d
isrup
t foo
d-w
eb
stru
ctur
e/fu
nctio
n in
aqu
atic
eco
syst
ems
it ha
s or i
s lik
ely
to in
vade
in th
e R
A a
rea?
Y
3
19
4.06
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to e
xert
adve
rse
impa
cts o
n ec
osys
tem
serv
ices
in th
e R
A a
rea?
Y
For t
he M
edite
rran
ean
no d
ata.
But
, in
2008
, lio
nfis
h w
ere
obse
rved
in th
e w
ater
s su
rrou
ndin
g Li
ttle
Cay
man
Isla
nd, a
nd th
ey w
ere
cons
ider
ed e
stab
lishe
d th
ere
by
2009
(Sch
ofie
ld 2
010)
. At t
his
loca
tion,
they
hav
e re
ache
d de
nsiti
es o
f up
to 6
50
fish
ha-1
(Fra
zer e
t al.
2012
), w
hich
is fa
r gre
ater
than
the
26.3
fish
ha-1
reco
rded
in
the
nativ
e ra
nge
(Kul
bick
i et a
l. 20
12).
3
20
4.07
Is
it li
kely
that
the
taxo
n w
ill h
ost,
and/
or a
ct a
s a
vect
or fo
r, re
cogn
ised
pest
s and
infe
ctio
us a
gent
s tha
t ar
e en
dem
ic in
the
RA
are
a?
N
Ther
e ar
e no
kno
wn
OIE
-rep
orta
ble
dise
ases
for t
his s
peci
es
(http
s://w
ww
.fws.g
ov/fi
sher
ies/
ans/
erss
/hig
hrisk
/Pte
rois-
mile
s-W
EB-7
-28-
2014
.pdf
) 1
21
4.08
Is
it li
kely
that
the
taxo
n w
ill h
ost,
and/
or a
ct a
s a
vect
or fo
r, re
cogn
ised
pest
s and
infe
ctio
us a
gent
s tha
t ar
e ab
sent
from
(nov
el to
) the
RA
are
a?
N
Ther
e ar
e no
kno
wn
OIE
-rep
orta
ble
dise
ases
for t
his s
peci
es
(http
s://w
ww
.fws.g
ov/fi
sher
ies/
ans/
erss
/hig
hrisk
/Pte
rois-
mile
s-W
EB-7
-28-
2014
.pdf
) 1
22
4.09
Is
it li
kely
that
the
taxo
n w
ill a
chie
ve a
bod
y si
ze th
at
will
mak
e it
mor
e lik
ely
to b
e re
leas
ed fr
om c
aptiv
ity?
Y
Yes
, it m
ay b
e re
ach
a 35
.0 c
m S
L (F
roes
e an
d Pa
uly
2016
) 2
23
4.10
Is
the
taxo
n ca
pabl
e of
sus
tain
ing
itsel
f in
a ra
nge
of
wat
er v
eloc
ity c
ondi
tions
(e.g
. ver
satil
e in
hab
itat
use)
? Y
A
ccor
ding
to K
lete
u et
al.
(201
6) in
the
wes
tern
Atla
ntic
, lio
nfis
h ha
ve b
een
foun
d in
a w
ide
varie
ty o
f hab
itats
incl
udin
g ha
rd b
otto
m a
nd p
atch
y re
efs,
seag
rass
bed
s and
wre
cks.
3
24
4.11
Is
it li
kely
that
the
taxo
n's m
ode
of e
xist
ence
(e.g
. ex
cret
ion
of b
y-pr
oduc
ts) o
r beh
avio
urs (
e.g.
feed
ing)
w
ill re
duce
hab
itat q
ualit
y fo
r nat
ive
taxa
? Y
The
lionf
ish
are
gene
ralis
t car
nivo
res a
nd c
an fe
ed o
n a
larg
e va
riety
of f
ish
and
crus
tace
ans a
lthou
gh la
rge
indi
vidu
als p
rey
alm
ost e
xclu
sive
ly o
n fis
h (C
ôté
et a
l. 20
13).
2
25
4.12
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to m
aint
ain
a vi
able
pop
ulat
ion
N
No
data
1
-
33
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
even
whe
n pr
esen
t in
low
den
sitie
s (or
per
sistin
g in
ad
vers
e co
nditi
ons b
y w
ay o
f a d
orm
ant f
orm
)?
5. R
esou
rce
expl
oita
tion
26
5.
01
Is th
e ta
xon
likel
y to
con
sum
e th
reat
ened
or p
rote
cted
na
tive
taxa
in R
A a
rea?
Y
No
stud
y in
the
Med
iterr
anea
n re
gion
but
out
side
of t
he re
gion
: acc
ordi
ng to
Sc
hofie
ld e
t al.
(201
6): “
Res
earc
h on
sm
all p
atch
reef
s in
the
Baha
mas
pro
vide
d th
e fir
st e
vide
nce
of n
egat
ive
effe
cts o
f lio
nfis
h on
nat
ive
Atla
ntic
cor
al-re
ef
fishe
s. Th
e re
crui
tmen
t of c
oral
-ree
f fis
hes w
as st
udie
d du
ring
the
2007
re
crui
tmen
t per
iod
(Jul
y-A
ugus
t) on
sm
all p
atch
reef
s in
the
Baha
mas
with
and
w
ithou
t lio
nfis
h. O
ver t
he fi
ve w
eek
perio
d, n
et re
crui
tmen
t (i.e
., ac
cum
ulat
ion
of
new
juve
nile
fish
es v
ia se
ttlem
ent o
f lar
vae)
was
redu
ced
by 7
9% o
n re
efs w
ith a
si
ngle
lion
fish
com
pare
d to
reef
s with
no
lionf
ish.
Sto
mac
h co
nten
t ana
lyse
s and
ob
serv
atio
ns o
f fee
ding
beh
avio
r sho
wed
that
redu
ctio
ns in
nat
ive
fish
dens
ity
wer
e al
mos
t cer
tain
ly d
ue to
pre
datio
n by
lion
fish.
Pre
y ite
ms
foun
d in
lion
fish
stom
achs
incl
uded
the
fairy
bas
slet G
ram
ma
lore
to, b
ridle
d ca
rdin
alfis
h Ap
ogon
au
rolin
eatu
s, w
hite
gru
nt H
aem
ulon
plu
mie
rii,
bico
lor d
amse
lfish
Ste
gast
es
perti
tus,
seve
ral w
rass
es H
alic
hoer
es b
ivitt
atus
, H. g
arno
ti an
d Th
alas
oma
bifa
scia
tum
, stri
ped
parr
otfis
h Sc
arus
iser
ti, a
nd d
usky
ble
nny
Mal
acoc
tenu
s gill
i. In
itial
exa
min
atio
n of
cru
stac
ean
prey
sug
gest
s tha
t lio
nfis
h m
ay a
lso e
at th
e ju
veni
le sp
iny
lobs
ter P
anul
irus
arg
us. T
he re
duct
ion
in re
crui
tmen
t of c
oral
-ree
f fis
hes s
ugge
sts t
hat l
ionf
ish
may
also
com
pete
with
nat
ive
pisc
ivor
es b
y m
onop
oliz
ing
this
impo
rtant
food
reso
urce
. In
addi
tion,
lion
fish
have
the
pote
ntia
l to
decr
ease
the
abun
danc
e of
eco
logi
cally
impo
rtant
spec
ies s
uch
as
parro
tfish
and
oth
er h
erbi
voro
us fi
shes
that
kee
p se
awee
ds a
nd m
acro
alga
e fro
m
over
grow
ing
cora
ls.”
1
27
5.02
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to se
ques
ter f
ood
reso
urce
s (in
clud
ing
nutri
ents
) to
the
detri
men
t of n
ativ
e ta
xa in
th
e R
A a
rea?
Y
N
o da
ta
2
6. R
epro
duct
ion
28
6.
01
Is th
e ta
xon
likel
y to
exh
ibit
pare
ntal
car
e an
d/or
to
redu
ce a
ge-a
t-mat
urity
in re
spon
se to
env
ironm
enta
l co
nditi
ons?
Y
G
ood
adap
tabi
lity
in a
sho
rt tim
e 2
29
6.02
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to p
rodu
ce v
iabl
e ga
met
es o
r pr
opag
ules
(in
the
RA
are
a)?
Y
Spre
adin
g in
a sh
ort t
ime
3
30
6.03
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to h
ybrid
ize
natu
rally
with
nat
ive
taxa
? N
N
o da
ta
1
31
6.04
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to b
e he
rmap
hrod
itic
or to
disp
lay
asex
ual r
epro
duct
ion?
N
P.
mile
s is
gono
chor
istic
; mal
es a
nd fe
mal
es e
xhib
it m
inor
sexu
al d
imor
phis
m
only
dur
ing
repr
oduc
tion
(Fis
helso
n 19
75).
3
-
34
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
32
6.05
Is
the
taxo
n de
pend
ent o
n th
e pr
esen
ce o
f ano
ther
ta
xon
(or s
peci
fic h
abita
t fea
ture
s) to
com
plet
e its
life
cy
cle?
N
N
o ev
iden
ce
3
33
6.06
Is
the
taxo
n kn
own
(or l
ikel
y) to
pro
duce
a la
rge
num
ber o
f pro
pagu
les o
r offs
prin
g w
ithin
a sh
ort t
ime
span
(e.g
. <1
year
)?
Y
P. m
iles
from
the
wes
tern
Atla
ntic
: Mor
ris (2
009)
repo
rted
that
fem
ales
mat
ured
at
app
roxi
mat
ely
175
mm
tota
l len
gth
or 1
yea
r of a
ge a
nd re
leas
ed a
ppro
xim
atel
y 25
000
eggs
per
spaw
ning
eve
nt. B
ased
on
the
pres
ence
of h
ydra
ted
oocy
tes,
mat
ure
fem
ales
app
eare
d ca
pabl
e of
spaw
ning
eve
ry 3
.6–4
.1 d
ays t
hrou
ghou
t the
ye
ar, a
lthou
gh th
e pr
opor
tion
of fe
mal
es w
ith o
varie
s in
spaw
ning
con
ditio
n w
as
high
er in
sum
mer
(Jun
e–A
ugus
t).
3
34
6.07
H
ow m
any
time
units
(day
s, m
onth
s, ye
ars)
doe
s the
ta
xon
requ
ire to
reac
h th
e ag
e-at
-firs
t-rep
rodu
ctio
n?
[In
the
Just
ifica
tion
field
, ind
icat
e th
e re
leva
nt ti
me
unit
bein
g us
ed.]
1 P.
mile
s fro
m th
e w
este
rn A
tlant
ic: M
orris
(200
9) re
porte
d th
at fe
mal
es m
atur
ed
at a
ppro
xim
atel
y 17
5 m
m to
tal l
engt
h or
1 y
ear o
f age
4
7. D
ispe
rsal
mec
hani
sms
35
7.
01
How
man
y po
tent
ial i
nter
nal p
athw
ays c
ould
the
taxo
n us
e to
disp
erse
with
in th
e R
A a
rea
(with
su
itabl
e ha
bita
ts n
earb
y)?
1 M
edite
rrane
an’s
cur
rent
syst
em c
an b
e us
ed. S
imila
rly, i
t is r
epor
ted
that
thei
r eg
gs a
re p
lank
toni
c an
d ca
n rid
e th
e cu
rren
ts a
nd c
over
larg
e di
stan
ces f
or a
bout
a
mon
th b
efor
e th
ey se
ttle
in th
e A
tlant
ic (A
hren
holz
and
Mor
ris 2
010)
. 3
36
7.02
W
ill a
ny o
f the
se p
athw
ays b
ring
the
taxo
n in
clo
se
prox
imity
to o
ne o
r mor
e pr
otec
ted
area
s (e.
g. M
CZ,
M
PA, S
SSI)
? Y
The
Mar
ine
Prot
ecte
d A
reas
of K
as-K
ekov
a (T
urke
y) a
nd C
ape
Gre
co (C
ypru
s)
have
bee
n th
e lo
catio
ns w
here
sigh
tings
hav
e ta
ken
plac
e fo
r the
lion
fish
(http
s://w
ww
.iucn
.org
/new
s/ne
w-li
onfis
h-si
ghtin
gs-tu
rkey
-and
-cyp
rus-
mar
ine-
prot
ecte
d-ar
eas)
.
4
37
7.03
D
oes t
he ta
xon
have
a m
eans
of a
ctiv
ely
atta
chin
g its
elf t
o ha
rd su
bstra
ta (e
.g. s
hip
hulls
, pili
ngs,
buoy
s)
such
that
it e
nhan
ces t
he li
kelih
ood
of d
isper
sal?
N
N
ekto
n 3
38
7.04
Is
nat
ural
disp
ersa
l of t
he ta
xon
likel
y to
occ
ur a
s eg
gs (f
or a
nim
als)
or a
s pro
pagu
les (
for p
lant
s: se
eds,
spor
es) i
n th
e R
A a
rea?
Y
The
com
bina
tion
of th
eir h
igh
spaw
ning
freq
uenc
y (y
ear r
ound
, ~ev
ery
4 d,
M
orris
200
9) a
nd p
rotra
cted
pel
agic
larv
al p
hase
(~26
d, A
hren
holz
and
Mor
ris
2010
), co
uple
d w
ith re
leas
e in
a re
gion
with
mul
tiple
oce
anog
raph
ic c
urre
nts
(e.g
., G
ulf S
tream
, Car
ibbe
an C
urre
nt, Y
ucat
an C
urre
nt a
nd L
oop
Cur
rent
) has
re
sulte
d in
the
rapi
d di
sper
sal o
f lio
nfis
hes i
nto
the
wes
tern
Atla
ntic
Oce
an,
incl
udin
g th
e C
arib
bean
Sea
and
Gul
f of M
exic
o (K
leto
u et
al.
2016
, and
re
fere
nce
ther
ein)
.
2
39
7.05
Is
nat
ural
disp
ersa
l of t
he ta
xon
likel
y to
occ
ur a
s la
rvae
/juve
nile
s (fo
r ani
mal
s) o
r as
fragm
ents
/see
dlin
gs (f
or p
lant
s) in
the
RA
are
a?
Y
Sam
e w
ith a
bove
ans
wer
. 2
40
7.06
A
re o
lder
life
stag
es o
f the
taxo
n lik
ely
to m
igra
te in
th
e R
A a
rea
for r
epro
duct
ion?
Y
N
o da
ta
1
-
35
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
41
7.07
A
re p
ropa
gule
s or e
ggs o
f the
taxo
n lik
ely
to b
e di
sper
sed
in th
e R
A a
rea
by o
ther
ani
mal
s?
N
No
data
2
42
7.08
Is
disp
ersa
l of t
he ta
xon
alon
g an
y of
the
path
way
s m
entio
ned
in th
e pr
evio
us se
ven
ques
tions
(7.0
1–7.
07; i
.e. b
oth
unin
tent
iona
l or i
nten
tiona
l) lik
ely
to
be ra
pid?
Y
1991
- P. m
iles h
as b
een
reco
rded
from
the
Leva
ntin
e co
ast (
Gol
ani a
nd S
onin
, 19
92).
2012
- Leb
anon
(Bar
iche
et a
l. 20
13).
Soon
afte
r, tw
o m
ore
wer
e re
porte
d in
a n
ewsp
aper
arti
cle,
cap
ture
d of
f Cyp
rus
and
in 2
014,
ano
ther
spec
imen
was
si
ghte
d in
Tur
key,
then
in 2
015
two
mor
e w
ere
capt
ured
in C
ypru
s and
then
si
ghte
d in
Rho
des
in G
reec
e (T
uran
et a
l. 20
14; O
ray
et a
l. 20
15; C
roce
tta e
t al.
2015
; Igl
ésia
s and
Fro
tté 2
015)
. Rec
ently
, sev
eral
reco
rds w
ere
repo
rted
from
so
uth
Turk
ey in
dica
ting
a w
este
rly m
igra
tion
of th
e sp
ecie
s tow
ards
the
Aeg
ean
Sea
(Tur
an a
nd Ö
ztür
k 20
15).
Hith
erto
, lio
nfis
h w
ere
repo
rted
only
occ
asio
nally
in
the
east
ern
Med
iterr
anea
n Se
a an
d th
eir s
ucce
ssfu
l inv
asio
n in
the
Med
iterra
nean
Sea
is q
uest
iona
ble
due
to u
nfav
oura
ble
ocea
nogr
aphi
c co
nditi
ons
that
lim
it th
e w
ide
disp
ersi
on o
f lio
nfis
h la
rvae
(Joh
nsto
n an
d Pu
rkis
2014
). Th
e lio
nfis
h P.
mile
s ha
s spr
ead
rapi
dly
and
colo
nise
d al
mos
t the
ent
ire so
uth
east
ern
coas
t of C
ypru
s, fro
m L
imas
sol (
sout
h) to
Pro
tara
s (so
uth
east
) in
just
1 y
ear
3
43
7.09
Is
disp
ersa
l of t
he ta
xon
dens
ity d
epen
dent
?
Y
Lion
fishe
s wer
e fo
und
abun
dant
in so
me
inva
ded
area
s as w
ell a
s dom
inat
ing
reef
fis
h co
mm
uniti
es (K
ulbi
cki e
t al.
2012
). Th
eir d
ram
atic
inva
sive
suc
cess
resu
lts
from
a c
ombi
natio
n of
fact
ors s
uch
as e
arly
mat
urat
ion
and
repr
oduc
tion,
ant
i-pr
edat
ory
veno
mou
s def
ence
s and
eco
logi
cal v
ersa
tility
of t
he li
onfis
h co
uple
d w
ith n
ativ
e pr
ey a
nd th
e ov
erfis
hing
of n
ativ
e pr
edat
ors (
Côt
é et
al.
2013
).
3
8. T
oler
ance
attr
ibut
es
44
8.
01
Is th
e ta
xon
able
to w
ithst
and
bein
g ou
t of w
ater
for
exte
nded
per
iods
(e.g
. min
imum
of o
ne o
r mor
e ho
urs)
at s
ome
stag
e of
its
life
cycl
e?
N
Mar
ine
fish
4
45
8.02
Is
the
taxo
n to
lera
nt o
f a w
ide
rang
e of
wat
er q
ualit
y co
nditi
ons r
elev
ant t
o th
at ta
xon?
[In
the
Just
ifica
tion
field
, ind
icat
e th
e re
leva
nt w
ater
qua
lity
varia
ble(
s)
bein
g co
nsid
ered
.]
Y
No
data
1
46
8.03
C
an th
e ta
xon
be c
ontro
lled
or e
radi
cate
d in
the
wild
w
ith c
hem
ical
, bio
logi
cal,
or o
ther
age
nts/
mea
ns?
Y
Thei
r hig
hly
veno
mou
s ne
edle
-sha
rp d
orsa
l, an
al a
nd p
ecto
ral f
in sp
ines
offe
r pr
otec
tion
and
sign
ifian
tly re
duce
pre
datio
n (B
aric
he e
t al.
2013
). N
ever
thel
ess,
one
pote
ntia
l nat
ural
pre
dato
r of P
. mile
s alre
ady
exist
s in
the
Med
iterr
anea
n. In
th
e no
rther
n R
ed S
ea, a
juve
nile
Lio
nfis
h (1
0 cm
SL)
was
disc
over
ed in
the
stom
ach
of F
istu
lari
a co
mm
erso
nii R
üppe
ll, 1
838,
the
blue
spot
ted
corn
etfis
h w
ho h
as in
vade
d th
e M
edite
rran
ean
Sea
with
in th
e la
st d
ecad
e an
d es
tabl
ishe
d la
rge
popu
latio
ns in
the
east
ern
part
(Azz
urro
et a
l. 20
12) a
nd m
ay a
ct a
s a
biol
ogic
al c
ontro
l of a
futu
re p
ossib
le in
vasi
on. O
ther
pos
sible
pre
dato
rs c
ould
be
nativ
e M
edite
rrane
an g
roup
ers,
as fo
und
in th
e C
arib
bean
(Mum
by e
t al.
2011
).
3
-
36
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
Nat
ive
grou
pers
such
as E
pine
phel
us m
argi
natu
s will
lear
n to
pre
y on
lion
fish
and
cont
rol t
heir
inva
sion
. Res
trict
ions
on
fishi
ng se
em se
nsib
le to
hel
p th
reat
ened
IUC
N R
ed L
ist sp
ecie
s suc
h as
the
Med
iterr
anea
n du
sky
grou
per,
as
thes
e m
ay in
turn
hel
p co
ntro
l the
spre
ad o
f inv
asiv
e fis
h (M
umby
et a
l. 20
11).
47
8.04
Is
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to to
lera
te o
r ben
efit
from
en
viro
nmen
tal/h
uman
dist
urba
nce?
Y
Judg
ing
from
the
rece
nt in
crea
se in
P. m
iles i
n th
e ea
ster
n M
edite
rrane
an S
ea, i
ts
few
nat
ural
pre
dato
rs, t
he d
isper
sal c
apab
ilitie
s of t
heir
plan
kton
ic la
rvae
and
its
abili
ty to
ada
pt to
a ra
nge
of h
abita
ts, w
e su
spec
t tha
t a ra
pid
expa
nsio
n th
roug
hout
the
Med
iterr
anea
n Se
a m
ay so
on fo
llow
with
sig
nific
ant i
mpa
cts o
n lo
cal e
cosy
stem
s and
fish
erie
s. Fu
rther
mor
e, C
O2 e
miss
ions
whi
ch a
re w
arm
ing
the
Med
iterra
nean
Sea
and
the
cons
truct
ion
of a
dee
per a
nd w
ider
Sue
z C
anal
are
ex
pect
ed to
incr
ease
inva
sion
rate
s (G
alil
et a
l. 20
15; H
all-S
penc
er a
nd A
llen
2015
).
Incr
ease
d pr
edat
ion
on h
erbi
voro
us fi
sh w
as im
plic
ated
as t
he c
ause
of t
he sh
ift
beca
use
it w
as n
ot a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith b
leac
hing
, fis
hing
, sto
rms a
nd d
iseas
e (L
esse
r an
d Sl
atte
ry, 2
011)
. Th
eir d
ram
atic
inva
sive
succ
ess r
esul
ts fr
om a
com
bina
tion
of fa
ctor
s suc
h as
ea
rly m
atur
atio
n an
d re
prod
uctio
n, a
nti-p
reda
tory
ven
omou
s def
ence
s and
ec
olog
ical
ver
satil
ity o
f the
lion
fish
coup
led
with
nat
ive
prey
and
the
over
fishi
ng
of n
ativ
e pr
edat
ors (
Côt
é et
al.
2013
).The
war
min
g an
d ac
idifi
catio
n of
M
edite
rrane
an w
ater
s due
to C
O2 e
miss
ions
may
requ
ire n
ew m
odel
ling
appr
oach
es (H
all-S
penc
er a
nd A
llen
2015
).
2
48
8.05
Is
the
taxo
n ab
le to
tole
rate
salin
ity le
vels
that
are
hi
gher
or l
ower
than
thos
e fo
und
in it
s usu
al
envi
ronm
ent?
Y
Fr
om F
roes
e an
d Pa
uly
(201
6): T
ropi
cal;
30°N
- 36
°S, 1
9°E
- 112
°E.
3
49
8.06
A
re th
ere
effe
ctiv
e na
tura
l ene
mie
s (pr
edat
ors)
of t
he
taxo
n pr
esen
t in
the
RA
are
a?
Y
Fist
ular
ia c
omm
erso
nii R
üppe
ll, 1
838
(Azz
urro
et a
l. 20
12).
Epin
ephe
lus
mar
gina
tus w
ill le
arn
to p
rey
on li
onfis
h an
d co
ntro
l the
ir in
vasi
on (M
umby
et a
l. 20
11).
2
C. C
limat
e ch
ange
9. C
limat
e ch
ange
50
9.01
U
nder
the
pred
icte
d fu
ture
clim
atic
con
ditio
ns, a
re th
e ris
ks o
f ent
ry in
to th
e R
A a
rea
pose
d by
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to in
crea
se, d
ecre
ase
or n
ot c
hang
e?
+ O
vera
ll, th
e nu
mbe
r of i
ntro
duce
d Le
ssep
sian
fish
spec
ies i
s cor
rela
ted
sign
ifica
ntly
and
pos
itive
ly w
ith th
e M
edite
rrane
an w
ater
tem
pera
ture
(r =
0.7
7,
p<0.
05) (
Ben
Rai
ş La
sram
et a
l. 20
10).
3
51
9.02
U
nder
the
pred
icte
d fu
ture
clim
atic
con
ditio
ns, a
re th
e ris
ks o
f est
ablis
hmen
t pos
ed b
y th
e ta
xon
likel
y to
in
crea
se, d
ecre
ase
or n
ot c
hang
e?
+
The
rece
nt fi
ndin
gs o
f Lio
nfis
h m
ay b
e an
indi
catio
n of
a n
ew w
ave
of a
rriv
als o
f P.
mile
s in
the
Leva
nt, r
aisi
ng ju
stifi
able
con
cern
s of a
pos
sibl
e on
set o
f a n
ew
inva
sion
in th
e M
edite
rrane
an S
ea (B
aric
he e
t al.
2013
). 3
-
37
Que
stio
n R
espo
nse
Just
ifica
tion
Con
fiden
ce
52
9.03
U
nder
the
pred
icte
d fu
ture
clim
atic
con
ditio
ns, a
re th
e ris
ks o
f disp
ersa
l with
in th
e R
A a
rea
pose
d by
the
taxo
n lik
ely
to in
crea
se, d
ecre
ase
or n
ot c
hang
e?
+ Si
nce
the
1980
s the
rate
of i
ntro
duct
ion
of L
esse
psia
n sp
ecie
s fro
m th
e R
ed S
ea
to th
e M
edite
rran
ean
has i
ncre
ased
(Ben
Rai
s La
sram
et a
l. 20
10).
3
53
9.04
U
nder
the
pred
icte
d fu
ture
clim
atic
con
ditio
ns, w
hat
is th
e lik
ely
mag
nitu
de o
f fut
ure
pote
ntia
l im
pact
s on
biod
iver
sity
and
/or e
colo
gica
l int
egrit
y/st
atus
? +
Prof
essi
onal
ass
essm
ent
2
54
9.05
U
nder
the
pred
icte
d fu
ture
clim
atic
con
d