assessing students' progress and achievements in art

National Art Education Association

Assessing Students' Progress and Achievements in ArtAuthor(s): Enid ZimmermanSource: Art Education, Vol. 45, No. 6 (Nov., 1992), pp. 14-24Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193312 .

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Photo credit: Nancy Machles

Assessing Students' Progress

and Achievements in Art

Enid Zimmerman

In July 1991, two popular magazines, Time and U.S. News and World Report, addressed problems associated with school testing. In Time magazine, Allis (1991) wrote about the impact of the Bush administration's proposals for a system of national examinations to document achievement in five 'core subjects': mathematics, science, English, history, and geography. Allis reported concems about these proposed tests including a lack of correlation between testing and improving education, bias against minority and women students, lack of attention to national diversity, and prohibitive costs. Although the arts are not part of Bush's

suggestions for achievement testing in 'core subject' areas, assessment issues are of primary importance for those who teach art and those who study art.

Standardized or Authentic Assess- ment? Most traditional standardized tests contain multiple-choice items and are based on recall of factual knowledge and isolated skills and memorization of procedures; they do not require judgment, analysis, reflection, or higher level skills needed for generating arguments and constructing solutions to problems (Frederiksen & Collins, 1989). Traditional standardized

14 Art Education/November 1992



tests often have been used to reward schools and school districts in which students consistently receive high scores without consideration of socio-economic factors and entry level scores. Standard- ized tests, however, are easy to administer and score, take a short amount of time to complete, and carry credibility for many audiences due to their popularity and long history of use (Archbald & Newman, 1988).

Traditional standardized testing is viewed by some educators as a political necessity and can be used to report how students achieve in terms of general aspects of education (Newman, 1990). Assessment instruments that approximate real-life, authentic situations that involve integrated, complex, and challenging tasks also can be used to assess individual achievement and higher level thinking skills. According to Worthen and Spandel (1991), standardized tests should repre- sent only a small part of assessing student learning whereas teacher- centered assessment should play the greatest role.

Most authentic assessment of learning in art is being conducted by individual teachers who create and use a variety of assessment practices. These teachers have a much greater influence on student learning and achievement than do most traditional, large-scale evaluation programs (Nickerson, 1989). The task of assessing aspects of student learning authentically, therefore, should be placed in the hands of teachers who can make informed judgments and are the best evaluators of their own students' progress and achievements. Teachers using diverse methods and strategies can observe and collect evidence of student achievement in a variety of situations. They conduct assessments daily, but most schools lack a plan for collecting such teacher assessments, and much rich information is not used beyond the classroom (Costa, 1989). At the elementary level, art teachers often instruct many of the same students over a period of five or six years and are in unique positions to assess their students' progress and achievements longitudinally. It would be ironic if art teachers were to abandon informal measures they have used in the past for more traditional, standardized tests that are being questioned, in large part, by educators in many subject areas.

Authentic Assessment Procedures for All Students Students differ in their interests, learning styles, learning rates, motivation, work habits, and personalities as well as their ethnicity, sex, and social class; it is these measures of diversity that standardized approaches to assessment usually ignore (Evans, 1977; Gordon, 1977). Students from diverse ethnic, racial, or social groups possess unique cultural characteristics that should be taken into consideration when assessment measures are being developed. According to Cheng (1986), students from diverse cultural backgrounds often share social, emotional, and educational needs of students in the dominant culture and "at the same time possess an additional set-of-needs that is the result of cultural transition" (p. 298). Students too often are assessed according to a model in which deficiencies are focused upon rather than strengths.

Students who come from diverse backgrounds can be assessed more equitably if flexible and personally constructed criteria are developed. Students and teachers need to become more aware of the socially constructed criteria they already use for informal evaluation and to adjust these criteria when appropriate. Through the use of authentic assessment measures, progress and achievements of individual students can be measured against their past achievements rather than against traditional, standardized norms or criteria. Skills and accomplishments that students bring to a classroom then can be taken into account, and their individual progress can be monitored in appropriate and meaningful ways through authentic assessment.

Characteristics of Authentic Assess- ment If a goal of education is to have students apply knowledge in different situations and employ what they have learned to create new understandings, as suggested by Hiebart and Calfee (1989), then assessment of learning in art that attends to real- life situations of making and responding to art would be most appropriate. Criteria for authentic student assessment set forth by Archbald and Newman (1988) and Wiggins (1989) include (1) evaluating students on

Art Education/ovember 1992 15



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tasks that approximate disciplined inquiry, (2) considering knowledge and skills wholistically rather than in fragmented parts, (3) valuing student achievement in and of itself and apart from whether it is being assessed, (4) attending to both processes and products of teaching and learning, (5) educating students to assess their own achievement in consort with assessments by others, and (6) expecting students to present and defend their work orally and publicly.

These general criteria for authentic assessment are relevant for art education. Knowledge related to art history, art criticism, art making, aesthetics, anthropol- ogy, and sociology should form bases for curriculum development and assessment. Knowledge about art disciplines that students need to participate in, understand, and create art should be considered wholistically, not as collections and frag-

Photo credit: Nancy Machles

ments of knowledge. Teaching students only about elements and principles of design, for example, does not provide them with an authentic or complete understanding of works of art. Students should learn to grasp relationships and integrate knowledge, not only to reproduce knowledge, but to create new understandings. Students should understand meanings of a work of art within particular cultural con- texts as well as how particular art forms relate to art forms in their own and other cultures. Student achievement should be recognized as having value in and of itself, apart from whether or not it is being assessed. When students create paint- ings, for example, this activity and experience should demonstrate achievement that has value in and of itself. Creating an art work sometimes involves collaborating with others within a flexible time frame. Cooperative learning or negotiated time

16 Art EducationNfovember 1992

1



frames, however, often are not valued and therefore are not assessed. In many cases, only art products, rather than processes of teaching and learning, are being evaluated. Costa (1989) has argued that educators must "overcome ... [the] habit of using product oriented assessment techniques to measure process oriented education" (p. 3). The range and variety of assessment techniques in art classrooms should be expanded so that both process and products of education can be measured by students in collaboration with others and in a public arena.

Measures of Authentic Assessment Measures of authentic assessment that have been demonstrated to be effective, and correspond with Archbald and Newman's (1988) and Wiggins' (1989) criteria, include (1) exhibitions of student work and student performances, (2) portfolios of student work, (3) profiles of student behavior, (4) student reflective journals, (5) student interviews and ques- tionnaires, (6) samples of student writing, (7) teach-back methods, (8) video tapes of student behaviors, and (9) immediate retrospective verbal reports.

Exhibitions and performances are public demonstrations of student achievement. At the high school level, exhibitions and performances require a broad range of student competencies and initiatives that can be revealed through authentic assessment. The time frame for preparation and planning is usually negotiated, and students often write their own individualized education plans and evaluate their learning in conjunction with assessment of others such as teachers, mentors, and supervi- sors. Emphasis is upon each student as an independent learner and the teacher as a mentor who is aware of each student's interests and abilities.

REACH, a humanities program in South Carolina that had as its theme "understanding one's past to go proudly into one's future," presented a real-life approach to student assessment and program evaluation (Barone, 1991). Administrators and teachers of REACH chose to use authentic measures for assessing student achievement by having representatives of project sites include dramatic productions, video tapes of performances, media displays,

student readings of their own essays and stories, and portfolios of samples of student work over an extended period of time.

Portfolios are purposeful collections of student work in progress and final products, in one or several areas, through which students become participants in their own assessments. They are involved in selecting contents of their portfolios and developing criteria for judging their own progress and achievements. Using portfolios as assessment measures allows instruction and assessment to take place at the same time. Paulson, Paulson, and Meyer (1991) described benefits of portfolios for instruction as (1) developing students' self-reflection, (2) encouraging students to value themselves and their work, (3) conveying purpose, goals, content, standards, and judgment of educational performance, (4) allowing contents to change at different times during the school year as work in progress expands and changes, and (5) permitting a variety of materials to be included that evidence student progress. Using portfolios as assessment measures allows students, as self-directed learners, to be viewed through a wide lens in which they can be observed taking risks, solving problems creatively, and learning to judge their own performance and that of others. Models of past portfolios can help students understand their own changing profile of skills, abilities, and understandings in terms of their strengths and weaknesses. A library of exemplars, or case studies, can be used by students and teachers to make them aware of standards and develop their abilities to make critical judgments (Frederiksen & Collins, 1989; Wolf, 1987).

Gardner (1990a) has been a proponent of assessment through what has become popularly known as 'process portfolios.' He was involved in developing Project PRO- PEL in which process portfolios, based on methods used by professional art students and artists, are used on a regular basis to assess learning in art. Evidence of learning, collected in process portfolios created in visual arts classes, may include letters, poems, essays, art works created with a range of visual art media and techniques, work in progress, sketches and completed works, journal entries and other forms of

Art Education/November 1992 17



reflection, and commentaries by teachers, students, and peers. Selections from process portfolios can be collected from year to year and a cumulative record of student accomplishment thus is made possible. Art teachers have been collecting process portfolios for years; now they are being adapted by teachers of other school subjects such as English, science, and mathematics (Allis, 1991; Gardner, (1990b).

Another form of authentic assessment is use of profiles of student behavior that are locally designed and do not contain examples of student work. Often, student behaviors and characteristics are judged on a point-scale according to criteria based upon work habits and learning abilities, art knowledge and skills, and desire and interest in art. Art students' profiles might include characteristics such as: possesses a well-developed visual memory, examines problems critically, is self-motivated to do art work, and seeks challenging experiences that are goal oriented. Another source of authentic assessment is journal entries that provide means for students to reflect upon their learning experiences, confront and solve problems, and make plans for future activities and experiences. These journal entries can be used as individual assessment measures or as parts of process portfolios and can be read by teachers and others responsible for assessment of students. Art teachers also can use structured and open-ended interviews to obtain similar information from all students as well as to help assess individual student achievements.

Other forms of authentic assessment being piloted in parts of the United States include teach-back methods in which students teach a newly learned concept to their peers (Snow, 1989), immediate, retrospective verbal reports of individual responses to test items (Siegler, 1989), and video tapes of ongoing, overt student behaviors (Gardner, 1990a, Siegler, 1989). Because students use multiple strategies on a wide range of educational tasks due to their individual differences (Siegler, 1989), a variety of assessment methods should be used in combination to assess student progress and achievement.

An immediate and important problem in the use of authentic assessment measures is that criteria used for making assess-

From the Portfolio of Arthur Markosov

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18 Art EducationiNovember 1992



/ think, basically, I deserve this grade because I did what I was supposed to. I put in the time and effort everyday to work on these sketches. Sometimes I took ten minutes a day and other times as long as 50 minutes. Therefore, I believe I've handled the assignment efficiently. I think I followed directions (drawing, writing, and dating). I put in the right number of entries, and I drew with great enthusiasm.

I believe that my work shows more diversity now in both style and what I draw. Now I began experimenting further with cartoonic-women figures rather than men. I tried to put in my abstract work and more portrait-type work. My style might be established, but I tried to follow other more

conventional drawing/sketch-type styles for the sake of experimentations.

If any problems occurred, they probably generally included lack of creativity or little details I became frustrated with; but as a whole this assignment has been the most fun and exciting of all the things I did in all my classes. I enjoyed doing this and am most appreciative for the opportunity to "work my hand" everyday that I did! Thanks for listening! Have a wonderful summer!

AtHu Ojcr

Art Education/November 1992 19



ments require judgment, analysis, and reflection and are subjective on the part of both teachers and students. Although art teachers have used informal assessment measures in their classrooms for years, they need to leam to assess more equitably and systematically through refinement of their criteria. There is a need for re- search and development to do what Snow describes as "shaping the interface between teachers and assessment procedures" (1989, p. 13). Eisner (1990) stressed that, when doing assessments, attention needs to be paid not only to where a student is on a distribution, but where that student has come from as an individual performing a variety of tasks.

IU Summer Arts Institute For over a decade, a two week summer art institute took place at Indiana University for students entering grades 7 through 10 in the Fall with special abilities and interests in the visual arts. While at the Institute, students from rural Indiana studied art with students from large urban areas in the Midwest and international students from a variety of countries. Principal goals set for the Institute were to extend knowledge, skills, and understandings about all aspects of the visual arts and provide opportunities for students to interact and work with others with similar and differing backgrounds, interests, and abilities as well as with professionals in the arts. In this program the visual arts were studied to enable students to understand and appreciate feelings, ideas, and values communicated through art traditions of

Drawing from a photograph helps to develop drawing skills.

many cultures and to develop individual skills of expression.

Emphasis was on studio arts and enrichment in the other art disciplines. In studio arts classes, students leamed about media, skills, and techniques and about critiquing their own art works and works of others. Students also began to generate a vocabulary of criticism and critiqued art works based on observed properties and different cultural environments in which they were created. Socio-cultural interpre- tations of works of art, methods and techniques of art historians, and a variety of standards of preference and quality were discussed in most classes.

Teachers attended two-day workshops, before their classes began, in which goals of the Institute were emphasized. While they taught, they encouraged students to develop their own objectives for their classes. During a final art exhibit, there were many examples of student portfolios with art work in progress and finished pieces. Final exhibits usually were attended by over 200 people including students, teachers, parents, faculty, administrators, and local officials.

Criteria set forth by Archbald and Newman (1988) and Wiggins (1989) were used as indicators of student progress and achievement. Students were assessed individually on their abilities to think critically about art work, apply their knowledge and skills to a variety of art tasks, and understand some of their own attitudes, values, and beliefs, as well as those of others. Their achievements were evaluated only in order to provide them informa-

Students often advise one another in informal classroom conversation

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20 Art Education/November 1992



tion about how to improve their work and to build related concepts. No formal grades were assigned, although oral and written assessments were made often by students and teachers. Student progress was assessed both during the process of making art and through their final products. Students at the Institute assessed their own work and that of their peers. At the final art show, student art work both in progress and as finished products, were exhibited, and this afforded opportunities for student knowledge and skills to be displayed publicly.

A variety of authentic assessment measures also were used at the Institute including joumals kept by teachers and students, interviews with teachers and students, and evaluation forms filled out by teachers, students, parents, and counse- lors. These assessments provided much valuable information about how well goals set for students and teachers at the Institute were being met and how improve- ments could be made.

Students' and Teachers' Reflective Journal Entries The following poem was written at the Institute in the reflective journal of "Lance," a 14 year old boy who was from a school in a large urban area in Northern Indiana. The poem reveals his struggles with himself and his art in order to understand his own attitudes, values, and beliefs:

Blank faces staring through The mist, a dark mysterious Shadow reflected on the wall. A faint movement intensely Magnified to the point of Total destruction, an Abstraction of thoughts of Gestures, of spoken words. Yet comes a door in the wall, Open, like a giant eye, Blinking with pure agony, In a windswept desert storm. And though we remember Picasso, Rembrandt, and Cezanne We still can't recall That door in the wall.

His teacher wrote the following in her joumal about this student's progress and achievement: "Lance brings in poetry that he indicates he would like me to read. I am touched. I can't digest all the sensitivity

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Students working as viewed by the model who was posing for the class.

Individualized instruction is one of the Institute's teaching strategies.

and meanings. It's hard to believe some one as young as Lance has an ability to express himself as he does. After class I videotaped Lance reciting poetry, and this video tape was shown at a public meeting of all Institute students. He seems sur- prised I'm interested."

Another Institute student, from rural southern Indiana, was "Jane," a 13 year old girl. Her teacher's journal entry about her is revealing: "Jane has a very rough life. She is self-taught in applying and designing tattoos. She shared an article with me, authored by Concerned Citizens Against Art, about Andy Warhol's death. I assume she feels strongly about this article, and I asked her to write a response."

The article began, "World renowned commercial art-fag and blight of the art

Art EducatiorvNovember 1992 21



Left: Instead of sketching the model, this student sketched the students on the opposite side of the room drawing the model. He wrote in his journal that he did not like to do set assignments and that he always tried to find a way of "doing my own thing." Right: This student was intrigued by the stitches on the sole of another student's foot and how it was similar to the stitching on his pants. She wrote in her journal how Peven gross things can be beautiful if you see them from a different point of view."

world delighted all of us by suddenly dropping dead due to a heart attack." In Jane's journal, her reaction to the article demonstrated her ability to think critically about the art world. "I think this article is complete 'cow pie.' I think their problem is they are probably either jealous or preju- diced of people with artistic talents. They have a right to their opinions. However, I don't think any of them have tried to get to know a practicing artist, because if they had they would often find a really loving and outgoing person. Some artists may be bad apples, but without art where would we be? Honestly!"

Interviews Part of a typical interview with a rural Indiana student about his experience at the Institute demonstrates his understanding of students from different cultures and art in an international context:

Interviewer: What did you think about studying with students from Singapore?

Student: I like them; they're really cool. I think it's great to get students from different countries over here to study. In school I would really go for a unit about Singapore.

Interviewer: What have you learned from them?

Student: I'm learning that styles are really the same all over. It's not totally different from how we learn here. It's not what I expected from Singaporians. I expected oriental type looking art work.

Student Evaluation Forms When students were asked to complete an evaluation form at the end of the Institute, one question asked what they would most likely remember about their experiences at the Institute. One fairly typical comment was about grading: "We did not get grades at the Institute. I worry about grades and qualifications all the time. I am not so bad even though I have a C- average in school subjects. Here at the Institute, I feel like a real person." In respect to understanding values and beliefs about their own and other cultures, one student wrote, " I learned that not all the world is as dull as Indiana. There's more out there." Another wrote," I learned a lot about different people from all over the world. Also I learned a lot about myself too." Most students were excited about sessions in which they were looking and talking about art and were able to assess their own work publicly as well as that of others. One student wrote: "It's neat to see and understand why other people in other places create art work." Another wrote: "My imagination really worked. Nobody ever asked me before what I thought about art. I loved it."

Parent Evaluation Forms To further assess whether the Institute's goals in regard to students' critical thinking, understanding students from other backgrounds, and acquiring art knowledge and skills had been met, parents were sent an evaluation form to complete and return

22 Art EducatiorNovember 1992



after the Institute ended. One parent wrote: "Approaching ordinary items from abnormal points of view always helps to foster open-minded thinking. Kids really are quite dogmatic, in their own groups, in an effort to create an identity separate from what they view 'adults' to be and any process which inspires them to think on their own is a positive one. The program introducing students to other cultures and other worlds is terrific." Another parent responded on an evaluation: "My daughter is a farm girl and she enjoyed socializing an awful lot ... there's a lot of kids from different backgrounds at the Institute and it's a good experience for the kids to meet other kids with different life styles. This experience will really prepare her for life." A parent of a student from Brazil wrote: "Living in Brazil, where art programs are almost impossible to find, 'Rita' really enjoyed the Institute and her art skills greatly improved. She found the teachers personable and helpful. The students accepted her too and she made many friends. It was a valuable and wonderful experience for her."

Teacher Reflective Journal Entries Teachers' journals also are enlightening in respect to authentically assessing their students' progress. One teacher wrote about how her students learned coopera- tively: "Students enjoyed working in collaborative groups. There is a whole new world of learning that can happen. The fact that one person in a group can change the entire personality, experience, and outcome of a group made me realize the power, and impact, each individual has upon others in the group." Still another teacher wrote about how students learned about cultural diversity: "As I think about the students learning, what an experience these two weeks at the Institute has been for them. Most of them come from small Indiana towns and they had little contact with Blacks much less Asians. Most of them spend their lives with people like themselves and for this short intense period of time they meet new and different people. A whole new world opened for them. Possibilities have been glimpsed that they might never have had the opportunity to know."

One teacher, an art education doctoral student from Taiwan, taught a Chinese

Top: This is a charcoal drawing by the same student who drew the students sketching the model. He included a skeleton in front of the still life that was provided. In his journal, he commented: "I wanted to include both life and death together in the same drawing." Bottom: The same student who drew the damaged foot also drew this self-portrait. She wrote, "My eyes are the most important part of me. I look at things a lot but do not talk much."

Art EducationrNovember 1992 23



calligraphy class. On a more sober note, her journal demonstrates that cultural understandings may be difficult to acquire and need knowledge, time, and sensitivity to teach. She wrote: "Theoretical, spiri- tual, and aesthetic values about art learning were focuses in my teaching Chinese calligraphy at the Institute. I gave the students a broad sense of Chinese history. Because the students had no idea about Chinese characters, art making skills of calligraphy as they relate to Chinese philosophy were a difficult barrier for me to break. The students learned about shapes, lines, and textures and word combinations and were able to learn through art criticism by comparing their works with that of their peers. But these students are educated under a Western system of art values and it is hard for them to feel the inner spirit of the living force from Chinese art. However, these West meets East experiences prove there can be an exciting interaction of cultures, concepts, and feelings in teaching art education."

In Ending It would appear that most of the goals set for the Institute were met. Authentic assessment of students' progress and achievement in art is a powerful means of demonstrating whether students and teachers have met their educational goals and what areas still need improvement. If we aspire to teach all students equitably to be performing, thinking, problem solving, and inquiring individuals, then activities we teach and assess should be related authentically to some of the problems and experiences these students will encounter in their real worlds.

Enid Zimmerman is Professor and Coordinator of Art Education at Indiana University, Bloomington.

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assessing students' progress and achievements in art

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