assessing five piano theory methods using...

Assessing Five Piano Theory Methods UsingNASM Suggested Theory Guidelines For Students

Item Type text; Electronic Thesis

Authors Van Sickle, Karen

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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http://hdl.handle.net/10150/217071

ASSESSING FIVE PIANO THEORY METHODS USING

NASM SUGGESTED THEORY GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS

by

Karen Van Sickle

________________

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

SCHOOL OF MUSIC

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2011

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an

advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available for borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission,

provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

Signed: ___________Karen Van Sickle______________

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below: Dr. Donald G. Traut ___________________ November 9, 2011 Professor of Music Theory Date

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to those who assisted me in this

process. Many thanks to Dr. Donald Traut, my advisor and chairman of my committee,

for his willingness to assist me in focusing my study, offer constructive criticism and suggestions, and encourage me through the many phases of this thesis. Thank you for allowing me to merge my musical passions into this research.

Thanks to the other members of my committee for their valuable knowledge:

Dr. Boyd Pomeroy for helping me to think as a theorist, and Dr. Shelly Cooper for her editing skills and answering many writing questions. Your support in this project was invaluable to me.

Special appreciation goes to Dr. Lisa Zdechlik for her beneficial advice as I

began this project and her expertise regarding piano pedagogy literature as I continued the research.

Thanks to Phaedra Miller and Meily Mendez who read this document with a

critical eye and offered a fresh musical perspective. I am grateful to the people of the Green Valley Evangelical Free Church who

prayed for me and encouraged me to finish strong. Finally, I could not have completed this journey without the unwavering

support and unconditional love of my husband, Bruce.

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1 Studies from two Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.2 Guidelines set by National Association of Schools of Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.3 Piano Theory Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.4 Five Theory Method Books Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

CHAPTER 2: BASIC MUSIC THEORY RUDIMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 Basic Notation and Musical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2 Scales and Key Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.3 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.4 Triads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

CHAPTER 3: EAR-TRAINING CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.1 Rhythmic and Melodic Dictation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.3 Triads and Inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.4 Sight-singing/sight-reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

CHAPTER 4: BEYOND THE BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.1 Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.2 Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.3 Composition and Improvisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS – Continued

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

5.1 First NASM Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

5.2 Second NASM Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

5.3 Third NASM Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

5.5 For Further Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

Musical Example 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Musical Example 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Musical Example 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Musical Example 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Musical Example 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Musical Example 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Musical Example 4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Figure 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Figure 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Figure 2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Figure 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Figure 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Figure 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Figure 3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Figure 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Figure 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Figure 4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Figure 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

7

ABSTRACT

Many incoming students have studied piano prior to entering college and

receive much of their theory training through music study with a piano teacher. The

National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) designed a website page for

potential students to answer the question, “How should I best prepare to enter a

conservatory, college, university as a music major?” Theoretical concepts they

suggest can be grouped into three main categories: Basic Music Theory Rudiments,

Ear-Training Skills, and Form and Harmony. This research examines five piano

theory method books (Alfred Premier Piano Course, Bastien Piano Basics, Faber

Piano Adventures, Harris Celebrate Piano!, and Kjos Fundamentals of Piano Theory)

to assess their effectiveness in presenting the theoretical concepts NASM

recommends they should know. The five books used for this study provide a basic

foundation for many of the concepts undergraduates will be expected to know as

they enter college theory courses.

8

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Many students who enter college as a music major have participated in a

variety of musical experiences from middle school through high school. They are

committed to pursuing careers as music educators, performers, composers, church

musicians, managers of music businesses, or exploring other options in the music

field. Some of these same students enter first-year theory classes possessing

considerable musical experience, but have little knowledge or understanding of

music fundamentals, let alone complex theoretical concepts.

Many colleges and universities determine incoming students’ knowledge of

music theory by administering placement tests. What should students know and

how do they obtain this knowledge? According to the National Association of

Schools of Music (NASM), no national standard exists as to the theoretical concepts

incoming music students should know. The NASM Handbook of 2010/2011 lists

general skills each student should possess, including: “the ability to relate musical

sound to notation and terminology both quickly and accurately enough to undertake

basic musicianship studies in the freshman year.”1 Each college or university

determines their own criteria for assessing these general skills through the use of

“auditions, examinations or other evaluations.”2

1 National Association of Schools of Music Handbook (2010-2011): 79.

2 Ibid.

9

This research will examine five popular theory books used by piano teachers

to investigate if they support the NASM theory recommendations and to discover if

they are beneficial for students interested in continuing music study. I will argue

that theory books found in five popular piano methods series provide an effective

tool for acquiring the knowledge and abilities encompassed within the NASM theory

guidelines for pre-college music students. These five specific books were selected

from information obtained from three nation-wide music distributors’ top-selling

method books (Prima Music, Sheet Music Plus and JW Pepper) and the methods

currently being reviewed in Clavier Companion magazine.

1.1 Studies from two Universities

Recognizing the need to examine what theoretical concepts colleges expect

incoming students to know and how schools assess such knowledge, several studies

have been completed. In the first study if its kind, the Cleveland Music Institute,

under the supervision of Richard B. Nelson, conducted a survey of colleges and

universities throughout the nation that examined undergraduate theory curricula

including placement tests, course content, and textbooks.3 Of the 248 schools that

responded, placement tests were given to assess skills in fundamentals (173

schools), part writing (48 schools), Roman numeral analysis (73 schools), and

counterpoint (10 schools). Seventy-eight schools also reported having placement

3 Richard Nelson, “The College Music Society Music Theory Undergraduate Core Curriculum

Survey—2000,” College Music Symposium 42 (2002): 60.

10

exams for aural skills (melodic dictation, interval identification, triad types) and 46

schools tested sight-singing skills. Almost all schools reported reviewing music

theory fundamentals during the first few weeks of the semester. Approximately one

half of the responding schools provided a semester-long music fundamentals class

for students with little previous music theory experience. At 172 institutions,

students could be exempt from first-year music theory by passing a placement test.4

Students enrolled in first-year theory and aural-skills courses at the

University of Missouri (Columbia) during 2004-2005 participated in a study to

determine which elements of their prior musical or educational training might be

associated with success in these two courses. Elements used in this study included

prior experience in theory experience, sight-singing with scale degree numbers or

solfège, and with a “chording instrument” such as piano or guitar as well as their

performing medium, music major or minor, American College Test (ACT) total

composite score, ACT math score, high school class rank, and score on a theory

diagnostic test.5 The most highly associated element with success in the aural-skills

classroom was the theory diagnostic exam. Researchers observed the following:

It is important to master the written skills before linking the aural reinforcement. For example, students with a full semester of written theory would already have a nascent conception of basic harmonic function and progression, in addition to musical rudiments such as intervals and scales. The preexisting foundation might lead to greater success and confidence with the aural identification of these concepts.6

4 Ibid., 62.

5 M. Rusty Jones and Martin Bergee, “Elements Associated with Success in the First-Year Music

Theory and Aural-skills Curriculum,” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 22 (2008): 93. 6 Ibid., 103-104.

11

Jones and Bergee believe students having a grasp of basic theoretical concepts prior

to aural-skills training “will begin their university training on more solid ground and

be better equipped to realize their music potential.”7

1.2 Guidelines set by National Association of Schools of Music

The National Association of Schools of Music provides a website page to

assist potential music students in their preparation for college. 8 They advise

students who intend to major in music to know the following:

Be sure that you can read both treble and bass clefs, that you know key signatures, the major and minor scales, and how to write basic notation. Knowledge of musical terms and usage is important, as is the ability to recognize intervals and basic chord types.9

Many students learn these concepts through music classes at their

elementary and/or middle school. If students choose to participate in band,

orchestra or choir, more detailed concepts may be taught. Students choosing to take

private music lessons will presumably learn these music essentials at a more

advanced level.

NASM suggests a second area of study for students:

…take every opportunity to train your ear by taking courses or studies in musicianship that include sight-singing, ear-training, sight-reading, rhythmic and harmonic dictation, and so forth. Developing the ear is a lifetime job. The earlier work is started, the better.10

7 Ibid., 107.

8 “How should I best prepare to enter a conservatory, college, university as a music major?”

FAQ 17 from NASM website. http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/index.jsp?page=FAQ+17 9 Ibid.

10 Ibid.

12

http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/index.jsp?page=FAQ+17

Students participating in choir may have opportunities for sight-singing, but ear-

training and rhythmic and harmonic dictation skills are not frequently taught in

general music classes. Some high schools offer music theory courses, but ear-

training, sight-singing, and dictation are seldom a curricular component. There are

specific ear-training books, websites and computer music programs available;

however, students may not be able to pursue these kinds of studies on their own.

The last area of skills mentioned in the NASM suggestions advise students to

take opportunities to learn the basics of musical structure, including studies in such areas as form, harmony, counterpoint, composition, and improvisation. Like so many other things in music, this knowledge is developed throughout a lifetime. Those who are able to get started early have an advantage.11

Pre-college students do not typically learn these skills; however, those who had

opportunities to enroll in high school AP theory courses may have been introduced

to some of these concepts. Students studying piano may learn some of these skills

through the pieces played and theory assignments. Some students participate in

local/state music contests which also require students to have a basic

understanding of these concepts.

1.3 Piano Theory Books

Many college music majors have some piano experience, perhaps two or

three years as a child or as much as 12 years of study. Do the piano books and

methods used by piano teachers assist them in understanding the concepts NASM is

11

Ibid.

13

suggesting? Students studying piano prior to entering college seem to be better

prepared to understand theory concepts.12 A plethora of material encompassing

theoretical skills and concepts is available to piano teachers and students, including

written books, games, and on-line resources.

Cisler made the following observation: “The growing number of available

method and supplementary theory books attests to the increasing awareness of the

importance of including the fundamentals of theory into our piano lesson curricula,

even for very young children.”13 New method series and theory books are published

frequently. Johnson provides teachers a series of questions to assist in “sifting

through” important elements when assessing the available resources. The major

topics of the article discuss reading approaches, rhythmic approaches, theory skills,

improvisation/composition, technique, repertoire, supporting technology available,

and overall aspects (editing, visual appeal, etc.).14 Under each heading, she provides

a list of questions for teachers to consider as they evaluate new methods.

The magazine Clavier Companion is currently printing a ten-part series

reviewing “the most highly respected and popular piano methods on the market

today.”15 The magazine authors provided a similar analysis in the 1980s when the

magazine was called The Piano Quarterly and they presently are evaluating new and

12 Carole S. Harrison, “Relationships Between Grades in the Components of Freshman Music

Theory and Selected Background Variables,” Journal of Research in Music Education, 38:1 (1990): 181.

13 Valerie Cisler, “Moving from ‘Theory’ to ‘Style Analysis’: An Effective Means For Developing Performance Interpretation,” Piano Pedagogy Forum 8, no. 2 (2005). http://www.music.sc.edu/ea/keyboard/PPF/8.1/8.1.PPFcisler.html

14 Rebecca Grooms Johnson, “There’s A New Series In The Music Store—How Should I Evaluate It?” Clavier Companion, 1, no. 5 (2009): 18-19.

15 Rebecca Grooms Johnson, “Perspectives in Pedagogy,” Clavier Companion 1, no. 6 (2009): 10.

14

http://www.music.sc.edu/ea/keyboard/PPF/8.1/8.1.PPFcisler.html

revised core method books written after1980. In the current magazine editions

(2009-2011), an associate editor gives an introductory synopsis of the method,

followed by articles authored by piano teachers who currently use the featured

method in their studios. In the consecutive issues, the author(s) of the method has

the opportunity to respond to the review.

Of the piano method series the authors reviewed, the specific theory books

are discussed in the introduction, usually including information regarding the

theory book in the series—or lack thereof—and how it correlates with the other

books. When the teachers provide opinions on the methods, some offer further

detail as to the concepts included. For example, when evaluating the Piano Discovery

series, Paula Harrison notes the following: “as is the case with so many other theory

methods, this series by itself does not adequately prepare students for the MTNA

state theory exams.”16 Celebrate Piano! was reviewed in November/December 2010

and the reviewing author mentioned the “outstanding aspect” of the ear training,

dictation and singing activities this series incorporates.17

Many theory method books correlate with other books by the same

publisher; however, there are some “stand alone” theory books that can be used

with any approach to teaching. The authors of one such series, Theory Gymnastics,

have applied Bloom’s taxonomy in writing their theory series.18 Each new theory

16

Paula Harrison, “Perspectives in Pedagogy,” Clavier Companion 2, no. 1 (2010): 32. 17

Rebecca Grooms Johnson, “Perspectives in Pedagogy,” Clavier Companion, 2, no. 6 (2010): 35. 18

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom led a group of educational psychologists in developing a classification of educational objectives which attempts to divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from the simplest behavior to the most complex.

15

concept moves through the six levels he and others developed: remember,

understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create.19 The authors use “discovery

pages,” “challenge pages,” “thinker pages,” and “review pages” to thoroughly teach

theory concepts.

1.4 Five Theory Method Books Studied

Premier Piano Course, designed for students age seven to twelve, is one of the

newest series by Alfred Publishing, with the sixth level completed in 2010. This

series includes a Lessons, Technique, Performance, and Theory Book. In addition to

the written theory drills, the theory book includes the following three sections: 1)

“Fun Zone,” where students explore music through written games and puzzles; 2)

“Imagination Station,” where students learn to compose and create; and 3)

“Learning Link,” where students discover facts related to history, science, and other

subjects from daily life based on the music included in the Lesson and Performance

books.

James and Jane Bastien wrote their first method series in the early 1960s and

published the Piano Basic series in 1985, updating with colorful pictures and bigger

notes. The Bastiens have written five levels of Technique, Piano, Performance, and

Theory books, with supplemental books available for theory (notespellers, chords,

scales, etc.). This series is written especially for students age seven to eleven. Piano

19

Charlene Zundel, “Theory Gymnastics,” (Workshop, MTNA National Convention, Albuquerque, NM, March 23, 2010).

16

Basics is the oldest of the books being considered for this research and continues to

be widely used by piano teachers.

In 2003, Frederick Harris Music Company released Celebrate Piano! for

students age five to nine and is designed for students to continue their piano study

in the Celebration Series or other intermediate literature. Celebrate Piano! is an all-

inclusive set of books, combining piano technique, pieces for students to learn,

theory, and ear-training within each book. This unique feature distinguishes it from

the other series being studied. The authors have written these books on the

principles of preparation, presentation, and follow-up.20 Prior to seeing a particular

concept in repertoire, a student is prepared by feeling and experiencing the concept.

In presentation, the concept or element is included in repertoire. The authors expect

students to use these concepts in various activities and are eventually asked to

apply them in another situation such as improvisation or composition through

review and follow-up.

Piano Adventures by Randall and Nancy Faber includes many different levels

of method books depending on the starting age of the student (young beginner,

older beginner, adult beginner). The books used for this research were written in

1993 and are intended for use by students ages six to twelve. The theory books

20

Cathy Albergo, et.al., Celebrate piano! Teacher’s Guide, Level 1. (Mississauga, Ontario: The Frederick Harris Music Co., Ltd., 2002), 7.

17

provide “instruction, reinforcement, and creative applications of basic theory

concepts through writing, sight-reading, and ear-training activities.”21

Fundamentals of Piano Theory by Keith Snell and Martha Ashleigh is a series

of eleven books correlating with the Kjos piano series, Essentials of Piano Repertoire;

however, these theory books can be used independently. The books, published in

1998, are comprehensive in their study of music theory. Many theoretical concepts

are reviewed in subsequent levels, giving students ample practice on the basic

rudiments of music theory. Fundamentals of Piano Theory is very integrated with the

study of traditional piano literature, using excerpts and complete pieces for teaching

various concepts.

Many students study piano prior to studying music in college. I intend to

show that the theory methods which provide written theory exercises, incorporate

ear-training, and use piano literature (or excerpts from pieces students are

learning) to explore theoretical concepts, will be an effective way for acquiring the

knowledge pre-college music students will need entering college level theory

courses.

21

Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures. (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: FJH Music Co, 1993), inside cover.

18

CHAPTER 2: BASIC MUSIC THEORY RUDIMENTS

The first NASM guideline suggests students have knowledge of many of the

basic fundamentals of music theory: notation, reading notes in treble and bass clef,

basic musical terms, key signatures, scales, intervals, and chords.22 Some students

learn these concepts from varying sources such as elementary school music classes,

choir classes, playing an orchestral or band instrument or studying piano. This

chapter focuses on these concepts and how five piano theory method books teach

these fundamentals.

2.1 Basic Notation and Musical Terms

Basic notation is defined in several ways. In Fundamentals of Music, by Earl

Henry, the first two chapters are devoted to notation. He states composers have

“represented sounds with symbols,” a process called notation.23 These chapters

include reading notes on the staff and learning rhythmic values. Also included is

notating music with correct placement of stems and other notation elements such as

tie, accent, staccato, slur. Figures 2.1—2.5 outline the pace at which notes and

rhythms are introduced. Octave designation has been used to specify the exact

pitches taught. The lowest two notes on the piano are identified as A0 and B0. From

there, each C becomes the lowest pitch of each octave. Middle C is classified as C4 .

22

“How should I best prepare to enter a conservatory, college, university as a music major?” FAQ 17 from NASM website. http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/index.jsp?page=FAQ+17

23 Earl Henry, Fundamentals of Music Theory, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009), 2.

19


The authors did not include “clever sayings” to teach notes names; rather,

they use landmark notes or specific 5-finger positions. Premier Piano Course and

Piano Adventures begin with landmark notes of bass clef F, treble clef G and middle

C. Bastien’s Piano Basics first teaches C major 5-finger position. Celebrate Piano!

does not use clefs until the second book, instead utilizes an intervallic approach on a

generic staff. The authors use a staff and identify the notes and corresponding lines

accordingly. When bass clef and treble clef are introduced, landmark notes of bass c,

middle c, and treble c are identified first, followed by bass f and treble g.

Fundamentals of Piano Theory includes staff notes in the very first book and note

name drills in the first two books. Piano Adventures and Premier Piano Course use

the Lessons book to reinforce note name concepts by asking students to name the

first note of a piece or locate where a specific note is in the piece.

All the method books teach notation and rhythm through sixteenth notes. As

shown on Figures 2.1-2.5, each method presents these concepts at about the same

rate. A variety of drills instruct students to write counts under a specific rhythmic

pattern or complete the measures lacking in the correct note and rest values. A

common activity in two of the books is musical math: adding the values of the

different notes to obtain an answer.

All books begin with 4/4, 3/4 and 2/4 time signatures. Celebrate Piano! first

uses the number 4 on the top with a quarter note on the bottom to reinforce the

concept that a quarter note receives one count. Each series also introduces 6/8, 3/8

or 9/8 later in their series. Each book describes the top number as the number of

20

counts per measure and the lower number referring to an eighth note as receiving

one beat. Some then include a chart of the notes, rests, and their values. None of the

books use the terms compound meter for 6/8 or explain the concept of duple, triple

or quadruple meter. Fundamentals of Piano Theory does include a little box that

describes the following: “A measure in 6/8 can be divided in half, creating a feeling

of two pulses per measure.”24 Piano Adventures encourages students to feel two

beats per measure in music with time signatures of 6/8, but no other explanation is

provided. All the methods give opportunities for students to write in the counts, clap

the rhythm, play the rhythm, and complete measures with missing notes.

All five method series explain basic musical terminology, including dynamics,

various tempi and important symbols such as the repeat sign, fermata, 8va. They

also include exercises placing dynamic symbols from softest to loudest. In another

drill that is similar, students arrange tempo marks from slowest to fastest. The most

common tempi taught in these books are Adagio, Andante, Moderato, Allegro. Some

will also use Largo and Presto. Two of the five series describe more Italian musical

terms than the others. Premier Piano Course teaches such terms as misterioso,

animato, tranquillo, cantabile, cadenza and sostenuto. Fundamentals of Piano Theory

teaches many terms throughout all levels. After the basic terms have been presented

in Primer through Level 3, Level 4 has two pages of Signs and Terms that are

24 Keith Snell and Martha Ashleigh. Fundamentals of Piano Theory Level 2, (San Diego, CA:

Neil A. Kjos Music Co., 1998), 6.

21

divided into Dynamics, Character or Style, Tempo, Articulation. Each level adds

more sophisticated musical vocabulary to these categories.

2.2 Scales and Key Signatures

Notes and rhythms are the most fundamental aspects of reading music.

Understanding scales and key signatures is considered an important building block

as students continue learning theoretical concepts. For students to become skilled at

recognizing intervals and chord qualities, they must be confident in knowing key

signatures and scales. Piano method books present these concepts in a variety of

ways. One approach is to teach that the major scale consists of seven notes, each

with a different letter name and containing a specific pattern of half steps and whole

steps. For example, a G major scale begins on g with a pattern of whole step, whole

step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole step, and half step. Using this pattern,

an f# occurs on the seventh note. After learning the scale, the key signature is then

taught by placing the accidentals associated with the particular scale on the staff.

Piano Adventures and Premier Piano Course first present scales and key signatures in

this manner.

A variation on teaching scales as an 8-note set of whole steps and half-steps

is to teach that a major scale consists of two tetrachords with a pattern of whole

step, whole step, half step connected by a whole step. Celebrate Piano! and Piano

Basics make use of this technique to demonstrate scales. One other way piano

methods teach key signatures is to teach 5-finger patterns, using the pattern of

22

whole step, whole step, half step, whole step. Students are then taught the tonic

chord and the key signature of a specific pattern. Bastien’s Piano Basics teaches the

key signatures of C, G and F in this way. All methods eventually present the order of

sharps and flats and the major key signatures based on the order of sharps of flats.

Celebrate Piano! introduces major key signatures using this system with sharp keys

in Level 2A and major key signatures with flats in Level 2B, but delays teaching

scales until Level 4. In addition to teaching key signatures Celebrate Piano!, Piano

Adventures and Fundamentals of Piano Theory include the circle of fifths in

reinforcing key signatures.

Fundamentals of Piano Theory is structured differently than the other four

methods being studied. This series is part of the Kjos Library and correlates with

some of their other books; however these books do not have a page-by-page

connection as do the other methods being discussed. This particular theory book

presents concepts at a faster pace. As figure 2.5 illustrates, the Primer book presents

major and minor key signatures of no sharps or flats, one sharp, and one flat. It also

teaches major and minor 5-finger patterns and tetrachord scales of C, G, and F.

None of the other series present such detailed information in the first book.

Some method books teach many minor scales and key signatures, while

others only two or three. (See the figures at the end of the chapter to see the list of

minor scales presented in each method.) At some point in these methods, all identify

the difference between natural and harmonic minor; three of them present melodic

minor scales. All discuss relative minor scales and only Celebrate Piano!, Piano

23

Basics and Fundamentals of Piano Theory present parallel major and minor

scales/keys.

2.3 Intervals

Intervals are defined as “the distance in pitch between two notes.”25 All five

of the method books use this definition to explain an interval. Two of the books

teach intervals of second through fifth in the first book and others present them

over the course of two books. As students play and learn each interval, many of the

books have examples that incorporate writing intervals, hearing intervals,

composing with various intervals, and identifying them within the repertoire pieces.

Most of the books begin with the basic concept of steps and skips, before providing

the name of the intervals as “seconds” and “thirds.” These books use a variety of

ways to recognize intervals which include identifying ascending and descending

intervals on a keyboard, given a starting note, direction and interval number write

the appropriate interval, naming an interval shown on a staff, and using alphabet

letters to name intervals. All of the books present harmonic and melodic intervals.

Four of the method books discuss the quality of intervals: Piano Basics,

Celebrate Piano!, Piano Adventures and Fundamentals of Piano Theory. Some use a

major scale to teach interval quality within that scale. Bastien teaches all four

qualities of intervals using the heading of “Altered Intervals.” Students identify

25 Lindsey C. Harnsberger, Essential Dictionary of Music, (Los Angeles: Alfred Publishing, Co.,

Inc., 1998), 69.

24

major or perfect intervals within a scale and alter the top note based on the quality

given. Fundamentals of Piano Theory teaches intervals in this same manner. Faber

also uses scales to teach intervals; however, perfect, major and minor intervals are

first classified using half steps and whole steps. For example, a major third is

identified as two whole steps or four half steps. Perfect intervals are taught both by

half steps and by using the lower note as the tonic note of a scale to count four or

five notes higher. The tritone is mentioned as neither perfect, major, nor minor.

Major sevenths are identified as a half step smaller than an octave and minor

sevenths are a whole step smaller than an octave.

2.4 Triads

Learning how to identify letter names and triad qualities is another basic

element in studying music theory. For pianists, chords are often presented as an

opportunity to play a melody with an accompaniment. All method series use the

definition of a triad as three note chord consisting of a root, third and fifth with the

letter name of the chord being the root. Two of the series studied do not introduce

chords until the last two levels in their books. Most of these methods present chords

as they teach 5-finger patterns or scales. They all apply Roman numerals I, IV and V

to teach tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. The Faber and Bastien series

teach triads very early in their books and students first learn to play V7 as a two note

“chord” to accommodate small hands which may not be able to reach an interval of a

sixth found in the first inversion chord.

25

The concept of major and minor triads is introduced at various points

throughout each series using different methods. Figures 2.1-2.5 list when each

method begins teaching this concept. Alfred begins teaching relative minor keys and

scales in Level 4. The authors use this opportunity to also teach minor triads. There

is no explanation of the interval difference in the third between the two triads and

generally students are to use their ear to hear the difference. Bastien also presents

minor scales as they teach minor chords; however the authors are careful to

distinguish between the major third and the minor third. Students are directed to

write the names of chords and play them to hear the difference. Celebrate Piano!

presents major chords in Level 2B and minor chords in Level 3. When teaching

minor triads, the authors use 5-finger minor patterns, showing students parallel

major and minor patterns and describing the difference of the third scale degree

being lowered one half step. Minor root position triads are then written based on

the 5-finger pattern. The authors of Piano Adventures present major and minor

triads after they teach the concept of major and minor thirds. Earlier in the book,

students learned about a minor and d minor and the chord progression of i-iv-V7 –I,

but at this juncture, the authors provide more detail and practice of major and

minor chords. They provide some unique drills for learning triads as shown in

musical example 2.1 on the next page.

26

Musical Example 2.1 26

26

Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures Level 3B (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: FJH Music Co., 1993), 25-26.

27

Fundamentals of Piano Theory presents triads in the Primer book, teaching major

and minor triads as they relate to 5-finger patterns. This book also uses parallel

major and minor as students identify triads, writing the patterns on a keyboard.

This series continues to review major and minor chords through each level, more

than any other method book. Alfred, Bastien and Kjos series also teach the qualities

of diminished and augmented triads.

Inversions of triads are presented in four of the method books a few pages

after the concept of triads are taught. Celebrate Piano! teaches inversions in the last

book of their series. In three of the books, students have already been playing what

are termed “chord progressions”; however, the inversion concept has not been fully

explained. Faber Piano Adventures is the only series being studied that provides

several pages of instruction for inversions. All others present the concept on one

page, with written drills on subsequent pages. Each book instructs students to

identify the root or the name of the chord by locating the interval of a fourth within

the chord; the top note of the fourth is the chord name, or root. Although Celebrate

Piano! introduces inversions in its last book, the authors use pieces students are

learning to reinforce this concept through the remainder of the book. Fundamentals

of Piano Theory also does an outstanding job of using piano literature to reinforce

identification triads and inversions in literature. Students using Fundamentals of

Piano Theory will continue to receive more exhaustive training on triads and chords.

Figure 2.5 lists the skills students will learn.

28

Students completing any one of these five series will have received training

in the basic elements of music theory: note names, key signatures, scales, basic

notation, intervals and triads. Each book is unique in its presentation and some

include more information than others, but all provide the basic theoretical concepts

students need to understand for further music study.

29

Alfred Premier Piano Course

NASM Standard: Written Exercises

Level 1A Level 1B Level 2A Level 2B

Treble and Bass Clef notes C3-C4; C4-G4 G2-D4; C4-D5 C5-G5 Bass clef:C2-F2; C4-E4; Treble clef: A3-C4

Key Signatures C and G major Major Scales C major 5-finger pattern

Middle C 5-finger pattern G major 5-finger pattern D, A major 5-finger

pattern C and G major

Minor Scales c, g, d, a 5-finger pattern Basic Notation

˛¸ tie, legato, staccato Crescendo, decrescendo Accent, tempi

ŒÂ Ω

Intervals Skips/steps Up/down

Harmonic/melodic 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Half/whole step

6th 7th. Octave Melodic/harmonic

Triads I-V7 in C, G, D major Roman numeral and name Tonic/Dominant

I-V7 in C, G Arpeggios of C, G, D, A

Figure 2.1

30

Premier Piano Course

NASM Standard: Written Exercises

Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6

Treble Clef notes Bass Clef: A1-E2, C4-E4; Treble Clef: A3-C4; A5-E6

Key Signatures C, G, F major Sharp keys Flat keys Major Scales F, D Major

Chromatic A, E, B, B E , A , D

Minor Scales Natural/harmonic Relative major/minor a, e minor

d and g c, b Melodic minor

Basic Notation 6/8 3/8 Cut time 6/8; 3/8 Various sixteenth note patterns

Mixed Meter

Intervals Triads IV in C, G, F

I-iv-V7 in a and e minor Name root position triads Major/minor quality Inversions

Augmented triads I-IV-I-V7-I progression in

A, E, B, B Major

g minor

Diminished triads

I-IV-I-V7-I in A , D

ii-V7-I progression Diatonic triads in F, G and D major

Figure 2.1 continued

31

Bastien Piano Basics

NASM Standards: Written Exercises

Primer Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

Treble and bass Clef notes

C3-D4; C4-D5 F2-D4; C4-G5 C4-E4, C2-E2; A5-C6; A3-C-4

Bass clef: B1, F4; Treble clef: D6, G3

Key Signatures

C, F, G Order of sharps, All major sharp key signatures

Order of flats, All major flat keys; a, e, b, d, g, f minor

Given key signature name, write appropriate sharps/flats

Major Scales C 5-finger; Middle C position; G 5-finger pattern

F 5-finger pattern C, G, F, D, A, E Tetrachords

D-flat; A ; E ;

Chromatic scale

G ; B ; B

Parallel major/minor Scale degree names

Minor Scales a, d natural, harmonic and melodic minor

e minor Review a and d

Basic Notation

Slur, tie

Staccato, tempi Crescendo, decrescendo Accent

Ω

6/8

Intervals

2nd, 3rd, 4th 5th Up, down repeat Melodic, harmonic

Half step, whole step Octave Intervals within a major scale: major, minor, diminished, augmented

Triads

C chord 1-V7 (2 note) in C, F, G

I, IV, V in C, G, F, D, A, E Inversions I-IV-I-V-I progression

All M/m triads a/d minor i, iv, V7

D , A , E

i-iv-V7 in e minor Aug, Dim, V7/inversions

G ; B , B major triads

of a major scale

Figure 2.2 32

Harris Celebrate Piano!

NASM Standard Written Exercises


Treble and bass Clef notes Line or space notes

G2-D4; B3-G5 G1-E2; A5-F6

Key Signatures All major sharp keys All major flat keys Review all major sharp keys

Major Scales All major 5-fnger patterns

except C#, G and C

Tonic/Dominant notes within a 5-finger pattern

Minor Scales Basic notation Œ

Ω Œ Intervals 2nds , 3rds

Up/down/same Melodic/harmonic

4ths , 5ths Half/whole step 6ths

7ths Octaves

Triads Tonic triads Identify root position triads

Figure 2.3

33

Celebrate Piano!


Level 3 Level 4

Treble and bass Clef notes Key Signatures Relative minor

Parallel minor Circle of 5ths

Major Scales Tetrachords to teach complete scales: C, F, G, D, A, E major Whole tone Chromatic Pentatonic

Minor Scales Minor 5-finger patterns a minor Natural and harmonic

Basic notation 6/8; 9/8

Cut time Syncopation

Intervals Major/minor 2nds/3rds/6ths Perfect 4ths/5ths/8ths

Major/minor 7th

Triads Minor triads I-IV-V7

i-V7

Inversions i-iv-V7-i


34

Faber Piano Adventures


Primer Level 1 Level 2A Level 2B

Treble and Bass Clef notes C3-C4; C4-G4 G2-D4; G4-G5 C2; C6 Key Signatures C, G and F major Major Scales C major 5-finger pattern

Middle C position G major 5-finger pattern D and A major 5-finger

pattern C , G, and F major scale Tonic, Dominant and Leading tone notes

Minor Scales c, g, a, d minor 5-finger pattern

Basic notation Œ accent, slur, staccato

Crescendo, decrescendo

Ω

Intervals Step, skip Up, down, same

2nds, 3rds, 4ths, 5ths Harmonic/Melodic Half step

Transpose using intervallic relationship Whole steps

6ths

Triads Tonic/Dominant I-V7 in C

I chord in D and A

I-IV-V7-I in C, G, F major

Figure 2.4

35

Piano Adventures


Level 3A Level 3B Level 4 Level 5

Treble and Bass Clef notes A1-F2; G5-E6 Key Signatures D major a and d minor Distinguish between C

major and a minor Naming all sharp major keys

Circle of 5ths Naming all flat major keys c, g, d, a, e minor

Major Scales D major Chromatic

E major F, B , E and E major

Minor Scales a and d minor Natural, harmonic and melodic

Relative minor scales Harmonic scales

d minor

Basic notation Cut time 3/8; 6/8

More rhythms with sixteenth notes/rests

Compound meter

Intervals 7ths Octave Major/minor 3rds Intervals within a major scale

P 4, 5, 8 Major/minor 2nds, 3rds, 6ths, 7ths

Triads I-IV-V7 in D major i-iv-V7 in a and d minor Major/minor triads Inversions

Review inversions Naming I, IV, V in a given key Letter names of chords Inversions


36

Kjos Library Fundamentals of Piano Theory


Primer Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Treble and Bass Clef notes

F2-C4; C4-G5 B1-F4; G3-D6

Key Signatures C, F, G major a, d e minor

Circle of 5ths

C, G, D, F, B major

Order of sharps/flats All major

Minor to 4# and 4

Use literature to identify keys Write and identify all keys

Major Scales 5-finger patterns: C, F, G, D, A, E Tetrachord scales: C, G, F

All 5-finger patterns Tetrachord scales: C, G,

D, F, B

Tetrachord Review All major scales

All major scales

Minor Scales 5-finger patterns: c, g, f, d, a, e

5-finger patterns: a, e, b, d, g

a, e, d, g Relative minor: C/a, G/e, D/b,

F/d, B /g, E /c

Natural, harmonic, melodic Basic notation Œ

Ω

Review Primer level 3/8; 6/8

Review 6/8 Cut time Syncopation

Review Level 1-2

Intervals 2nds, 3rds, 4ths, 5ths Melodic/harmonic Half/whole step

6ths, 7ths, octave Review 2nds through octave Half/whole steps

Interval quality within a scale

Triads Major: C, G, F, D, A, E Minor: c, g, f, d, a, e

All major/minor Tonic, Dominant

I-IV-V in C, G, D, F, B

Major Inversions

All Major/minor Inversions I-IV-V in C, G, D, A, E, F,

B , E , A

Dominant Seventh chords

All major/minor triads Augmented/diminished Inversions I-IV-V; i-iv-V (tonic/subdominant/dominant) Chord progressions

Figure 2.5 37

Fundamentals of Piano Theory



Treble and Bass Clef notes Key Signatures Circle of 5ths

Write and identify all major/minor keys

Circle of 5ths Write/identify all major/minor keys (6 pages)

Same as Level 4 (6 pages) Same as Level 4 (3 pages)

Major Scales Review all Scale degree names

Same as Level 4 (4 pages) Chromatic scale

Same as Level 4 (4 pages) Same as Level 4 (2 pages)

Minor Scales Review Relative key Review all 3 forms Parallel Major/minor Scale degree names (harmonic form)

Same as Level 4 (6 pages) Same as Level 4 (6 pages) Same as Level 4 (2 Pages)

Basic notation Strong-weak beats Thirty-second notes

Intervals Major/minor 2nds/3rds/6ths/7ths Augmented/diminished

Same as Level 4 (4 pages) Same as Level 4, using intervals that include double sharp/double flat

Same as Level 6 (2 pages)

Triads Review Major/minor Augmented/diminished Inversions Triads of major/minor scale Open/close position Primary/secondary chords Inversions of V7 chords

Same as Level 4, using more excerpts from literature

Same as Level 4 Figured bass to identify all chords Primary/Secondary triads

Same as Level 4 Figured Bass Primary/Secondary chords All qualities of seventh chords and inversions Secondary dominant

Figure 2.5 continued 38



Level 8 Level 9 Level 10

Treble and Bass Clef notes

Key Signatures Review all (2 pages) Review all (2 pages) Review all (2 pages) Major Scales Same as Level 4

Whole Tone scale Review (1 page) Whole tone scale

Review (1 page)

Minor Scales Review all Parallel minor

Review (3 pages) Review (3 pages)

Basic notation Review all time signatures and note/rest values

Hemiola Simple/compound rhythms Irregular meter

Intervals Review all (2 pages) Review all (2 pages) Review (2 pages) Triads Review all qualities and

inversions Chords within a scale Seventh chords in a major scale 5 qualities of seventh chords Secondary Dominant

Review all qualities and inversions Seventh chords in a major scale, with inversions Diminished seventh chords Secondary Dominant

Same as Level 8


39

CHAPTER 3: EAR-TRAINING CONCEPTS

Most musicians view ear-training skills as an important component of their

success. Composers need to accurately write the music for performers to play or

sing. Conductors need the ability to compare the music they hear with what they see

on the page, making sure notes and rhythms are correct. Singers are sometimes

instructed to sing a part without music provided. Amateur musicians may want to

be able to play a familiar song without buying sheet music. Ear-training skills,

although perhaps a difficult task for some students to accomplish, can be learned.

Pre-college students arrive with a varying degree of mastery. Some may be able to

hear a song and sing or play it back with ease. Others can hear a rhythm and clap it

back with excellent accuracy. Some students have difficulty hearing the difference

between major and minor chords. NASM states developing the ear is a lifetime job,

so where and how should students begin?

The five books being studied within this document (Premier Piano Course,

Celebrate Piano!, Piano Adventures, Piano Basics and Fundamentals of Piano Theory)

include a variety of techniques to teach ear-training. Figures 3.1—3.4 provide a

listing of the concepts taught within each method. Premier Piano Course, Celebrate

Piano!, and Piano Adventures place their aural exercises strategically throughout

each book, reinforcing the written drills students have completed. Fundamentals of

Piano Theory locates all ear-training drills on two pages at the end of each book.

Bastien’s Piano Basics does not incorporate ear-training in its series.

40

3.1 Rhythmic and Melodic Dictation

The authors of these books gently guide students into ear-training. Most of

the beginning ear-training examples are rhythmic in nature with the teacher

clapping a rhythm and the student identifying quarter notes and half notes. Short

melodic exercises soon follow. In the four books with ear-training, short melodies

are played or clapped and the student must select one of two possible answers.

These beginning exercises are four-to eight-note patterns with students selecting

which example the teacher has clapped or played. The students are guided to look

for the differences between the two examples and then listen accordingly. This type

of ear-training teaches students to carefully discriminate between and/or match

their aural and visual skills and is a good way for students to begin their ear-

training. Michael Rogers calls this type of training “error-detection” exercises.27

Rhythmic and melodic dictation examples in Premier Piano Course and

Fundamentals of Piano Theory are almost exclusively this drill type.

As students progress in their musical training using these books, more

complex exercises occur. Piano Adventures Level 4 includes a unique melodic

exercise, first showing a scale on the staff. The teacher plays the tonic chord and

continues with a melody. Students identify which note of the scale is the last note of

the melody. Students are learning to hear a melody within a context of a scale, not

just a series of intervals. A further activity is presented when students learn about

27 Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory, (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois

University Press, 2004), 115.

41

the circle of fifths. Students are to listen to a piece composed based upon the circle

of fifths. They are instructed to listen carefully to the bass note and identify the last

bass note played. This important concept teaches students to listen to a bass line,

not just a single melody.

Celebrate Piano! incorporates “clap backs” in every unit where the teacher

claps a rhythm with the student repeating. Many times this activity serves as

preparation for a rhythm to be learned. As the student progresses through level 1B

and beyond, more complex melodic dictation exercises are provided. In Level 2A, a

starting note is given and students are to write in the next two notes played by the

teacher with rhythmic and pitch accuracy. In Level 2B, students are given the key

signature and first note and then complete the next two measures. By Level 4,

students identify the first note from hearing the tonic triad and then complete the

melody. In these last two examples, the authors instruct students to write the

rhythm above the staff first and then complete the notes on the staff using the

correct rhythm.

Fundamentals of Piano Theory presents limited rhythmic and melodic

dictation exercises. Although one type of dictation is included in every book, there

are only two to four dictation examples and the student always has a choice

between two possible answers. For several of the melodic dictation examples, the

only difference between the two examples is one in major and the other minor. In

most of those examples, the authors have written the exercise on the staff and

included the terms “major” or “minor” above the example making it easy for the

42

student to choose the proper answer; students only have to listen for major or

minor and not read the notes on the staff. Asking the student to identify the exercise

as major or minor before hearing it would add another level of learning. The student

would see the difference between the major and minor written notation and then

hear the difference between major and minor, choosing the correct example the

teacher has played.

3.2 Intervals

Many colleges and ear-training books dedicate time and space, respectively,

to interval identification.28 Students in a first-year college aural skills program will

encounter interval identification. Piano students using these four books will enter

college with some experience in interval recognition. The training begins with the

basic concept of listening to ascending, descending, or repeating melodic patterns.

Piano Adventures first starts with the concept of high sounds and low sounds before

moving into interval direction. Proceeding from these concepts, all the authors move

to steps and skips (second and third). Fundamentals of Piano Theory only has

exercises where students have a choice between two intervals they hear. As early as

Level 1 in the Faber series and Level 1B in the Alfred series, the authors provide a

starting note and students are instructed to write in the next note they hear. The

directions state, however, the answer will be one of two possible choices (e.g., fourth

or fifth). These two books also quiz knowledge in hearing ascending and descending

28 Ibid., 105.

43

intervals. In levels 3 and 4 of Celebrate Piano!, students are directed to write the

interval they hear, with the lower note given. If students complete all levels of these

books, there is plenty of opportunity to practice distinguishing all intervals between

unison and octave.

Not all books, however, teach the quality of intervals. Piano Adventures Level

5 provides one page of “hints” for aural interval recognition of major and minor

seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths, but includes no specific drills. The Alfred series

has students recognizing intervals up to an octave, but no quality is taught. After

Level 3, there is no aural review of intervals. Fundamentals of Piano Theory offers

listening to all intervals second through octave in Levels 1-6 with

major/minor/perfect intervals being quizzed from Level 7-10.

3.3 Triads and Inversions

Exercises with triads can be divided into two different categories: 1)

distinguishing quality and inversion of a triad and, 2) identifying the sound of

chords within a chord progression. Each of these series provides opportunities for

drill focusing on the quality of major and minor triads in root position. Premier

Piano Course exercises do not occur until Level 5 and 6; Celebrate Piano! introduces

triads in Level 3. Piano Adventures has students playing chords for harmonization in

Level 1, but does not quiz aural recognition of major/minor until Level 2B.

Fundamentals of Piano Theory discusses major/minor root position triads in the

Primer book. Chord quality of augmented and diminished are studied in

44

Fundamentals of Piano Theory, Premier Piano Course and Piano Adventures.

Fundamentals of Piano Theory expands on teaching triads by including open position

chords, various seventh chords, and inversions exercises.

Hearing triads in a position other than root position will help train students

to listen for a note in the bass other than the root. These four books present the

concept of inversions; however, there are not many drills for student practice. In

Level 3B of Piano Adventures, students will choose between two examples of several

chords that include inversions played by the teacher. In Level 4, the teacher plays a

root position chord, followed by inversions of the same chord. Students are to

identify the last chord they hear. (See musical example 3.1)

Premier Piano Course has one exercise involving inversions. Students are

presented with two alternative versions of a three-or four-chord example the

teacher will play, and they are to circle the correct notation. This exercise does not

allow students to hear specific inversions, but rather discern the difference between

the two examples by identifying the pattern they see. Fundamentals of Piano Theory

introduces the concept of inversions in Level 1, but aural examples are not included

until Level 9. Students will hear either a first-inversion or second-inversion chord

with figured bass provided under each chord. The examples are very similar in

notes (e.g., C major in first inversion or A major in second inversion). Students need

to listen carefully to discern the differences between the chords. Celebrate Piano!

45

Musical Example 3.129

29

Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures, Level 4, (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: FJH Music Co., 1993), 17.

46

presents the concept of inversions in Level 4. The student has many opportunities

for writing various inversions and playing inversions; however there are no aural

drills.

An important skill for musicians is the ability to aurally recognize and

identify chord progressions. Students gain a strong sense of tonality and hear

harmonic progressions as they learn to play, write and hear I-IV-V7 chord

progressions. All of the books with ear-training drills have aural exercises for

students to hear the difference between I and V7 chords. In Level 1 of Piano

Adventures the authors have the student first listen for a tonic and dominant note

and later add chords based on those scale degrees. A variety of drills exist in the

different methods; however, the most common exercise is where the teacher will

play several I-V7 chords in a row with the student identifying the last chord. The

subdominant chord is introduced after students have had ample opportunities to

practice the I-V7 progression. As more keys are introduced, students play, write and

hear the progressions in those keys. The Faber, Alfred and Harris books include

exercises where students write the chords played by the teacher, sometimes with a

melody, sometimes just the chords alone. Levels 5-10 of Fundamentals of Piano

Theory incorporate exercises for students to identify authentic, plagal, half and

deceptive cadences, as shown in musical example 3.2.

47


30

Keith Snell and Martha Ashleigh, Fundamentals of Piano Theory, Level 8, (San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music Co., 1999), 57.

48

3.4 Sight-reading/sight-singing

The only series that includes sight-singing is Celebrate Piano! The authors

incorporate four- to eight-measure songs for each interval including major/minor

qualities. The first song is “Middle C Safari” and the student is directed to match

their voice with the sound of Middle C and sing, “This is the sound of Middle C.”

Continuing in Level 1A students will learn “Busy Bee Song” containing major

seconds and “Cuckoo Bird Song” comprised of major thirds. Each level introduces

more songs as intervals are learned, with all intervals with major and minor quality

learned by Levels 3 and 4. The authors begin using solfège in Level 2B, with the

student singing a C major 5-finger pattern. They also provide the option of using

scale degree numbers. Students advancing through the next two books are

encouraged to sing the interval songs with solfège or scale numbers. There are other

short pieces for students to sing using solfège--all in major keys. Musical example

3.3 shows an excerpt from one of these exercises. Most piano theory books do not

include any sight-singing drills; therefore, students using this series will gain

experience prior to entering college.

Of the five books studied, only three have actual sight-reading examples.

Playing a piece for the first time might be considered sight-reading, and by

definition, that is true. However, to sight-read a piece well is a skill to be learned. It

can be difficult to keep eyes moving ahead, keep a steady beat, play all notes

correctly and read more than one clef at a time.

49


31

Cathy Albergo, et.al., Celebrate Piano! Level 2B, (Mississauga, Ontario: The Frederick Harris Music Co., Ltd.,2002), 46.

50

The exercises in all levels of the Alfred series are short with a majority using

one clef. Many of the sight-reading examples involve the concept previously

presented in the theory and lessons book. Although there are no specific suggestions

given on how to sight-read, the authors usually provide a leading question to guide

the student in their playing. The Faber series includes “Eye Training” (sight-reading)

exercises that are a continuation of prior presented concepts. In the Primer Level,

the authors have included three suggestions for students learning to sight-read: 1)

Look through and identify the hand position and notice the rhythm; 2) Set a slow

and steady beat before playing; and 3) Keep going no matter what.32 These

suggestions are repeated throughout the first two books as students continue to

learn sight-reading skills using one clef. By Level 2B, students are reading two clefs

and in Level 3A, students are sight-reading and transposing four to six measures of

music. Fundamentals of Piano Theory concludes each book with two pages of sight-

reading. The authors give the same very detailed instructions in each level as

students sight-read two staves of music beginning in the Primer Level. The three to

five examples in each level provide opportunities for playing in many keys and each

level becomes increasingly more advanced in key, rhythm and length. Bastien Piano

Basics does not include specific sight-reading examples.

These method series provide a wide-range of ear-training, sight-reading and

sight-singing exercises. Bastien Piano Basics does not include any of these skills.

32 Nancy and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures Primer Level, (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: FJH Music

Company, Inc., 1993), 21.

51

Fundamentals of Piano Theory includes many of them; however the authors do not

include any written dictation exercises. Celebrate Piano! provides sight-singing and

dictation drills. The authors of Piano Adventures and Premier Piano Course include

many different types of drills for these various concepts. Students using these books

will have some general knowledge of ear-training concepts.

52


NASM Standards: Ear-Training


Rhythmic Dictation Œ ‰

Melodic Dictation 1-2 measure melodies directional (up/down/same) Forte/piano

Up/down Tie Staccato/legato

Accent-draw on note you hear accented Ties 2 measure melodies

Major scale Major/minor 5-finger pattern

Intervals Step/skip Up/down/repeat

Skip/step 4ths/5ths Half step up or down

Half /whole steps 3rd/6th

6th/7th

7th/octave

Major/Minor Chords I-V7 (2 note chord) In C and G major

Hear Major/minor chords I-V7 (3-note chord)

Sight-reading only Sight-read single line melodies including 2nds, 3rds, ties, slurs, staccato, 8va, sharps and flats Grand staff reading including LH 5ths, parallel motion

Sight-read a single line melodies including, I-V7 , eighth notes, pedal, various 5-finger patterns Grand staff reading including flats, parallel motion, tonic/dominant, pedal, I or V7 chord

Sight-read a single line melodies including minor 5-finger patterns, 7ths,

8ths, scales, pedal, ‰ Grand staff reading including ledger lines

Figure 3.1

53

Piano Premier Course

NASM Standard: Ear-training


Rhythmic Dictation Swing style Syncopation 3/8 and 6/8

Swing 3/8 and 6/8

Syncopation 3/8

Melodic Dictation Chromatic scale Intervals All intervals 3rd-8th

choose between two

Major/minor chords I-IV-V7 (3 note chord) I-V7 I-IV

I-IV-V7

i-iv-V7 in a and e minor Inversions Alberti bass pattern Major/minor chords

Major/Augmented i-iv-V7 in g minor I-IV-V7 in E major

I-IV-V7 in A-flat major Diminished/minor Major/minor arpeggios

Sight-reading only Sight-read a single line melody including syncopation and major scales.

Sight-read a single line melody including 3/8 and 6/8 time, triplets, sixteenth notes, minor chords, minor scales, inversions.

Sight-read a single line melody including triplets, and swing rhythm, ornaments and sequences (using excerpts from Corelli, Scarlatti and Rameau), scales,

Sight-read a single line melody including minor scales, excerpts from pieces by Chopin, Sibelius and Joplin, diminished chords Grand staff reading including pieces by Bartok and Schytte,


54


NASM Standard: Ear-Training


Rhythmic Dictation Circle rhythm teacher plays

Write rhythms

Write rhythms

‰

Write rhythm

Melodic Dictation Series of 3 or 4 notes, choose between two patterns the teacher plays.

Given a starting note write a the next 2 notes

Choose between two patterns the teacher plays

Legato/Staccato Given a starting note write the next two notes Choose between two patterns the teacher plays

Given a starting note write the next three notes. Choose between two patterns the teacher plays.

Intervals 2nd/3rd Harmonic/melodic

2nd/3rd/5th 2nd/3rd/4th/5th

Major/minor chords Sight-singing only Middle C song

2nd/3rd Songs Middle C song 2nd/3rd /4th/5th Songs

Middle C Song 2nd/3rd/4th/5th/6th Songs

Middle C Song plus other interval songs adding 7th Using solfège or scale numbers to sing C 5-finger pattern

Figure 3.2

55

Celebrate Piano!


Level 3 Level 4

Rhythmic Dictation 6/8 Write rhythm of melodic dictations

Write rhythm of melodic dictations.

Melodic Dictation Write 2 measure melodies given the first note

Write a melody with student identifying the first note from the I chord

Intervals Perfect 4th, 5th 8th Major/minor 2nd Major/minor 3rd Major/minor 6th

Major/minor 7th Plus review of all other intervals

Major/minor chords I-V7-I Progression i-V –I Progression Major/minor chords I-IV-V7-I progressions

Major/minor chords Identify I-IV-V7 chords teacher uses to harmonize a melody Identify I-IV-V7 pattern played

Sight-singing/reading Solfège/numbers on other major 5-finger patterns New interval songs with minor 2nd, 3rd, 6th

All interval songs Solfège/numbers on all scale degrees Interval song minor 7th Sing complete song using only solfège or numbers


56



Primer Level 1 Level 2A Level 2B

Rhythmic Dictation Circle rhythm teacher plays

Rhythmic patterns using I chords

Melodic Dictation High/low Up/down/repeat Step/skip

Step/skip Forte/piano Staccato/Legato Melodies that are Same/different

Choose between 2 melodies using half steps Transposed patterns Melody in major/minor Crescendo/diminuendo

Intervals Step/skip 5th

Middle C/Bass C/Treble C

Half steps ( )

2nd/3rd/4th/5th

Half steps/whole steps Octaves 5th/6th Write interval from given note: 4th/5th or 5th/6th

Major/minor chords I or V7 Tonic/Dominant

Tonic/Dominant Major/minor I-IV-V7 Teacher play melody with chords; identify last chord

Sight-reading only Melodies using the grand staff including 2nd, 3rds and 5ths Single line melodies combining 2nds and 3rds

Single line melodies with various intervals, articulation, accidentals, upbeats and I or V7 chords

Single line melodies in various 5-finger positions or tonic chords

Sight-read grand staff examples Sight-read single line melodies using I, IV and V7 chords and rhythm of

Figure 3.3 57

Piano Adventures


Level 3A Level 3B Level 4 Level 5

Rhythmic Dictation 3/8 , 6/8

Sixteenth note patterns in 4/4, 3/8, 6/8

Melodic Dictation Melodies with 7ths Chromatic/major scales

Sequence or not a sequence

Given a scale, identify melody’s the last note Major Scale Minor natural/harmonic scale

Natural/harmonic/melodic minor scale

Intervals 2 notes given, write in 3rd note a 2nd/3rd up or down

Octave or other interval Major/minor 2nd Major/minor 3rd Major/minor 6th Major/minor 7th

(no specific exercises)

Major/minor chords Play a pattern…what is last chord? I, IV or V7 Identify chords progression: I, IV or V7 Last note of an arpeggio

Play a pattern…what is last chord? i-iv-V7 Major/minor chords Triads with inversions Identify accompaniment pattern

Identify inversions Last chord of Cadence: I or V7 Bass note in circle of fifths Major/minor chords

Sight-reading only Sight-read single line melodies including 7ths, ledger line notes. Triplets, 6/8; 3/8 and Cut time. Sight-read grand staff melody with chord accompaniment

Sight-read single line and grand staff melodies including octaves, sequences, major/minor triads and inversions and sixteenth note patterns.

Sight-read single line and grand staff melodies using various sixteenth note patterns and inversions.

Sight-read grand staff examples using different accompaniment patterns, intervals, chords and inversions, arpeggios. Sight-read single line melodies based on chord tones.


5

8



Primer Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Rhythmic Dictation ‰

Melodic Dictation Listen to melody, choose one answer Major/minor 5 finger patterns

Major/minor 5 finger patterns Listen to melody, choose one answer

Listen to melody, choose one answer

Listen to major/minor melody, choose one answer

Intervals 2nd/3rd/4th/5th 2nd/3rd/4th/5th/6th/7th/8th More difficult 2nd-octave 2nd-octave Major/minor chords Major/minor root position

chords Major/minor chords root position

Major/minor chords Broken chord pattern Root position

Major/minor chords root position

Sight-reading only

1 page sight-reading Both clefs C position

1 page sight-reading

2 pages sight reading RH melody, LH chords in C, F, G major

2 pages sight-reading

G, E major; d and e minor

Figure 3.4

59




Rhythmic Dictation Rhythm using chords

Identify the rhythm teacher claps

Identify the rhythm teacher claps

‰

Melodic Dictation Major/minor melody, Sequence within a melody LH accompaniment pattern

Major/minor scale Major/minor scale Major/minor melody

Major/minor scale Major/minor melody/accompaniment

Intervals 2nd-octave with interval identification under the notes

Intervals within a scale Intervals within a scale All intervals with all qualities

Major/minor chords

Major/minor root position triads

Major/minor root position triads Cadences

Major/minor root position triads Cadences

Major/minor Augmented/diminished Root position triads Cadences

Sight-reading only

2 pages sight-reading D and E major; a and g minor

2 pages sight-reading D and G major, c minor

2 pages sight-reading

G. D. E major

c minor

2 pages sight-reading A major, d and f minor


60



Level 8 Level 9 Level 10

Rhythmic Dictation Choose which rhythm teacher plays

‰

Melodic Dictation Natural/harmonic/melodic Minor scales Identify which phrase teacher plays

Natural/harmonic/melodic Minor scales

Harmonic/melodic/natural minor or whole tone scale Identify which phrase teacher plays

Intervals All interval types and qualities

All interval types and qualities All interval types and qualities

Major/minor chords Major/minor Augmented/diminished root position triads Cadences

1st and 2nd inversions All seventh chords, root position

All seventh chords Root position and inversions Cadences

Sight-reading only

2 pages sight-reading in g minor, G major and b minor

2 pages sight-reading excerpts from a baroque suite in D major, e and g minor

2 pages sight-reading C major, d minor, 20th century techniques


61

CHAPTER 4: BEYOND THE BASICS

The third NASM suggestion encourages students to learn the fundamentals of

musical structure including the areas of form, harmony, counterpoint, composition

and improvisation. Form can include many different concepts such as motives,

phrase structure, cadences, sequences; and binary, ternary or sonata form. Books

designed for teaching music fundamentals in college or high school theory courses

include many of these concepts. Each of these five method series presents at least

one concept relating to form. Figures 4.1—4.5 are included at the end of the chapter

and detail the concepts included in each method.

4.1 Form

The first building block taught in many of these books is the concept of

phrase. One textbook defines a phrase as introducing “musical material and then

carrying the listener to a goal called a cadence.”33 The Grove Dictionary defines a

phrase as “a term adopted from linguistic syntax and used for short musical units of

various lengths; a phrase is generally regarded as longer than a motif but shorter

than a period.”34 Students entering college with a piano background may be

33 Earl Henry, Fundamentals of Music, 5th Edition., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,

2009), 241. 34 Grove On-line Dictionary of Music,

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy1.library.arizona.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/21599?q=phrase&search=quick&source=omo_gmo&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit

62

confused about phrases as many piano theory method books define a phrase by the

use of a slur or phrase mark.

Beginning piano books begin with very simple definitions. Premier Piano

Course introduces phrases in Level 1B describing it in the following way: “A phrase

is similar to a sentence in language.”35 The authors have composed six lines of music

with words and students are asked to complete the slur mark over the music and

then play in a legato manner. This way of teaching phrases may lead the student to

believe a phrase is only music with a slur mark. Teachers will need to further

explain other details of a phrase, and this particular theory method book does not

include further instruction about phrases.

Piano Basics introduces the concept of phrases in Level 2 describing a phrase

as a melody with two parts: a question and answer. “The question will end on a note

other than the keynote. The answer phrase will end on the keynote.”36 This

description provides an acceptable basic definition for beginning students; however,

students may have difficulty later. There is no discussion about the first note of the

phrase. Can it be any note? Does the last note of the answer phrase always have to

end on the tonic note? These questions are not answered in the Bastien series. The

authors provide examples of “question and answer” phrases with students

improvising an answer to three question phrases in three different keys, with the

prompt to write their best answer. Students completing the books through Level 4

35 Dennis Alexander, et. al, Premier Piano Course, Level 1B, (Van Nuys, California: Alfred

Publishing, Co., Inc., 2005), 26. 36 James Bastien. Piano Basics Theory Level 2, (San Diego, CA: Kjos Music Co., 1985), 13.

63

have several opportunities to practice such exercises in a variety of keys. The

authors do not use the term antecedent and consequent phrases, rather using

“question and answer” throughout each level. (Musical example 4.1)

The authors of Celebrate Piano! introduce phrases in the first book. Their

definition states: “A phrase is a group of notes. A phrase mark is a curved line over

the phrase. Play the notes within the phrase mark smoothly. At the end of the

phrase, play the last note softly and lift your hand.”37 More about phrases is included

in each succeeding level with many examples including those with a slur and many

phrases with no slur mark. In this method, Level 1A is primarily written for students

under eight years old and the authors recognize seeing a phrase mark or slur makes

a phrase easier to identify for younger students. As students progress through the

book, they are encouraged to count the number of phrases in each piece as indicated

by the “phrase marks.” At the end of the book, the following directions are given:

“Listen as your teacher plays a two-measure phrase (Question) using the CDE group.

Echo the question. Listen to the Question again. Make up and play a two-measure

phrase (Answer) that ends on C.”38 Students can now improvise and listen to

phrases, in addition to the written page which requires using their ear to hear the

phrase resolution. As with Bastien, the authors indicate the answer phrase will end

on the tonic note. This type of exercise continues through the middle of Level 1B

where the authors write the question part of the phrase and students are to

37 Cathy Albergo, et. al., Celebrate Piano! (Toronto Canada: Frederick Harris Music, 2002),

34. 38 Ibid., 77.

64


39

Ibid.

65

improvise an answer, ending on the tonic and then writing their favorite answer. At

this juncture, phrases are not marked with a slur. Students have ample opportunity

in each level to continue to improvise and compose question and answer phrases,

with each level incorporating longer examples composed in various keys. In Level

2B, students learn about parallel and contrasting answers using improvisation

practice and then writing their favorite response. All examples must end on the

tonic note. In Levels 3 and 4, students create both the question and answer phrases

within various parameters; however, the terms antecedent and consequent phrases

are not used.

Piano Adventures defines a phrase as a musical idea or thought, usually

indicated by a phrase mark. “A phrase mark looks the same as a slur.”40 There are no

written assignments included for identifying phrases. The Lessons book offers more

detail about phrases; with the leading questions for discovering phrases using

repertoire students are learning.

Level 3 of Fundamentals of Piano Theory introduces question and answer

phrases in the section “Melodic Phrase Structure.” Their definition is the same as

Bastien, but the authors use excerpts from classical literature showing specific

examples. The student is directed to look at the pieces they are learning and identify

question and answer phrases. Each level continues the discussion of various types of

phrase structure and style in music using excerpts from literature to illustrate the

40 Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures, Level 3, (Ft. Lauderdale, FL: FJH Music

Co., Inc., 1993), 12.

66

more detailed concepts of motive, repetition, sequence, imitation, augmentation,

diminution and canon.

Other common types of form taught in these five method books are binary

(AB), ternary (ABA) and sonata form. All the books teach students to identify the

sections of a piece, but not all methods use the common musical terminology.

Binary and ternary forms are presented in the Piano book of Level 2 by Bastien, but

no written reinforcement exists in the Theory books. The authors label “A section”

and “B section” in many of the pieces in the remaining levels of Piano Books, but

give no opportunity for the student to determine where those sections might be.

The Alfred series also teaches AB or ABA form giving students opportunity to

complete written work in the theory book and identify different sections in their

pieces in the Lessons book, but does not mention the terms binary or ternary. One

creative way to present AB and ABA form comes in the Celebrate Piano! series.

Form is first taught by using animals to depict sections (e.g., dog, cat, dog for ABA).

Students ascertain patterns with different animals, identify A or B sections in

specific theory drills, and then within their repertoire. The musical terms for these

forms are not mentioned, but students have ample opportunities to label the

sections of their pieces and identify the forms of AB, AABA or ABA as shown in

musical example 4.2.

67


41

Abrego, 46.

68

The authors of Fundamentals of Piano Theory use piano literature pieces and

excerpts to teach many concepts regarding form in Levels 1-10. Binary and ternary

form are taught in Levels 1-3 using standard piano literature. A very thorough

description is given with examples. In addition, students are asked to discover if the

pieces presented are binary or ternary.

In addition to binary and ternary form, Fundamentals of Piano Theory

presents sonatina form in Levels 4-6 and sonata-allegro form in Levels 7-10. The

authors use literature to describe the intricacies of these forms with students

expected to label sections, as well as identify items such as motives, transitions, and

keys. Students in Level 5 learn about the form of all three movements of a sonatina.

This is the only series that includes counterpoint which the authors use Bach’s two-

part inventions and fugues as teaching material.

4.2 Harmony

Harmony in a college theory class is understood differently from the way

harmony or harmonization is taught in piano theory books. Colleges and

universities have varied approaches to teaching harmony, but elements can include

counterpoint, voice leading, Roman numerals, figured bass, and chord function

(tonic, pre-dominant, dominant). Piano method books primarily teach

harmonization as it relates to a melody with an accompaniment. Most method books

use I-V7 before adding IV for a “progression” of I-IV-I-V7– I. Although the chords may

initially be taught in root position, eventually inversions are included. A college

69

theory class may analyze these chords as I-IV6/4 –I-V6/5-I, but these piano method

books do not use figured bass when harmonizing melodies or playing chord

progressions.42 Another unique feature to some piano methods is the use of two

notes for a V7 chord; for example, in the key of C major, the student will play a

second consisting of f and g. For small hands, this is an easy way to play this chord.

Later, the b is added for a more complete chord.

All the method books reviewed provide opportunities for a student to

harmonize a melody. Some ask the student to write the complete chord, others ask

students to write a Roman numeral or a chord symbol above the melody. The major

and minor keys introduced in the books are the keys used for harmonization. Many

of these exercises are also used for transposition. The Bastien, Faber, and Snell

method books present chords early in their series. Harris and Alfred introduce

chords later in their books and do not have as many harmonization exercises. The

Bastien books do not provide opportunities for students to discover/create their

own harmonies; the authors predetermine the chords to be used by including the

letter name above the given melody with students writing them on the staff.

Fundamentals of Piano Theory Level 2, the authors write three different

melodies and ask students to harmonize, first using root position chords, then using

I, IV in second inversion, and V in first inversion, and the last one using the chords of

I, IV in second inversion, and V7 in first inversion. In Levels 3 and 4, students are

42

As this discussion continues, roman numerals without the figured bass will be used to describe harmonic progressions found in piano books.

70

given one piece to harmonize, using primary chords and then transpose. Chord

progressions are expanded in Level 5 as the authors introduce the ii chord.

Students learn about figured bass symbols in Level 6 and modulation using both

secondary dominant and pivot chords. In these exercises, students complete the

figured bass and identify the point of modulation. Levels 7-10 continue with figured

bass symbols, secondary dominants, modulation and seventh chords. Students

exclusively use figured bass to analyze several piano pieces, including Beethoven

and Haydn sonatas. After Level 4, there are no drills for harmonization of a melody;

however this series teaches more towards college-level theory courses in its

teaching of figured bass, modulation, secondary dominants and harmonic analysis of

classical piano literature.

4.3 Composition and Improvisation

Anecdotal evidence reveals that composition and improvisation can often

impart fear in musicians. As there are no right or wrong answers, composition and

improvisation activities can be opportunities for expressing creativity and

synthesizing the concepts students are learning to play a piece unique to them.

Forrest and Akiko Kinney have written books designed specifically to teach

improvisation while including various theoretical aspects. They state in their first

book, “Creating is not performing, but exploring.”43 Some melodies and harmonies

43 Akiko and Forrest Kinney. Pattern Play 1, (Mississauga, Ontario: The Frederick Harris

Music Co., Limited, 2010), Back Cover.

71

sound “better” to the ear than others, but if provided the opportunities, students can

learn the basics of these two elements of music. Learning about form and

harmonization provides a necessary building block for composing and improvising.

All method books, except Fundamentals of Piano Theory, provide students

opportunities to compose and/or improvise in the first two levels of the series.

These four series present specific instructions and limits to composition. Asking a

student to write a short song at home may be intimidating, but knowing it is to have

four measures, use quarter notes, be on D 5-finger position and have a title of “Race

Car” gives the student some boundaries. Many of the examples ask to the student to

improvise several options and write down what they think is their best or favorite

answer. Many of the composition exercises in the Alfred, Faber, and Harris series

are linked with improvisation and several are connected with question and answer

phrases, but Alfred, Faber and Celebrate Piano! assign other short composition

projects. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course places “Imagination Station” sections

weaved within their books.

72


44

Dennis Alexander, et.al., Premier Piano Course, Level 1A, (Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., 2005), 9.

73

In Level 1A, students are instructed to use a given rhythm to create a short

piece on the black keys. They are not asked to write notes, but simply to improvise.

In Level 1B, students are asked to complete the piece “Faraway Drums.” They have

the chance to write in dynamic signs, ritardando in an appropriate place, draw a

fermata on the last note, draw a flat before each B, and incorporate the 8va sign.

Students are learning to appropriately place particular musical details in a

composition. It is not only writing notes and rhythm that creates music; the details

on how to play the piece are important, too.

Short improvisation and completion of compositions already started by the

authors continue in Piano Adventures and Celebrate Piano!. Level 1 of Piano

Adventures allows students to choose dynamic levels and where to place a

ritardando in a piece according to the words written in the music. In Level 2B, part

of the melody is written, and students are to “fill in” the missing notes using the

rhythm above the staff and using at least two intervals of a sixth in the melody. In

Level 3B, students are given a chord structure and they complete a melody using the

rhythm provided above each measure. Celebrate Piano! encourages students to

improvise and compose as early as Level 1. Even though students are not reading

music on a staff, they are instructed to “draw your song” using CDE or FGAB, p and f,

quarter and half notes, legato, seconds, and thirds. The title of the song is “Dancing

Letters.” Several of the composition exercises start as improvisation exercises. The

directions ask the student to play several choices, then write their best or favorite

response. In the final book (Level 4) of this method, the student composes an eight-

74

measure March. The parameters given to the student include the key of A-flat major,

use of sixteenth notes, and harmonize using I, IV, and V7 chords.

These five method books display strengths and weaknesses in teaching the

concepts of form, harmony, counterpoint, composition, and improvisation. Premier

Piano Course is strong in providing exercises for improvisation, but has very little

teaching of form. The Bastien series provides ample opportunities for students to

compose, harmonize and transpose melodies; however the theory book does not

provide much instruction on form beyond question and answer phrases. Celebrate

Piano! provides many exercises for question and answer phrases, composition and

improvisation through each level. In the latter three books, they are given exercises

in harmony and form. Fundamentals of Piano Theory is the only series to present

counterpoint to students, but lacks composition and improvisation.

75


NASM Standard Level 1A Level 1B Level 2A Level 2B Form Phrase Mark AB sections, but no

mention of binary or ternary

Harmony Given a melody, provide tonic or dominant note I-V7 in C and G Major

I- V7 in C and G Major

Counterpoint Composition Add appropriate musical

markings to a piece Add notes to complete a melody using C 5-finger pattern.

Choose a rhythm to write the G major scale.

Improvisation Given specific parameters, use a given 4 measure rhythm to create a melody

Given a 4 measure rhythmic pattern, create a melody using C and G 5-finger pattern

Given a 4 measure rhythmic pattern, create a melody using D 5-finger pattern

Given a 4 measure rhythmic pattern, create a melody in A Major arpeggio

NASM Standard Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Form Sequence

Mark AB sections, but no mention of binary or ternary form

Harmony i-iv-V7 in a and e minor i-iv-V7 in g and d minor i-iv-V7 in c minor Counterpoint Composition Compose LH

accompaniment. Use a given rhythm compose RH melody Tango- d minor

Write melody over given harmony with rhythm provided

Improvisation Given a 4 measure rhythmic pattern, create a melody in a 5-finger pattern

Given a 4 measure rhythmic pattern, create a melody on D major, a and e minor scale

Given a 4 measure rhythmic pattern, create a melody on d minor scale

Figure 4.1 76

Bastien Piano Basics

NASM Standard Primer Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Form Question/ answer

phrases Question/answer phrases

Question/answer phrases

Harmony I-V7 in C, F, G major Transpose

I-IV-V7 in C, G, F, D, A, E major Transpose

I-IV-V7 in D ,

A , E major;

i-iv-V7 in a, d minor Transpose

I-IV-V7 in G ,

B and B major

i-iv-V7 in e minor Transpose

Counterpoint Composition Compose a melody to

a given rhythm within specific parameters (C position, only black notes)

Compose the second part of a 4 measure question/answer phrase



Improvisation

Figure 4.2

77


NASM Standard Level 1 A Level 1B Level 2A Level 2B Form Question/answer phrase Question/answer phrase Question/answer phrases Parallel and contrasting

phrase Write “answer” to question part of phrase AB, ABA sections

Harmony Transpose Transpose Create a melody with given LH Transpose

Transpose

Counterpoint Composition Compose piece given

various parameters including: black notes,

C D E or F G A B, and Œ, melodic/harmonic 2nds

Write a piece using only C’s Given the Question part of the phrase, write the Answer

Given the Question part of the phrase, write the Answer Write a new melody given the LH ostinato and the beginning and ending notes. Given a rhythm, create a melody within a given major 5 –finger pattern

Given a rhythm, create a melody within a given major 5-finger pattern Given the Question part of the phrase, write a contrasting answer. Given a key signature, write a question/answer phrase

Improvisation High/low C D E F G A B Harmonic/melodic 2nds and 3rds.

Using the LH pattern, create RH melody using C major 5-finger pattern

plus e

Using a given rhythm, create a melody using a given major 5-finger pattern, then add LH accompaniment

Figure 4.3

78

Celebrate Piano!

NASM Standard Level 3 Level 4 Form Question/answer phrase

ABA form Sequence

Sequence Question/answer phrase Label AB or ABA sections Minuet form

Harmony Write I-IV-V7 over given melody Transpose

Given a melody, write chord, both with letter name and roman numeral (all major keys, but one) Transpose

Counterpoint Canon Composition Given a question part of phrase,

write answer.

Write Question/answer phrases with given harmony G Major/g minor Given Question phrase, create parallel and contrasting answer with harmony. Compose March-both melody and harmony Given I-V7 write melody Compose whole tone piece with given rhythm

Improvisation Given a question part of phrase, improvise several parallel and contrasting answers Create a variation on “Go Tell Aunt Rhody”

Play a different accompaniment style


79


NASM Standard Primer Level 1 Level 2A Level 2B Form Identify phrases Identify form Harmony Write tonic or dominant

note over given melody. Write I or V7 to show correct chord

Transpose

Counterpoint Composition Write dynamic marks in a

piece. Complete measures using 8th notes and chose a key to play the rhythm Given a rhythm and some notes, complete a 16-measure song using a given 5-finger position

Given a rhythm and some notes, complete 16 measure—using at least 2 6ths Compose ABA piece, using given rhythm and some notes.

Improvisation

Figure 4.4

80

Piano Adventures

NASM Standard Level 3A Level 3B Level 4 Level 5 Form Label AB or ABA sections

Binary/Ternary Form Motive Sequences

Sonatina Form Sequences ABA form

Identify cadence points Sequences

Harmony I-IV-V7 in C, G, D, F Major i-iv-V7 in a minor Use sequences to compose melody

i-iv-V7 in a minor Harmonize 8-measure melody with Alberti bass

Counterpoint Composition Compose a melody over a

given harmony and rhythm

Compose 4 different melodies over harmony in d minor

Compose a piece using sequences Compose a Waltz in ABA form with a given rhythm

Compose a piece with given rhythm Compose a four-measure melody using only perfect 5ths.

Compose a four-measure melody using only Major or minor 3rds. Compose a four-measure melody using only minor 2nds. Compose a 16-measure melody using harmonic 6ths with given rhythm. Compose a 22-measure melody/accompaniment with given rhythm and using the harmony of circle of 5ths

Improvisation


81


NASM Standards Primer Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Form

Question/answer phrase Binary/Ternary

Binary/Ternary form Cadences: Root position and common note Authentic, plagal, half

Cadence: Root position and common note Sequences Binary/Ternary Sonatina Form, 1st movement Melodic phrase structure: Question/answer Repetition Sequence Homophonic/Polyphonic

Harmony Write out transposition Given melody, harmonize I-V

Primary chord harmonization of four measure melody, then transpose

Primary chord harmonization of four-measure melody, then transpose

Counterpoint Polyphonic texture Composition Improvisation

Figure 4.5

82


NASM Standards Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 Form

Cadences-major/minor Melodic Phrase structure

Identify cadences with roman numeral and name Melodic phrase structure Sonatina Form, all movements

Identify Cadences with Roman numeral and name Deceptive Cadence Melodic Phrase structure Sonatina Form

Identify all cadences Sonata-Allegro Form

Harmony Primary chord harmonization of eight measure melody, then write transposition in G and D major, g and d minor

Chord progression: I-IV-ii-V7-I

Modulation with pivot chord

Modulation using secondary dominant Harmonic analysis using figured bass

Counterpoint Polyphonic texture Two-part inventions Composition Improvisation


83


NASM Standards Level 8 Level 9 Level 10 Form

Identify Cadences Augmentation/diminution of phrases Sonata-Allegro Form

Identify Cadences Baroque Suite Toccata Sonata-Allegro Form

Baroque Suite Rondo Form Theme and Variations Sonata-Allegro Form

Harmony Modulation using: Secondary dominant Pivot Chords Phrase modulation Parallel Key Chord Progressions Harmonic analysis using figured bass Pedal Point

Modulation (Level 8) Secondary dominants Harmonic analysis using figured bass

Modulation Neapolitan 6th and Augmented 6th chords Non-chord tones Tonality in 20th Century: Extended Tertian Harmony Polytonality Bitonality Atonality Quartal Harmony Serialism and 12-tone

Counterpoint Two-part inventions Fugue Fugue Composition Improvisation


84

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) provides a website

page to assist potential students in their preparation for their college or university

music study. Following the question, “How should I best prepare to enter a

conservatory, college, university as a music major?” are three broad musical

concepts of basic music notation, ear-training, and form and harmony. Many

incoming pre-college students have piano study in their background prior to

enrolling in college. This paper has examined five theory method series from leading

piano publishers to evaluate the theoretical concepts presented in each and to

determine the effectiveness of these books as a tool for acquiring the knowledge

NASM has suggested.

5.1 First NASM Guideline

Be sure that you can read both treble and bass clefs, that you know key signatures, the major and minor scales, and how to write basic notation. Knowledge of musical terms and usage is important as is the ability to recognize intervals and basic chord types.45 The skills in the first NASM guideline are basic to understanding of music

theory. Students who have studied music at any level can likely read treble and/or

bass clef, depending on their main instrument; however, those studying piano will

45 “How should I best prepare to enter a conservatory, college, university as a music major?”

FAQ 17 from NASM website. http://nasm.arts-accredito.rg/index.jsp?page=FAQ+17

85

http://nasm.arts-accredito.rg/index.jsp?page=FAQ+17

have had experience in reading both clefs. These method books examined within

this document teach students to read notes on the grand staff. Some teachers choose

to use other activities to reinforce this knowledge by using flash cards, specialized

workbooks or games designed for drilling note names.

Learning key signatures and scales may be taught while studying other

instruments; however, students studying piano using these method books will learn

to construct major and minor scales using half and whole steps. Students are also

presented several major and some minor scales to learn. They will study the circle of

fifths by the conclusion of each method and how to name major and minor key

signatures. These five series present relative minor keys and the three different

forms of minor scales. Piano Basics, Celebrate Piano!, and Fundamentals of Piano

Music Theory present parallel major and minor keys, with Celebrate Piano! and

Fundamentals of Piano Music Theory also discussing whole tone scales.

All five piano series books instruct students on how to name an interval, but

not all discuss interval qualities. Four of the method series teach major and perfect

intervals as they occur in a major scale. Fundamentals of Piano Theory and Piano

Basics also teach how to identify augmented and diminished intervals.

Triads and inversions are presented, most often as they connect to

harmonization. Students learn the concepts of root position, inversions, and major

and minor triads in all five series. Premier Piano Course, Celebrate Piano!, and

Fundamentals of Piano Theory introduce diminished and augmented triads. Piano

86

Adventures and Fundamentals of Piano Theory teach quality as it appears in major

and minor scales. Students completing all levels of Fundamentals of Piano Theory

experience many kinds of chords and inversions, including all forms of seventh

chords and figured bass symbols for inversions.

5.2 Second NASM Guideline

Take every opportunity to train your ear by taking courses in studies in musicianship that include sight-singing, ear-training, sight-reading, rhythmic and harmonic dictation, and so forth.46 The second NASM guideline addresses areas of ear-training. The Bastien

series does not include any ear-training; consequently, students completing this

method will not have the aural skills suggested by NASM as prerequisites to

entering collegiate music programs. The other four series include exercises in all

levels of theory books. Rhythmic and melodic dictation exercises in these books are

mostly multiple-choice options. Celebrate Piano!, however, is consistent throughout

their books by giving students opportunities to write rhythms or melodies, rather

than choose between two possible answers.

In the four method series with ear-training (Premier Piano Course, Celebrate

Piano! Piano Adventures and Fundamentals of Piano Theory), students are assigned

exercises in hearing intervals. Premier Piano Course does not provide any review of

intervals in Levels 4-6 and students are not provided any exercises to discriminate

46 Ibid.

87

between major or minor interval qualities. Ear-training drills in Piano Adventures

ask students to identify the interval heard by identifying the correct answer from

two possible choices. The authors also use an activity that provides a starting pitch

with students asked to write the correct upper note of the interval heard, a more

difficult skill. All of the interval exercises in Fundamentals of Piano Theory involve a

student choosing between two possible answers.

Celebrate Piano! closely connects sight-singing with the learning of intervals,

both written and aural. This is the only method examined that included sight-

singing examples. The authors include a solfège system and scale degree numbers

when presenting sight-singing exercises and introducing intervals. Students

completing this series have sung short songs for all major, minor and perfect

intervals within a one-octave range. This series provides a definite advantage in

sight-singing proficiency and hearing intervals. Students who possess fluency in

singing and dictation skills develop their ear to hear musical patterns better than

those who have no such training.

If students complete any of these method books (except Piano Basics) and do

not continue with any other ear-training materials, they would have a basic aural

skills foundation; however, without continued practice, these skills may diminish

over time. As NASM states, ear-training is a lifelong process.

88

5.3 Third NASM Guideline

Take opportunities to learn the basics of musical structure, including studies in such areas as form, harmony, counterpoint, composition, and improvisation.47 Skills presented in the third guideline progress beyond reading written

music notation, playing the correct rhythm, or knowing basic musical terminology.

Many of these concepts will be more fully studied in first- and second-year college

music theory courses. These method books lay the foundation for future learning in

some of these areas.

Students completing the Alfred series will know about form (AB and ABA), be

able to harmonize a simple melody using I, IV, and V7 chords in a few major and

minor keys, and have opportunities to improvise and compose short pieces. They

will not have any instruction on counterpoint .

Piano Basics by Bastien provides student with many opportunities to write

the second part of “question and answer” phrases, as well as transpose and

harmonize in a variety of keys. Counterpoint is not presented, nor are there any

specific improvisational exercises. The teaching of AB and ABA form is present;

however, the authors provide all the correct labels for the pieces leaving students

without opportunities to discover the sections for themselves.

The teaching of “question and answer” phrases is presented in the first level

Celebrate Piano! and continues through all levels. Students experience parallel and

47 Ibid.

89

contrasting phrases by improvising and composing their own examples. They also

learn about AB and ABA form. Students are taught triads in Level 2A—a bit later

than other series—but this still provides ample opportunities for harmonization and

transposition.

Piano Adventures teaches tonic and dominant notes before addressing triads

in Level 1 and provides many opportunities for harmonization in Levels 3A-5.

Students learn about binary, ternary, and sonatina form, but no counterpoint skills

are presented. There are opportunities for composition, with the series’ authors

giving students a particular rhythm or harmony use. There are no specific

improvisation exercises.

Those completing Fundamentals of Piano Theory will have been given a vast

amount of information on binary, ternary, sonatina, sonata-allegro and rondo form,

using many examples from classical music. Students completing the first four levels

will have a firm understanding of all of the basic fundamentals and more complex

elements such as cadences, melodic phrase structure, all primary chords, and

polyphonic texture in music. This is the only series to provide counterpoint

experiences through Bach two-part inventions and fugues. Students will also learn

cadence types, different aspects of modulation, and figured bass. They will have

exercises in the later books for formal analysis of sonatas by baroque and classical

composers. These books provide limited opportunities to write harmonizations for

a given melody, and do not provide exercises for composition or improvisation.

90

5.4 Conclusion

Four of these five method books are intended for students to complete in five

to seven years. Fundamentals of Piano Theory is designed for students through high

school. Students who finish the other four method series and continue their piano

study will need to have additional theory books or worksheets for continued

practice and skill refinement. Students completing one of those method series could

begin using Fundamentals of Piano Theory, possibly at a level 4 or 5 depending on

the student’s age and ability. Numerous other theory and ear-training books are

available and teachers can research these options to determine how they can

continue to teach the NASM concepts.

Some teachers are involved in their state music associations, which provide

yearly festivals, contests, or adjudicating opportunities available to students

through their high school years. Many of these include theory tests as part of the

evaluation process with specific syllabi or worksheets designed for teachers and

students. On-line websites can also provide students with ear-training exercises and

continued theory drills.

Some students study piano for a short period of time before changing to

private voice lessons or a different instrument. Much of the theory training they

receive is often through early music study with a piano teacher. No theory method is

perfect and teachers need to be aware of the strengths and short comings of each

method.

91

5.5 For Further Study

This study has been limited in its scope and raises other possible questions

for further study.

1. Some piano teachers use specialized theory programs sponsored by their

states through Music Teachers National Association, which may include up to 12

levels. How do those materials compare to piano method theory books? Do they

fulfill the suggestions stated by NASM?

2. Many students do not study piano prior to entering college. Is there any

specific curriculum voice or other instrumental teachers use to teach theory? How

does it compare to NASM suggestions?

3. Computer programs and games, specialized theory books encompassing

one concept, and “hands on” manipulatives are available to teachers and students

for studying theory. How effective are materials outside of piano theory books in

teaching NASM suggested concepts?

4. Many piano teachers hold group lessons to teach theory concepts. How

effective are group theory classes along with private piano lessons in teaching

theoretical concepts? What materials are available?

5. How do the placement and entrance exams colleges and universities use

for incoming students reflect the skills NASM suggests these students possess

coming into college?

92

The five books used for this study provide a basic foundation for many of the

concepts students will be expected to know as they enter college theory courses. It

behooves teachers to be conscious of the theory concepts students may be expected

to know if they are planning to enter college, how the method books they are using

correspond with the teaching of those concepts, and at what point they might have

to supplement those books with other materials in order to provide the best

possible music education.

92 93

REFERENCES

Cisler, Valerie. “Moving from ‘Theory’ to “Style Analysis’: An Effective Means For Developing Performance Interpretation.” Piano Pedagogy Forum 8, no. 2, January 2005. http://www.music.sc.edu/ea/keyboard/PPF/8.1/8.1.PPFcisler.html Grove On-line Dictionary of Music. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy1.library.arizona.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/21599?q=phrase&search=quick&source=omo_gmos&pos=1&_start=1#fisthit Harnsberger, Lindsey C. Essential Dictionary of Music. Los Angeles: Alfred Publishing, Co., Inc., 1998. Harrison, Carole. “Relationships between Grades in the Components of Freshman Music Theory and Selected Background Variables.” Journal of Research in Music Education 38, no. 1 (1990): 175-186.

Harrison, Carole S., Edward P. Asmus, and Richard T. Serpe. “Effects of Musical Aptitude, Academic Ability, Music Experience, and Motivation on Aural Skills.” Journal of Research in Music Education 42, no. 2 (1994): 131-144. Harrison, Paula. “Perspectives in Pedagogy.” Clavier Companion 2, no. 1 (2010): 32. Henry, Earl. Fundamentals of Music Theory, 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009. “How should I best prepare to enter a conservatory, college, university as a music major?” FAQ 17 from NASM website http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/index.jsp?page=FAQ+17 Jones, M. Rusty and Martin Begee. “Elements Associated with Success in the First- Year Music Theory and Aural-Skills Curriculum.” Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy. 22 (2008): 93-116. Johnson, Rebecca Grooms. “There’s a New Series in the Music Store—How Should I Evaluate It?” Clavier Companion 1, no. 5 (2009): 18-21. Johnson, Rebecca Grooms, editor. “Perspectives in Pedagogy.” Clavier Companion 1, no. 5, 6; 2 no. 1-6, 3, no. 1 (2009-2011).

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Kinney, Akiko and Forrest. Pattern Play 1. Mississauga, Ontario: The Frederick Harris Music Co., Limited, 2010. National Association of Schools of Music Handbook. (2010-2011): 79. http://nasm.arts-accredit.org/site/docs/Handbook/NASMHB_Excerpt- AdmissionUndergraduateStudies.pdf

Nelson, Richard B. “The College Music Society Music Theory Undergraduate Core

Curriculum Survey – 2000,” College Music Symposium 42 (2002): 60-75.

Rogers, Michael R. Teaching Approaches in Music Theory, 2nd Edition. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. Zundel, Charlene. “Theory Gymnastics.” Workshop, MTNA National Convention, Albuquerque, NM, March 23, 2010. Method Series (each series grouped together) Alfred Premier Piano Course Alexander, Dennis, Gayle Kowalchyk, E. L. Lancaster, Victoria McArthur, and Martha Mier. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course Lessons, Levels 1A-6. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 2005. ----- Alfred’s Premier Piano Course Theory, Levels 1A-6. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 2005. Bastien Piano Basics Bastien, James, and Jane Bastien. Piano Basics Primer-Level 4. San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music Co., 1985. Bastien, James. Piano Basics Theory Primer-Level 4. San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music Co., 1985. Celebrate Piano! Albergo, Cathy, J. Mitzi Kolar, and Mark Mrozinski. Celebrate Piano! Lesson and Musicianship Levels 1A-4. Ontario, Canada: The Frederick Harris Music Co., Limited, 2004. Faber Piano Adventures Faber, Nancy, and Randall Faber. Piano Adventures Lessons Primer-Level 5. Ft. Lauderdale: FJH Music Co., 1993.

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----- Piano Adventures Theory Primer-Level 5. Ft. Lauderdale: FJH Music Co., 1993. Kjos Fundamentals of Piano Theory Snell, Keith, and Martha Ashleigh. Fundamentals of Piano Theory, Primer-Level 10. San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music Co., 1998.

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