aspects of the theory of clitics
DESCRIPTION
Libro completoTRANSCRIPT
Asp
ects
ofth
eT
heo
ryof
Clit
ics
OX
FO
RD
ST
UD
IE
SI
NT
HE
OR
ET
IC
AL
LI
NG
UI
ST
IC
S
:
Dav
idA
dge
r,Q
uee
nM
ary
Col
lege
Lon
don
;H
agit
Bor
er,
Un
iver
sity
ofS
outh
ern
Cal
ifor
nia
:
Step
hen
An
ders
on,
Yale
Un
iver
sity
;G
enn
aro
Ch
ierc
hia
,U
niv
ersi
tyof
Mil
an;
Ros
e-M
arie
Dec
hai
ne,
Un
iver
sity
ofB
riti
shC
olu
mbi
a;E
lan
Dre
sher
,U
niv
ersi
tyof
Tor
onto
;Ja
mes
Hig
gin
both
am,
Un
iver
sity
ofS
outh
ern
Cal
ifor
nia
;Pa
tK
eati
ng,
Un
iver
sity
ofC
alif
orn
ia,
Los
An
gele
s;R
uth
Kem
pso
n,
Kin
g’s
Col
lege
,U
niv
ersi
tyof
Lon
don
;Ja
mes
McC
losk
ey,
Un
iver
sity
ofC
alif
orn
ia,
San
taC
ruz;
Gill
ian
Ram
chan
d,
Un
iver
sity
ofT
rom
sø;
Mar
ia-L
uis
aZ
ubi
zarr
eta,
Un
iver
sity
ofS
outh
ern
Cal
ifor
nia
T
he
Syn
tax
ofS
ilen
ceby
Jaso
nM
erch
ant
Q
ues
tion
san
dA
nsw
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inE
mbe
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tics
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oun
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chan
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ish
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ese
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]
Asp
ects
ofth
eT
heo
ryof
Clit
ics
ST
EP
HE
NR
.A
ND
ER
SO
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(P
bk.)
Con
ten
ts
Gen
eral
Pre
face
vii
Ack
now
led
gem
ents
viii
In
trod
uct
ion
W
hat
isa
Clit
ic?
.
Wor
ds,
Clit
ics,
and
Affi
xes
.
Cas
eI:
An
Intr
odu
ctio
nto
Kw
akw
’ala
Clit
ics
.
Dim
ensi
ons
ofC
litic
-hoo
d
.
Cas
eII
:How
“Sim
ple
”ar
eE
ngl
ish
Au
xilia
ryC
litic
s?
.
Spec
ialC
litic
s
.
Clit
ics
and
Affi
xes
T
he
Ph
onol
ogy
ofC
litic
izat
ion
.
Pro
sod
icSt
ruct
ure
.
Dim
ensi
ons
ofP
hon
olog
ical
Clit
iciz
atio
n
.
Pro
sod
icSt
ruct
ure
and
Syn
tact
icSt
ruct
ure
.
Ph
onol
ogic
alC
litic
san
dC
litic
izat
ion
inE
ngl
ish
Sp
ecia
lClit
ics
and
thei
rG
ram
mar
.
Ph
enom
enol
ogy
.
Spec
ialC
litic
sas
the
Mor
ph
olog
yof
Ph
rase
s
.
Som
eE
xam
ple
s
T
heo
ries
ofSp
ecia
lClit
ics
.
Th
eN
atu
reof
the
Pro
blem
.
Syn
tact
icT
heo
ries
ofC
litic
Pla
cem
ent
A
nO
pti
mal
Th
eory
ofC
litic
Posi
tion
ing
.
Spec
ialC
litic
sas
Ph
rasa
lMor
phol
ogy
.
Seco
nd
Posi
tion
:An
chor
san
dD
omai
ns
.
“En
docl
itic
s”
.
Taga
log
Seco
nd
- Pos
itio
nC
litic
s
viC
onte
nts
V
erb
Seco
nd
asA
lign
men
t
.
Ver
bM
ovem
ent
and
Seco
nd
Posi
tion
.
Icel
and
ic
.
Kas
hm
iri
.
Bre
ton
.
Surm
iran
Ru
man
tsch
.
Con
clu
sion
s
P
ron
omin
alC
litic
s
.
Pro
nou
ns
and
Agr
eem
ent
.
Clit
ics,
Agr
eem
ent,
and
Dou
blin
g
.
Clit
icC
limbi
ng
.
Subj
ect
Clit
ics
C
lau
seSt
ruct
ure
and
the
Gra
mm
arof
Inco
rpor
atio
n
.
Intr
odu
ctio
n:T
wo
Ap
pro
ach
esto
Nou
nIn
corp
orat
ion
.
Fles
hin
gO
ut
the
Syn
tact
ican
dLe
xica
lAcc
oun
ts
.
Nou
nIn
corp
orat
ion
:Syn
tax
orLe
xico
n?
.
Den
omin
alV
erb
Form
atio
nin
Wes
tG
reen
lan
dic
.
Con
clu
sion
Ref
eren
ces
Ind
exof
Subj
ects
Ind
exof
Nam
es
Ind
exof
Lan
guag
es
Gen
eral
Pre
face
Th
eth
eore
tica
lfoc
us
ofth
isse
ries
ison
the
inte
rfac
esbe
twee
nsu
bcom
pon
ents
ofth
eh
um
angr
amm
atic
alsy
stem
and
the
clos
ely
rela
ted
area
ofth
ein
terf
aces
betw
een
the
dif
fere
nt
subd
isci
plin
esof
lingu
isti
cs.
Th
en
otio
nof
Sin
terf
aceŠ
has
beco
me
cen
tral
ingr
amm
atic
alth
eory
(for
inst
ance
,in
Ch
omsk
yŠs
rece
nt
Min
imal
istP
rogr
am)
and
inlin
guis
tic
pra
ctic
e:w
ork
onth
ein
terf
aces
betw
een
syn
tax
and
sem
anti
cs,s
ynta
xan
dm
orp
hol
ogy,
ph
onol
ogy
and
ph
onet
ics
etc.
has
led
toa
dee
per
un
der
stan
din
gof
par
ticu
lar
lingu
isti
cp
hen
omen
aan
dof
the
arch
itec
ture
ofth
elin
guis
tic
com
pon
ent
ofth
em
ind
/bra
in.
Th
ese
ries
cove
rsin
terf
aces
betw
een
core
com
pon
ents
ofgr
amm
ar,i
ncl
ud
-in
gsy
nta
x/m
orp
hol
ogy,
syn
tax/
sem
anti
cs,s
ynta
x/p
hon
olog
y,sy
nta
x/p
ragm
at-
ics,
mor
ph
olog
y/p
hon
olog
y,p
hon
olog
y/p
hon
etic
s,p
hon
etic
s/sp
eech
proc
ess-
ing,
sem
anti
cs/p
ragm
atic
s,in
ton
atio
n/d
isco
urs
est
ruct
ure
asw
ell
asis
sues
inth
ew
ayth
atth
esy
stem
sof
gram
mar
invo
lvin
gth
ese
inte
rfac
ear
eas
are
ac-
quir
edan
dd
eplo
yed
inu
se(i
ncl
ud
ing
lan
guag
eac
quis
itio
n,l
angu
age
dysf
un
c-ti
on,a
nd
lan
guag
ep
roce
ssin
g).
Itd
emon
stra
tes,
we
hop
e,th
atp
rop
eru
nd
er-
stan
din
gsof
par
ticu
lar
lingu
isti
cp
hen
omen
a,la
ngu
ages
,la
ngu
age
grou
ps,
orin
ter-
lan
guag
eva
riat
ion
sal
lreq
uir
ere
fere
nce
toin
terf
aces
.T
he
seri
esis
open
tow
ork
bylin
guis
tsof
all
theo
reti
cal
per
suas
ion
san
dsc
hoo
lsof
thou
ght.
Am
ain
requ
irem
ent
isth
atau
thor
ssh
ould
wri
teso
asto
un
der
stoo
dby
colle
agu
esin
rela
ted
subfi
eld
sof
lingu
isti
csan
dby
sch
olar
sin
cogn
ate
dis
cip
lines
.C
litic
sap
pea
rto
live
atth
ein
terf
aces
betw
een
mor
ph
olog
y,sy
nta
xan
dp
roso
dy.
Inou
rel
even
thvo
lum
e,St
eph
enA
nd
erso
nad
dre
sses
the
theo
ryof
clit
iciz
atio
n,
and
argu
esth
atth
ep
rop
erti
esof
sim
ple
clit
ics
are
best
cap
ture
din
term
sof
ind
epen
den
tly
mot
ivat
edp
roso
dic
stru
ctu
res,
cou
ched
wit
hin
anO
Tfr
amew
ork.
He
then
show
sth
atsp
ecia
lclit
ics
can
beu
nd
erst
ood
asbe
ing
the
ph
rasa
lan
alog
ues
ofm
orp
hol
ogic
alaf
fixa
tion
,an
dth
atan
OT
acco
un
tof
thes
eca
nbe
nat
ura
llyex
ten
ded
toV
2co
nst
ruct
ion
san
dp
ron
omin
alcl
itic
s,w
ith
imp
orta
nt
imp
licat
ion
sfo
rcl
ause
stru
ctu
rean
dth
ep
lau
sibi
lity
ofh
ead
mov
emen
t.
Dav
idA
dger
Hag
itB
orer
Ack
now
led
gem
ents
Th
ew
ork
rep
orte
dh
ere
has
ben
efite
dfr
omth
ege
ner
ous
sup
por
tov
erm
any
year
sof
the
Nat
ion
alSc
ien
ceFo
un
dat
ion
,to
wh
omI
hav
ebe
enp
rom
isin
gth
ism
onog
rap
hfo
ral
lto
olo
ng.
Firs
tan
dfo
rem
ost,
ther
efor
e,I
wou
ldlik
eto
ackn
owle
dge
the
sup
por
tof
awar
ds
SBR
--
and
BC
S
--
from
the
NSF
toYa
leU
niv
ersi
ty.I
amex
trem
ely
grat
efu
lfor
the
con
fid
ence
the
NSF
,an
des
pec
ially
Pau
lCh
apin
asd
irec
tor
ofth
eL
ingu
isti
csP
rogr
am,h
assh
own
inm
yw
ork. A
lan
guag
eth
atfi
gure
sp
rom
inen
tly
inth
ep
rese
nt
book
isK
wak
w’a
la,
onw
hic
hm
yre
sear
chov
erse
vera
lye
ars
inth
e
sw
asal
sosu
pp
orte
dby
the
NSF
,u
nd
eraw
ard
BN
S--
to
UC
LA
,as
wel
las
bya
gran
tfr
omth
eW
enn
er-G
ren
Fou
nd
atio
nfo
rA
nth
rop
olog
ical
Res
earc
h.M
yst
udy
ofK
wak
w’a
law
asm
ade
pos
sibl
eby
the
assi
stan
ceof
Sam
Hen
der
son
,Dai
syM
oon
,an
dJi
mH
end
erso
nof
Cam
pbe
llR
iver
,an
dby
Tom
my
and
Em
ma
Hu
nt
ofV
icto
ria,
asw
ella
sot
her
sin
Cam
pbe
llR
iver
,Qu
adra
Isla
nd
,Ale
rtB
ay,a
nd
Port
Har
dy,
Bri
tish
Col
um
bia.
Th
atw
ork
was
also
faci
litat
edby
acce
ssto
man
usc
rip
tmat
e-ri
als
ofFr
anz
Boa
sin
the
libra
ryof
the
Am
eric
anP
hilo
sop
hic
alSo
ciet
y,w
hic
hI
was
able
tom
ake
use
ofth
anks
top
erm
issi
onfr
omth
ela
teZ
ellig
Har
ris.
An
oth
erla
ngu
age
that
figu
res
inth
isbo
ok,p
rim
arily
inC
hap
ters
an
d,
isSu
rmir
an,
afo
rmof
Ru
man
tsch
.M
yw
ork
onth
isla
ngu
age
was
firs
tsu
p-
por
ted
byN
SFaw
ard
BC
S
--
and
bygr
ants
from
the
Yale
Un
iver
sity
Soci
alSc
ien
ceR
esea
rch
Fun
d,a
nd
con
tin
ues
un
der
NSF
awar
dB
CS
--
toYa
leU
niv
ersi
ty.
Iam
grat
efu
lto
Petr
aU
ffer
for
man
yh
ours
ofp
atie
nt
in-
stru
ctio
nin
Surm
iran
,as
wel
las
toU
rsu
sB
alte
rmia
and
my
oth
erfr
ien
ds
and
con
sult
ants
inSa
lou
fan
dSa
vogn
in.
Itis
acl
ich
éof
pre
face
ssu
chas
this
one,
that
too
man
yp
eop
leh
ave
pro
-vi
ded
me
wit
hh
elp,
advi
ce,s
ugg
esti
ons,
and
corr
ecti
ons
over
the
year
sin
pu
r-su
ing
this
rese
arch
for
itto
bep
ossi
ble
toen
um
erat
eth
emal
lwit
hou
tca
usi
ng
the
read
er’s
eyes
togl
aze
over
—p
oor
than
ks,
ind
eed
.I
wou
ld,
how
ever
,lik
eto
than
kth
est
ud
ents
wh
oh
ave
par
tici
pat
edin
my
sem
inar
son
clit
ics
atYa
leov
era
nu
mbe
rof
year
s,in
clu
din
ges
pec
ially
Liz
ann
eK
aise
ran
dot
her
sw
hos
ew
ork
app
ears
inK
aise
r(
).
Iw
ould
also
like
toac
know
led
geth
eh
elp
ofJu
lieLe
gate
,w
ho
hel
ped
toke
epm
ea
bit
mor
eh
ones
tov
erth
eco
urs
eof
apr
esen
tati
onof
mu
chof
this
mat
eria
lin
the
Fall
of
atYa
le,a
nd
wh
oh
asp
rovi
ded
nu
mer
ous
com
men
tsan
dsu
gges
tion
son
the
man
usc
rip
t.A
dd
itio
nal
com
men
tsan
das
sist
ance
onp
orti
ons
ofth
em
anu
scri
pt
from
Gee
rtB
ooij,
Ack
now
led
gem
ents
ix
Luig
iB
urz
io,
An
dre
wC
arst
airs
-McC
arth
y,Sa
nd
raC
hu
ng,
Jerr
ySa
doc
k,an
dId
aTo
ivon
enh
ave
been
extr
emel
yva
luab
le.
Obv
iou
sly,
non
eof
thes
ep
eo-
ple
shou
ldbe
blam
edfo
rm
ym
ista
kes
oras
sum
edto
agre
ew
ith
my
opin
ion
s.T
han
ksal
soto
Mic
hiy
aK
awai
for
his
wor
kon
the
ind
exes
.M
uch
ofth
eac
tual
wri
tin
gof
this
book
has
been
don
ew
ith
the
gen
erou
ssu
pp
orto
fasa
bbat
ical
leav
efr
omYa
le.D
uri
ng
that
tim
e,I
hav
ebe
ena
Vis
itin
gSc
hol
arin
the
Dep
artm
ento
fLin
guis
tics
,Sch
oolo
fCla
ssic
san
dL
ingu
isti
cs,a
tth
eU
niv
ersi
tyof
Can
terb
ury
inC
hri
stch
urc
h,
New
Zea
lan
d.
Iam
extr
emel
ygr
atef
ult
oth
eU
niv
ersi
tyan
dth
eD
epar
tmen
tfo
rth
eir
hos
pit
alit
yan
dfo
rth
ege
ner
osit
yw
ith
wh
ich
they
hav
em
ade
thei
rfa
cilit
ies
avai
labl
eto
me,
pro
vid
ing
me
wit
ha
delig
htf
ula
tmos
ph
ere
inw
hic
hto
carr
you
tth
isw
ork.
Part
icu
larl
yp
leas
ant
hav
ebe
enfr
equ
ent
conv
ersa
tion
sw
ith
An
dre
wC
arst
airs
-McC
arth
ybo
thab
out
mat
ters
trea
ted
her
ean
dab
out
mor
ege
ner
alis
sues
inm
orp
hol
ogy
and
ph
onol
ogy.
Im
ust
also
sin
gle
out
Pau
lSm
olen
sky.
Pau
lin
trod
uce
dm
eto
the
mer
its
ofan
Op
tim
alit
yT
heo
reti
cap
pro
ach
tocl
itic
ph
enom
ena
inth
eco
urs
eof
aco
nver
sati
onye
ars
ago
wh
enI
was
seek
ing
exac
tly
the
opp
osit
e:n
amel
y,a
good
argu
men
tfo
rig
nor
ing
OT
infa
vor
ofth
eru
le-b
ased
anal
ysis
Ih
adof
fere
din
earl
ier
pap
ers.
As
the
read
erw
illse
e,I
thin
kh
ew
asd
eep
lyri
ght.
Th
is p
ag
e in
ten
tio
na
lly
left
bla
nk
1 Intr
odu
ctio
n
Th
elit
erat
ure
of(g
ener
ativ
e)lin
guis
tics
sin
ceth
eea
rly
s
isre
ple
tew
ith
mon
ogra
ph
s,sp
ecia
lized
colle
ctio
ns,
arti
cles
,n
otes
,an
dot
her
rese
arch
dea
l-in
gw
ith
the
pro
per
ties
ofcl
itic
s—in
dee
d,e
nti
rebo
oks
(su
chas
Nev
is,J
osep
h,
Wan
ner
,an
dZ
wic
ky
)ar
ede
vote
dto
not
hin
gbu
tlis
tsof
refe
ren
ces
rel-
evan
tto
the
stu
dyof
clit
ics.
An
dye
ta
sear
chof
seve
ral
stan
dar
don
line
dic
-ti
onar
ies,
incl
ud
ing
Web
ster
’sU
nab
rid
ged
,tu
rns
up
no
men
tion
ofth
ew
ord
.T
he
Oxf
ord
En
glis
hD
icti
onar
yfi
rst
not
esit
in
,an
dd
efin
esit
thu
sly:
“An
encl
itic
orp
rocl
itic
.”N
ota
lot
ofim
med
iate
hel
pth
ere,
but
atle
ast
we
hav
ea
link
toa
mu
chol
der
trad
itio
n,
for
the
not
ion
sof
encl
itic
and
pro
clit
icar
eth
orou
ghly
grou
nd
edin
gram
mat
ical
des
crip
tion
dat
ing
back
atle
ast
toth
ese
ven
teen
thce
ntu
ry.
Th
eO
ED
’sen
try
issu
pp
orte
dby
aqu
otat
ion
from
Nid
a(
:v
ii):
“Man
yla
ngu
ages
hav
eel
emen
tsth
at(
)co
mbi
ne
ph
onol
ogic
ally
wit
hw
ord
sw
ith
wh
ich
they
don
otfo
rmm
orp
hol
ogic
alco
nst
ruct
ion
s,an
d(
)do
not
con
-st
itu
tede
riva
tion
alor
infl
ecti
onal
form
ativ
es..
.T
he
term
‘clit
ics’
may
...
beem
plo
yed
inth
isge
ner
alm
ean
ing.
”E
tym
olog
ical
ly,c
liti
cis
from
Gre
ekkl
inei
n
‘to
lean
,’an
dre
fers
toth
iste
nd
ency
ofcl
itic
sto
dep
end
onot
her
wis
eu
nre
late
dm
ater
ial.
Ou
ru
nd
erst
and
ing
thu
sfa
ris
esse
nti
ally
neg
ativ
e:a
clit
icis
som
eth
ing
that
isn
otin
tegr
ated
into
the
sen
ten
cein
the
way
“nor
mal
”w
ord
sar
e,an
d/o
rn
otin
tegr
ated
into
wor
ds
inth
ew
ayaf
fixe
sar
e.B
ut
desp
ite
its
neg
ativ
ech
ar-
acte
r,th
isis
the
basi
sn
otju
stof
one
but
oftw
on
earl
yin
dep
end
ent
rese
arch
trad
itio
ns.
On
eof
thes
e,th
eol
der
,is
asso
ciat
edin
lingu
isti
csp
rim
arily
wit
htr
adi-
tion
algr
amm
aria
ns
and
Ind
o-E
uro
pea
nis
ts.
Th
isis
esse
nti
ally
ap
hon
olog
ical
un
der
stan
din
g,on
wh
ich
a(p
ro-
oren
-)cl
itic
isa
stre
ssle
ss“l
ittl
e”w
ord
that
lack
sin
dep
end
ent
acce
nt,
and
that
(as
are
sult
)d
epen
ds
pro
sod
ical
lyon
anad
jace
nt
wor
d.
Th
eO
ED
defi
nes
encl
itic
,fo
rin
stan
ce(f
ollo
win
gL
idd
ell
and
Scot
t’s
Gre
ek-E
ngl
ish
Lex
icon
)as
aw
ord
that
“‘le
ans
its
acce
nt
onth
ep
re-
ced
ing
wor
d’:
inG
reek
gram
mar
the
dis
tin
ctiv
eep
ith
etof
thos
ew
ord
sw
hic
h
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
hav
en
oac
cen
t,an
dw
hic
h(w
hen
ph
onet
icla
ws
per
mit
)ca
use
ase
con
dar
yac
-ce
ntt
obe
laid
onth
ela
stsy
llabl
eof
the
wor
dw
hic
hth
eyfo
llow
.Hen
ceap
plie
dto
the
anal
ogou
sL
atin
par
ticl
es-q
ue,
-ve,
-ne,
etc.
,an
din
mod
[ern
]u
se(w
ith
exte
nsi
onof
sen
se)
toth
ose
un
emp
hat
icw
ord
sin
oth
erla
ng[
uag
e]s
that
are
trea
ted
inp
ron
un
ciat
ion
asif
form
ing
par
tof
the
pre
ced
ing
wor
d.”
Th
isw
asce
rtai
nly
wh
atJa
kob
Wac
kern
agel
,th
ep
atro
nsa
int
ofcl
itic
s,m
ean
tin
his
clas
sic
pap
er(W
acke
rnag
el
)
wh
enh
esp
oke
ofen
clit
ics
and
pro
clit
ics.
Such
anin
terp
reta
tion
isn
otat
all
con
trov
erte
dby
the
poi
nt
ofth
atp
aper
,w
hic
hw
asth
efu
rth
ercl
aim
that
clit
ics
(defi
ned
inth
isw
ay)
inth
ean
cien
tIn
do-
Eu
rop
ean
lan
guag
es—
and
pre
sum
ably
also
inP
roto
Ind
o-E
uro
pea
n—
may
hu
dd
leto
geth
erin
som
ep
arti
cula
rlo
cati
on(i
nth
atca
se,
in“s
econ
dp
osit
ion
,”af
ter
the
firs
tw
ord
ofth
ecl
ause
).Fo
rex
amp
le,
inth
eH
omer
icG
reek
exam
ple
in(
.),
the
two
encl
itic
elem
ents
te‘a
nd
’an
dm
in
‘sg
.ac
c.p
ron
ou
n’
bo
thap
pea
rim
med
iate
lyaf
ter
the
firs
tfu
llw
ord
of
the
sen
ten
ce.1
(.
)p
ole
es=
te=
min
eres
anto
hip
pee
sp
ho
reei
n
man
y-an
d-i
tp
raye
dri
der
sca
rry
An
dm
any
rid
ers
pra
yed
toca
rry
it(I
liad
.
)
Fo
rW
acke
rnag
el,
the
occ
urr
ence
of
thes
ew
ord
sin
this
po
siti
on
foll
ow
edd
i-
rect
lyfr
om
ap
rop
erty
of
thei
rfo
rm:
tow
it,
thei
rla
cko
fan
(in
dep
end
ent)
acce
nt.
Th
efu
nd
amen
tal
sen
seo
f‘c
liti
c’o
nth
isvi
ew,
then
,is
ap
ho
no
logi
cal
on
e.C
liti
csar
eli
ttle
wo
rds
that
lack
acce
nt
of
thei
ro
wn
.
Mo
der
nsy
nta
ctic
ian
s,o
nth
eo
ther
han
d,
hav
eth
eir
ow
nd
isti
nct
idea
s
abo
ut
the
no
tio
no
f“c
liti
cs.”
Fo
rth
em,
the
stu
dy
of
clit
ics
ises
sen
tial
lyth
e
stu
dy
of
ap
arti
cula
rcl
ass
of
pro
no
min
alel
emen
ts(a
nd
oth
ers
that
beh
ave
like
them
),m
ost
com
mo
nly
the
Ro
man
ce(c
on
jun
ct)
pro
no
un
s.T
his
con
cep
tio
nis
par
ticu
larl
yas
soci
ated
wit
ha
rich
trad
itio
no
fsy
nta
ctic
rese
arch
ori
gin
atin
gin
the
wo
rko
fR
ich
ard
Kay
ne.
InK
ayn
e(
)
an
um
ber
of
dis
tin
ctiv
ep
rop
erti
es
are
iden
tifi
edw
ith
the
rele
van
tsu
bse
to
fp
ron
om
inal
s,in
clu
din
gn
ot
on
lyth
eir
dis
tin
ctiv
ep
osi
tio
nim
med
iate
lyp
rece
din
gth
eve
rb(a
so
pp
ose
dto
oth
ern
om
-
inal
exp
ress
ion
s),
bu
tal
soth
eir
inab
ilit
yto
be
mo
difi
edo
rco
njo
ined
.T
hes
e
pro
per
ties
goto
geth
erw
ith
cert
ain
ph
on
olo
gica
lan
dse
man
tic
idio
syn
cras
ies,
and
app
ear
tod
efin
ea
cate
gory
of
gram
mat
ical
elem
ents
.F
or
Kay
ne
and
tho
se
wh
oh
ave
con
tin
ued
this
lin
eo
fre
sear
ch,
the
des
crip
tio
no
fcl
itic
sis
pri
mar
ily
am
atte
ro
fth
esp
ecia
lsy
nta
xo
fth
ese
pro
no
un
s.
1In
exam
ple
s,I
wil
lgen
eral
lyin
dic
ate
clit
ics
and
thei
rd
irec
tio
no
fat
tach
men
tin
bo
ldfa
cew
ith
“ =”
sep
arat
ing
them
fro
mth
eir
ho
st.
Th
isn
ota
tio
nis
no
tin
ten
ded
by
itse
lfto
ind
icat
ean
yth
ing
abo
ut
the
spec
ific
ph
on
olo
gica
lor
syn
tact
icco
nse
qu
ence
so
fsu
cha
rela
tio
n,b
ut
on
lyto
hig
hli
ght
the
item
sas
clit
ics.
Intr
odu
ctio
n
Th
atn
oti
on
isex
trem
ely
wid
esp
read
.F
or
exam
ple
,w
hen
we
con
sult
the
ind
exo
fa
rece
nt
refe
ren
cegr
amm
aro
fC
atal
an(W
hee
ler,
Yate
s,an
dD
ols
)
for
“cli
tics
,”w
efi
nd
“see
pro
no
min
alcl
itic
s.”
Th
isis
no
tb
ecau
seC
atal
anh
as
no
oth
ercl
itic
elem
ents
of
inte
rest
(in
Ch
apte
r,
we
wil
lse
ea
clas
so
fu
nac
-
cen
ted
pre
po
siti
on
sin
this
lan
guag
eth
ath
ave
pro
per
ties
qu
ite
wo
rth
exam
-
inin
g),
bu
tra
ther
bec
ause
syn
tact
icia
ns
are
par
ticu
larl
yin
tere
sted
inel
emen
ts
such
asth
ose
un
der
lin
edin
exam
ple
(.
).
(.
)T
em
en
’h
ih
asan
atto
taso
la?
ther
eyo
uh
ave
gon
eal
lal
on
e
Did
you
goo
ffth
ere
all
alo
ne
(on
me)
?
Fo
rre
sear
cher
so
fth
isp
ersu
asio
n,
wh
atis
rem
ark
able
abo
ut
the
un
der
-
lin
edel
emen
tsin
(.
)is
no
tth
eir
lack
of
acce
nt
(ap
ho
no
logi
calp
rop
erty
),b
ut
rath
erth
efa
ctth
at(i
nC
atal
an,
asin
mo
stR
om
ance
lan
guag
es)
they
all
pil
e
up
imm
edia
tely
bef
ore
the
fin
ite
verb
of
the
clau
se—
ap
osi
tio
nin
wh
ich
cor-
resp
on
din
gn
on
-cli
tic
elem
ents
wo
uld
no
tap
pea
r.T
his
sen
seo
f“c
liti
c”is
thu
s
a(m
orp
ho
)syn
tact
ico
ne.
My
goal
inth
isb
oo
kis
toex
plo
reb
oth
of
thes
ese
nse
so
fcl
itic
,th
eir
in-
terr
elat
ion
s,an
dth
eim
pli
cati
on
so
fth
eir
anal
ysis
for
the
theo
ryo
fgr
amm
ar
mo
rege
ner
ally
.T
he
gen
eral
per
spec
tive
wil
lb
eo
ne
that
gro
ws
ou
to
fth
eth
e-
ory
of
A-M
orp
hou
sM
orp
hol
ogy
(An
der
son
),
wh
ere
clit
ics
are
rega
rded
as
the
ph
rasa
lan
alo
go
f(w
ord
-lev
el)
mo
rph
olo
gy.
Inm
ore
gen
eral
term
s,th
eo-
reti
call
ysa
tisf
yin
gac
cou
nts
and
exp
lan
atio
ns
wil
lb
eso
ugh
tw
ith
ina
view
of
gram
mar
bas
edp
rim
aril
yo
nsy
stem
so
fco
nst
rain
ts(a
vers
ion
of
Op
tim
alit
y
Th
eory
)ra
ther
than
on
rule
s.M
uch
of
the
anal
ysis
on
the
mo
rph
osy
nta
ctic
sid
eis
pre
figu
red
by
that
of
An
der
son
(
c),
wh
ich
isb
oth
exte
nd
edh
ere
and
com
ple
men
ted
by
mo
reat
ten
tio
nto
the
ph
on
olo
gica
lsid
eo
fth
ep
rob
lem
.
Th
eb
asic
arch
itec
ture
of
the
bo
ok
isd
eter
min
edb
yth
ed
isti
nct
ion
be-
twee
nth
etw
olo
gica
lly
ind
epen
den
tse
nse
so
fth
en
oti
on
of
“cli
tic”
intr
od
uce
d
abo
ve.
Ib
egin
inC
hap
ter
b
yen
dea
vori
ng
tose
par
ate
thes
eb
yd
isti
ngu
ish
ing
sim
ple
clit
ics—
refe
rrin
gto
ap
ure
lyp
ho
no
logi
cal
dim
ensi
on
of
clit
ic-h
oo
d—
fro
msp
ecia
lcl
itic
sin
mo
reo
rle
ssth
ese
nse
of
Zw
ick
y(
).
Ico
nsi
der
two
syst
ems
that
mig
ht
be
take
nto
illu
stra
tesi
mp
lecl
itic
s,w
ho
seb
ehav
ior
we
can
late
rco
mp
are
and
con
tras
tw
ith
that
of
mo
rph
osy
nta
ctic
ally
un
usu
alsp
ecia
l
clit
ics.
Th
efi
rst
of
thes
eis
ase
to
fcl
itic
elem
ents
fro
mth
eW
akas
han
lan
guag
e
Kw
akw
’ala
,w
ho
sep
rop
erti
es(w
hil
ein
itia
lly
rem
ark
able
inso
me
resp
ects
)ar
e
rela
tive
lyst
raig
htf
orw
ard
.
Th
ese
con
dca
seco
nsi
der
edh
ere
yiel
ds
ara
ther
mo
reco
mp
lex
sto
ry,h
ow
-
ever
.It
has
bec
om
efa
irly
com
mo
nto
cite
En
glis
hco
ntr
acte
dau
xili
ary
form
s
such
asth
e’s
inN
ixon
’sth
eon
eas
nea
rca
no
nic
alin
stan
ces
of
sim
ple
clit
ics.
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
Syn
tact
icia
ns,
on
the
oth
erh
and
,h
ave
dev
elo
ped
ari
chli
tera
ture
on
thes
eel
-
emen
ts:
ifth
eyar
ere
ally
sosi
mp
le,
itis
rem
ark
able
that
som
any
peo
ple
hav
e
rece
ived
Ph
.D.s
for
dis
sert
atio
ns
dev
ote
d(e
nti
rely
or
inla
rge
par
t)to
ad
is-
cuss
ion
of
intr
icat
esy
nta
ctic
con
dit
ion
so
nth
eir
occ
urr
ence
.I
exp
lore
thes
e
mat
ters
wit
hth
ego
alo
fse
ein
gw
hat
ap
ho
no
logi
call
yb
ased
anal
ysis
mu
stac
-
cou
nt
for
ifth
ese
elem
ents
are
ind
eed
tob
eca
lled
“sim
ple
”cl
itic
s.
To
say
that
on
ese
nse
oft
he
term
“cli
tic”
isto
be
iden
tifi
edw
ith
the
ph
on
ol-
ogy
of
the
rele
van
tel
emen
tsd
oes
no
t,o
fco
urs
e,ac
tual
lyp
rovi
de
init
self
ath
e-
ory
of
that
dim
ensi
on
.In
fact
,th
ep
ho
no
logy
of
clit
iciz
atio
nis
clo
sely
bo
un
d
up
wit
hth
en
atu
rean
dst
atu
so
fth
em
uch
bro
ader
theo
ryo
fp
roso
dic
stru
ctu
re
inla
ngu
age,
and
we
can
on
lyu
nd
erst
and
ph
on
olo
gica
lcl
itic
sb
yp
laci
ng
thei
r
beh
avio
rw
ith
inth
isla
rger
con
text
.In
Ch
apte
r,
acco
rdin
gly,
Io
utl
ine
avi
ew
of
pro
sod
icca
tego
ries
and
thei
rre
lati
on
sw
ith
inth
efr
amew
ork
of
Op
tim
alit
y
Th
eory
,an
du
seth
atto
arri
veat
ach
arac
teri
zati
on
of
the
ph
on
olo
gyo
fcl
itic
s,
esp
ecia
lly
(bu
tn
ot
excl
usi
vely
)in
En
glis
h.
Iar
gue
that
the
pro
per
ties
of
En
g-
lish
red
uce
dau
xili
arie
sd
oin
dee
dfa
llw
ith
ina
ph
on
olo
gica
lacc
ou
nt,
and
thu
s
that
ther
eis
no
ob
stac
leto
call
ing
them
“sim
ple
”cl
itic
sin
the
tech
nic
alse
nse
,
des
pit
eth
eco
mp
lexi
ties
of
thei
rb
ehav
ior.
Hav
ing
give
nan
acco
un
to
fth
ep
ho
no
logi
cal
dim
ensi
on
of
clit
iciz
atio
n,
I
then
mo
veo
nin
Ch
apte
r
toth
em
orp
ho
syn
tax
ofs
pec
ialc
liti
cs.
Star
tin
gfr
om
the
clas
sic
des
crip
tive
gen
eral
izat
ion
so
fZ
wic
ky,
Kla
van
s,K
aiss
e,an
do
ther
s
(su
mm
edu
pin
An
der
son
)
abo
ut
the
loca
tio
ns
inw
hic
hth
ese
are
fou
nd
,
Iw
ill
ask
wh
atk
ind
of
theo
rym
igh
tb
ere
spo
nsi
ble
for
gett
ing
them
ther
e.
Ico
ncl
ud
eo
nth
eb
asis
of
an
um
ber
of
con
sid
erat
ion
sth
atm
orp
ho
logy
and
no
tsy
nta
xfu
rnis
hes
the
app
rop
riat
eco
nte
xtfo
ru
nd
erst
and
ing
them
.Sp
ecia
l
clit
ics,
that
is,
con
stit
ute
the
mo
rph
olo
gyo
fp
hra
ses—
asu
gges
tio
nth
ath
as
oft
enb
een
mad
ean
dw
hic
hI
try
her
eto
sub
stan
tiat
e.
Som
em
orp
ho
logy
con
sist
sn
ot
of
affi
xes
bu
to
fo
ther
sort
so
fch
ange
in
shap
e(“
No
n-c
on
cate
nat
ive”
mo
rph
olo
gy).
Th
ere
isa
case
tob
em
ade
that
the
kin
do
ffu
nct
ion
fill
edb
ycl
itic
sis
som
etim
esre
aliz
edb
ych
ange
sin
shap
eo
ther
than
the
add
itio
no
fse
gmen
tab
lem
ater
ial
toa
ph
rase
,an
din
stan
ces
of
such
“No
n-c
on
cate
nat
ive”
clit
ics
are
pro
po
sed
and
anal
yzed
.A
nd
just
asw
ord
-lev
el
mo
rph
olo
gyca
nb
ed
ivid
edb
etw
een
infl
ecti
on
and
der
ivat
ion
,th
ere
seem
to
be
two
corr
esp
on
din
gcl
asse
so
fcl
itic
s:so
me
that
rep
rese
nt
gram
mat
ical
ma-
teri
al,s
uch
asp
ron
om
inal
argu
men
ts;a
nd
som
eth
atre
pre
sen
tm
ore
sem
anti
c
con
ten
t,su
chas
dis
cou
rse
mar
kers
,var
iou
sad
verb
ials
,etc
.I
dis
cuss
the
exte
nt
tow
hic
hth
isd
isti
nct
ion
amo
ng
clit
ics
issu
bst
anti
vely
par
alle
lto
that
fou
nd
in
mo
rph
olo
gy.
Am
on
gth
eva
rio
us
typ
eso
fsp
ecia
lcl
itic
s,b
yfa
rth
em
ost
inte
rest
ing
(in
the
sen
seo
fp
rob
ativ
e)ar
eth
ose
that
occ
ur
inse
con
dp
osi
tio
nw
ith
inth
e
Intr
odu
ctio
n
do
mai
nto
wh
ich
they
are
rele
van
t.In
Ch
apte
r
Ish
ow
wh
yth
ese
clit
ics
are
soim
po
rtan
tfo
rth
ed
evel
op
men
to
fan
adeq
uat
eth
eory
of
spec
ial
clit
icp
osi
-
tio
nin
g.P
roce
edin
gfr
om
afu
ller
acco
un
to
fth
eK
wak
w’a
lacl
itic
sco
nsi
der
ed
earl
ier,
Iex
plo
rese
con
d-p
osi
tio
ncl
itic
sin
ava
riet
yo
fla
ngu
ages
.I
con
sid
era
ran
geo
fp
oss
ible
theo
ries
that
hav
eb
een
pro
po
sed
for
the
po
siti
on
ing
of
spe-
cial
clit
ics,
and
con
clu
de
that
nei
ther
the
syn
tax
no
rth
ep
ho
no
logy
suffi
ces
to
des
crib
eth
egr
amm
aro
fsp
ecia
lcl
itic
s—a
resu
ltth
atis
of
cou
rse
enti
rely
in
acco
rdw
ith
my
earl
ier
pro
po
sal
that
the
nat
ure
of
thes
eel
emen
tsis
esse
nti
ally
mo
rph
olo
gica
l.
In
ext
pro
ceed
inC
hap
ter
to
elab
ora
tea
mo
rep
reci
seac
cou
nt
of
the
ph
rasa
lm
orp
ho
logy
that
isre
spo
nsi
ble
for
the
app
eara
nce
of
spec
ial
clit
ics,
wit
hin
anO
pti
mal
ity
Th
eore
tic
fram
ewo
rk.
Ali
mit
edse
to
fco
nst
rain
tty
pes
suffi
ceto
des
crib
eth
ese
(an
do
ther
po
ssib
lesp
ecia
lcl
itic
s)co
nci
sely
and
in-
sigh
tfu
lly,
ash
asal
sob
een
argu
edin
ase
ries
of
pap
ers
by
Gér
ald
ine
Leg
end
rein
rece
nt
year
sas
wel
las
inA
nd
erso
n
c.T
he
OT
-bas
edac
cou
nt
of
“Cli
tics
as
Ph
rasa
lAffi
xes”
isco
mp
ared
wit
ha
vari
ety
of
oth
erth
eori
es:
tho
sep
ost
ula
tin
g
ap
ure
lysy
nta
ctic
acco
un
to
fcl
itic
izat
ion
,an
dth
ose
loca
tin
gth
eu
nu
sual
pro
p-
erti
eso
fsp
ecia
lcli
tics
inth
eir
ph
on
olo
gyo
rin
oth
erp
rop
erti
eso
fth
ein
terf
ace
bet
wee
nsy
nta
xan
do
ther
par
tso
fgr
amm
ar.
Th
esy
stem
of
seco
nd
-po
siti
on
clit
ics
inT
agal
og
pro
vid
esa
com
ple
xan
dn
uan
ced
exam
ple
of
an
um
ber
of
the
pro
per
ties
dis
cuss
edto
this
po
int.
InC
hap
ter
,
Itu
rnfr
om
the
anal
ysis
of
clit
ics
per
seto
anar
eao
fsy
nta
x
that
has
no
tge
ner
ally
bee
nta
ken
wit
hin
the
gen
erat
ive
trad
itio
nto
be
clo
sely
rela
ted
.H
ere
Ip
ose
the
qu
esti
on
of
wh
eth
ero
rn
ot
itw
asco
rrec
tfo
rJa
kob
Wac
kern
agel
,w
ho
secl
assi
cd
iscu
ssio
no
fse
con
d-p
osi
tio
ncl
itic
sin
the
earl
iest
Ind
o-E
uro
pea
nla
ngu
ages
has
bee
nso
oft
enci
ted
(if
less
oft
enre
ad),
tosu
gges
t
aco
nn
ecti
on
bet
wee
nth
ese
clit
ics
and
ano
ther
set
ofs
eco
nd
-po
siti
on
ph
eno
m-
ena,
the
verb
-sec
on
dre
gula
riti
eso
fM
od
ern
Ger
man
and
an
um
ber
of
oth
er
lan
guag
es.
Ico
ncl
ud
eth
atw
hil
eW
acke
rnag
el’s
ow
nn
oti
on
of
the
exp
lan
ato
ry
con
nec
tio
nw
asu
nd
ou
bte
dly
inco
rrec
t,th
ere
isin
dee
da
dee
pli
nk
,an
dth
e
mo
rph
osy
nta
ctic
app
arat
us
use
dto
des
crib
ese
con
d-p
osi
tio
ncl
itic
sca
np
ro-
vid
eu
sw
ith
anac
cou
nt
of
verb
seco
nd
inG
erm
an,I
cela
nd
ic,B
reto
n,a
nd
oth
er
lan
guag
esas
wel
l.In
the
pro
cess
,we
lear
nso
me
thin
gsab
ou
tth
ew
ayO
pti
mal
-
ity
Th
eore
tic
mec
han
ism
sp
lay
ou
tin
the
do
mai
no
fsy
nta
x,w
her
eth
eyh
ave
bee
nle
ssst
ud
ied
(at
leas
tu
nti
lre
cen
tly)
than
inp
ho
no
logy
and
mo
rph
olo
gy.
Co
nti
nu
ing
this
fora
yin
toth
esy
nta
ctic
do
mai
n,
Isu
rvey
inC
hap
ter
som
eo
fth
esu
bst
anti
vesy
nta
ctic
pro
per
ties
of
the
mo
stw
idel
yst
ud
ied
clas
s
of
clit
ics,
tho
setr
adit
ion
ally
anal
yzed
asp
ron
om
inal
s.I
beg
inb
yex
amin
ing
the
nat
ure
of
(pre
dic
ate-
argu
men
t)ag
reem
ent,
and
com
par
ing
itw
ith
wel
l-
kn
ow
np
hen
om
ena
aris
ing
inth
ean
alys
iso
fsp
ecia
lcl
itic
s.T
his
req
uir
esan
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
elab
ora
tio
no
fth
ean
alys
iso
fth
eM
orp
ho
syn
tact
icR
epre
sen
tati
on
so
fca
te-
gori
es,
ino
rder
toac
cou
nt
for
ph
eno
men
asu
chas
(th
ep
rese
nce
vers
us
ab-
sen
ceve
rsu
so
pti
on
alit
yo
f)cl
itic
do
ub
lin
g,cl
itic
clim
bin
g,an
dth
eli
ke.
Wh
ile
the
bu
lko
fth
eli
tera
ture
dev
ote
dto
pro
no
min
alcl
itic
sfo
cuse
so
no
bje
ctcl
i-
tics
,so
me
lan
guag
es(i
ncl
ud
ing
seve
ral
spo
ken
inn
ort
her
nIt
aly
and
inn
earb
y
area
so
fSw
itze
rlan
d)
also
hav
esp
ecia
lcl
itic
sre
ferr
ing
tosu
bje
cts.
Iex
plo
re
thei
rp
rop
erti
es,
incl
ud
ing
tho
seo
fSu
rmir
anan
da
ran
geo
f“n
ort
her
nIt
alia
n
dia
lect
s.”
Id
iscu
ssth
esi
gnifi
can
ceo
fth
em
orp
ho
logi
cal
app
roac
hto
spec
ial
clit
ics
for
the
syn
tax
of
fun
ctio
nal
cate
gori
esan
dth
ep
rop
osa
lth
atal
lsu
ch
cate
gori
esco
nst
itu
tesy
nta
ctic
ally
auto
no
mo
us
hea
ds
(eac
hw
ith
its
ow
np
ro-
ject
ion
)in
syn
tact
icre
pre
sen
tati
on
.
Th
eac
cou
nt
of
clau
sest
ruct
ure
that
resu
lts
fro
mvi
ewin
gcl
itic
sin
the
way
advo
cate
dh
ere
has
ava
riet
yo
foth
erw
ider
con
seq
uen
ces.
On
eo
fth
ese
invo
lves
the
pla
usi
bil
ity
ofa
nap
pro
ach
toin
corp
ora
tio
np
hen
om
ena
bas
edo
nsy
nta
ctic
mo
vem
ent,
asd
evel
op
edfo
rin
stan
ceb
ySa
do
ck,B
aker
,an
do
ther
s.If
syn
tact
ic
mo
vem
ent
isn
ot
invo
lved
inin
corp
ora
tio
nco
nst
ruct
ion
s,as
Iar
gue,
then
the
fou
nd
atio
nfo
rth
ew
ho
leap
par
atu
so
fH
ead
Mo
vem
ent
coll
apse
s,an
dw
ith
itm
uch
of
the
pla
usi
bil
ity
of
the
elab
ora
tely
arti
cula
ted
fun
ctio
nal
stru
ctu
re
assu
med
by
syn
tact
icia
ns
sin
ceth
ela
te
s.T
his
isa
resu
ltw
hic
his
qu
ite
in
har
mo
ny
wit
hth
ep
ictu
reo
fcl
ause
stru
ctu
red
evel
op
edin
the
pre
sen
tw
ork
,
wh
ich
assu
mes
that
mu
chfu
nct
ion
alco
nte
nt
isp
rese
nt
inth
efo
rmo
ffe
atu
res
on
ali
mit
edn
um
ber
of
stru
ctu
ral
cate
gori
es,r
ath
erth
anas
ase
to
ffu
nct
ion
al
hea
ds
inth
eir
ow
nri
ght.
InC
hap
ter
,I
exp
lore
thes
em
atte
rs,a
nd
atte
mp
tto
dra
wso
me
gen
eral
mo
rals
.
Fro
mva
rio
us
rem
ark
sab
ove
itw
ill
per
hap
sb
ecl
ear
that
the
view
of
syn
-
tact
icst
ruct
ure
rep
rese
nte
din
this
bo
ok
do
esn
ot
lin
eu
pco
mp
lete
lyw
ith
any
of
the
esta
bli
shed
po
siti
on
sth
ath
ave
do
min
ated
dis
cuss
ion
ove
rth
ep
ast
dec
ade
or
so.
Ap
art
fro
mo
ccas
ion
altu
rns
of
ph
rase
,I
do
no
tad
op
tth
esp
e-
cifi
cas
sum
pti
on
sth
ath
ave
emer
ged
wit
hin
the
Min
imal
ist
Pro
gram
for
syn
tax,
tho
ugh
Ith
ink
that
mo
sto
fw
hat
Isa
yco
uld
be
tran
spo
sed
into
that
fram
ewo
rk
wit
hli
ttle
sub
stan
tive
alte
rati
on
.I
assu
me
ano
vera
llp
ictu
rein
volv
ing
bas
e-
gen
erat
edst
ruct
ure
san
do
per
atio
ns
of
dis
pla
cem
ent
rela
tin
gth
ese
tosu
rfac
e
form
,su
bje
ctto
con
dit
ion
sin
clu
din
gth
ose
of
Bin
din
gT
heo
ryan
dth
eli
kein
a
way
rem
inis
cen
to
fm
uch
wo
rkin
the
fram
ewo
rko
fG
ove
rnm
ent
and
Bin
din
g
or
Pri
nci
ple
san
dP
aram
eter
s.
Id
on
ot,
ho
wev
er,
foll
ow
the
com
mo
nd
evel
op
men
to
fth
atfr
amew
ork
to
incl
ud
ean
incr
easi
ng
pro
life
rati
on
of
stru
ctu
reb
ased
on
fun
ctio
nal
cate
gori
es.
Mu
cho
fth
isfu
nct
ion
alco
nte
nt
isas
soci
ated
her
ew
ith
anel
abo
rati
on
of
the
feat
ure
stru
ctu
reo
fca
tego
ries
dra
wn
fro
ma
som
ewh
atm
ore
lim
ited
set,
wit
h
con
sid
erab
lyle
ss“a
rbo
riza
tio
n”
asa
resu
lt.
Th
ere
pre
sen
tati
on
sI
op
erat
ew
ith
Intr
odu
ctio
n
are
mu
chm
ore
sim
ilar
tosu
rfac
efo
rms,
atle
ast
inth
eir
deg
ree
of
inte
rnal
ar-
ticu
lati
on
,th
anth
ose
tow
hic
hst
ud
ents
of
gen
erat
ive
gram
mar
are
typ
ical
ly
intr
od
uce
dto
day
,an
din
volv
em
uch
less
mo
vem
ent
wit
hin
fun
ctio
nal
stru
c-
ture
.In
par
t,th
ese
dif
fere
nce
sre
flec
tth
efa
ctth
atfo
rm
yp
urp
ose
s,m
uch
of
this
fun
ctio
nal
stru
ctu
reis
sim
ply
no
tre
leva
nt
toth
ep
oin
tsat
issu
e,an
dth
us
can
use
full
yb
eab
bre
viat
ed.
Itsh
ou
ldal
sob
ecl
ear,
ho
wev
er,t
hat
ther
ear
ere
al
dif
fere
nce
so
fp
rin
cip
lein
volv
ed.
Ias
sum
e(a
nd
atte
mp
tto
argu
efo
r)th
ere
leva
nce
of
aco
nst
rain
t-b
ased
syst
emo
fan
Op
tim
alit
yT
heo
reti
cso
rtin
the
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
mo
rph
osy
nta
ctic
stru
ctu
re.
Th
isis
mo
stp
rom
inen
tin
rela
tio
nto
the
pri
nci
ple
sth
atin
tro
du
ce
spec
ial
clit
icel
emen
tsin
tose
nte
nce
s,b
ut
also
pla
ysa
role
else
wh
ere
(e.g
.,in
pro
du
cin
g“v
erb
-sec
on
d”
pat
tern
s).
Th
isvi
ewis
of
ap
iece
wit
hth
eO
pti
mal
ity
Th
eore
tic
inte
rpre
tati
on
of
pri
nci
ple
so
fp
roso
dic
stru
ctu
rew
hic
hfo
rms
the
bas
iso
fth
eac
cou
nt
of
ph
on
olo
gica
lcl
itic
so
ffer
edin
Ch
apte
r.
Th
isis
pro
bab
lyth
elo
nge
stw
ork
pu
bli
shed
tod
ate
bas
edo
nas
sum
p-
tio
ns
fro
mO
pti
mal
ity
Th
eory
bu
tw
hic
hd
oes
no
tin
clu
de
asi
ngl
eco
nst
rain
t
tab
leau
.M
yp
rin
cip
alex
cuse
for
that
isth
efa
ctth
ath
adI
incl
ud
edta
ble
aux
toil
lust
rate
the
argu
men
tsm
ade
atea
chp
oin
tw
her
eth
eyw
ou
ldb
ere
leva
nt,
the
bo
ok
wo
uld
be
mu
ch,
mu
chlo
nge
r.B
ut
wh
ile
Iu
nd
erst
and
the
valu
eo
f
thes
ed
isp
lays
for
con
firm
ing
the
corr
ectn
ess
of
com
ple
xco
nst
rain
tra
nk
ings
,
Iam
no
tco
nvi
nce
do
fth
eir
mo
rege
ner
alp
ersp
icu
ity.
Mo
sto
fth
eco
nst
rain
t
inte
ract
ion
sp
rop
ose
dh
ere
are
qu
ite
stra
igh
tfo
rwar
d,
and
Ih
op
eth
eyca
nb
e
app
reci
ated
on
the
bas
iso
fth
ed
iscu
ssio
n.
Inan
yev
ent,
Ile
ave
the
con
stru
ctio
n
of
form
alta
ble
aux
asan
exer
cise
for
the
read
er.
Ica
nn
ot
ho
pe
toar
gue
for
all
of
the
det
ails
of
my
(mo
rph
o)s
ynta
ctic
as-
sum
pti
on
sin
this
bo
ok
,bu
tI
ho
pe
that
Ih
ave
mad
ea
case
for
som
eo
fth
em
ore
no
tice
able
dev
iati
on
sfr
om
curr
ent
pra
ctic
e,an
dth
atin
oth
erin
stan
ces
Ih
ave
atle
ast
mad
ecl
ear
wh
atm
yas
sum
pti
on
sar
eso
that
oth
ers
can
see
wh
eth
erth
e
dif
fere
nce
sm
atte
rto
the
real
argu
men
ts.
Th
is p
ag
e in
ten
tio
na
lly
left
bla
nk
2 Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
Th
em
od
ern
stu
dy
of
clit
ics
wit
hin
gen
erat
ive
gram
mar
can
reas
on
ably
be
seen
asb
egin
nin
gw
ith
the
surv
eyp
rovi
ded
by
Zw
ick
y(
).
An
um
ber
of
ear-
lier
pap
ers
had
dea
ltw
ith
the
spec
ial
pro
per
ties
of
thes
eel
emen
ts,
esp
ecia
lly
inte
rms
of
thei
rsy
nta
x;an
daf
ter
the
fash
ion
of
the
tim
e,Z
wic
ky’
sp
aper
was
nev
erfo
rmal
lyp
ub
lish
ed,
bu
to
nly
dis
trib
ute
din
mim
eogr
aph
edfo
rm.
Th
e
dis
tin
ctio
ns
pro
po
sed
ther
e,h
ow
ever
,an
dth
eo
bse
rvat
ion
so
nw
hic
hth
eyw
ere
bas
ed,
esta
bli
shed
are
sear
chag
end
ath
ath
asd
om
inat
edd
iscu
ssio
no
fcl
itic
s
ever
ysi
nce
.
.
Wo
rds,
Cli
tics
,an
dA
ffixe
s
Zw
ick
y’s
clas
sic
pap
erst
arts
fro
mth
eq
ues
tio
no
fh
ow
we
dis
tin
guis
hw
ord
s
fro
maf
fixe
s,en
um
erat
ing
an
um
ber
of
pro
per
ties
inte
rms
of
wh
ich
thes
e
dif
fer.
Lik
em
any
such
list
s,th
iso
ne
con
tain
sso
me
pro
per
ties
that
mig
ht
be
rega
rded
asd
efin
itio
nal
,m
ixed
inw
ith
oth
ers
that
are
sim
ply
com
mo
nsy
mp
-
tom
so
fan
elem
ent’
sst
atu
s.
Ord
erin
g:A
ffix
ord
erw
ith
inth
ew
ord
isq
uit
eri
gid
,w
hil
ew
ord
ord
er
wit
hin
ph
rase
sca
nva
ry.
Th
ed
egre
eo
fva
riat
ion
dif
fers
fro
mla
ngu
age
tola
n-
guag
e,o
fco
urs
e,b
ut
virt
ual
lyal
llan
guag
esal
low
som
eal
tern
ativ
ew
ord
ord
ers
corr
esp
on
din
gto
the
sam
ees
sen
tial
mea
nin
g.In
con
tras
t,an
yva
riat
ion
we
fin
din
the
ord
ero
fw
ord
-in
tern
alaf
fixe
sis
virt
ual
lyal
way
sco
rrel
ated
wit
ha
dif
fere
nce
inse
nse
.
Inte
rnal
san
dh
i:D
iffe
ren
tp
ho
no
logi
cal
adju
stm
ents
may
app
lyw
ith
in
vers
us
acro
ssw
ord
s.T
he
dis
tin
ctio
no
f(w
ord
-)in
tern
alsa
nd
hi
fro
mex
tern
al
san
dh
igo
esb
ack
(as
the
etym
olo
gyo
fth
ew
ord
san
dh
isu
gges
ts)
toth
ean
cien
t
San
skri
tgr
amm
aria
ns.
Itco
rres
po
nd
sin
larg
ep
art
toth
ed
iffe
ren
ceb
etw
een
Lex
ical
and
Pos
t-le
xica
lph
on
olo
gyin
mo
rem
od
ern
term
s(c
f.K
aiss
ean
dSh
aw
). B
ind
ing
:T
his
isZ
wic
ky’
ste
rmfo
rth
efa
ctth
atso
me
mo
rph
olo
gica
lel
e-
men
tsca
nap
pea
ral
on
e,w
hil
eo
ther
so
nly
occ
ur
inco
mb
inat
ion
.T
he
latt
er
(“B
ou
nd
Mo
rph
emes
”)ar
eaf
fixe
s,w
hil
ew
ord
sar
efr
ee.
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
Co
nst
ruct
ion
wit
haf
fixe
s:If
anel
emen
tis
inco
nst
ruct
ion
wit
han
affi
x,
itm
ust
be
eith
erth
eb
ase
or
ano
ther
affi
x.Z
wic
ky
use
sth
iscr
iter
ion
tosu
pp
ort
the
clai
mth
atan
elem
ent
inM
adu
rese
wh
ich
occ
urs
bet
wee
ntw
oid
enti
fiab
le
affi
xes
ina
form
wh
ose
bas
eca
nb
ein
dep
end
entl
yes
tab
lish
edm
ust
itse
lfb
ean
affi
x. Ru
leim
mu
nit
y:
Syn
tact
icru
les,
such
asd
elet
ion
un
der
iden
tity
,d
on
ot
affe
ctaf
fixe
s,si
nce
thes
ear
ep
rop
erp
arts
of
wo
rds.
Seen
asa
crit
erio
nfo
r
dis
tin
guis
hin
gw
ord
sfr
om
affi
xes,
this
iscl
earl
yb
ased
on
stro
ng
Lex
ical
ist
as-
sum
pti
on
sab
ou
tth
ere
lati
on
bet
wee
nm
orp
ho
logy
and
syn
tax
(cf.
An
der
son
(
)
and
lite
ratu
reci
ted
ther
e).
Acc
ent:
Ele
men
tsth
atd
on
ot
bea
ran
ind
epen
den
tac
cen
tar
eaf
fixe
s.
Ifev
ery
mo
rph
olo
gica
lly
dis
cret
eel
emen
tin
ever
yla
ngu
age
fit
nic
ely
into
on
eo
rth
eo
ther
of
(exa
ctly
)tw
op
atte
rns
wit
hre
spec
tto
thes
ecr
iter
ia,
we
mig
ht
be
con
ten
t,b
ut
of
cou
rse
that
isn
ot
tru
e,an
dZ
wic
ky
iden
tifi
esth
ree
com
mo
nty
pes
of
“mix
ed”
case
.T
hes
e,o
fco
urs
e,ar
eth
ree
vari
etie
so
fth
ings
we
mig
ht
call
clit
ics.
On
this
acco
un
t,th
en,a
clit
icis
ali
ngu
isti
cel
emen
tw
hic
h
the
test
sju
stgi
ven
do
no
tcl
assi
fyu
nam
big
uo
usl
yas
bei
ng
eith
era
wo
rdo
ran
affi
x.T
he
thre
ep
atte
rns
iden
tifi
edin
this
way
are
then
nam
edsp
ecia
lcl
itic
s,
sim
ple
clit
ics,
and
bou
nd
wor
ds.
Spec
ial
clit
ics
are
char
acte
rize
das
un
acce
nte
db
ou
nd
form
sth
atar
eva
ri-
ants
of
free
form
s(s
imil
ar,
that
is,
inso
un
dan
dm
ean
ing
toso
me
no
n-c
liti
c
wo
rd);
and
wh
ich
dis
pla
y“s
pec
ial”
syn
tax.
Th
ism
igh
tm
ean
sim
ply
“dif
fere
nt”
syn
tax
fro
mth
eco
rres
po
nd
ing
free
form
,as
Fre
nch
Jela
vois
‘Ise
eh
er’
vers
us
Jevo
isla
fem
me
de
mes
rêve
s‘I
see
the
wo
man
of
my
dre
ams.
’In
this
case
(th
e
syn
tact
icia
n’s
pro
toty
pic
alin
stan
ceo
fa
clit
ic),
the
pro
no
un
pre
ced
esth
efi
nit
e
verb
,w
hil
ea
corr
esp
on
din
gn
on
-pro
no
un
isco
mp
lete
lyex
clu
ded
fro
mth
at
po
siti
on
,an
din
stea
dap
pea
rsp
ost
-ver
bal
ly(w
her
eth
ep
ron
ou
n,
init
stu
rn,
isex
clu
ded
).M
ore
dra
mat
ical
ly,
the
syn
tax
of
spec
ial
clit
ics
may
invo
lve
thei
r
app
eari
ng
ina
po
siti
on
wh
ich
isn
ot
inge
ner
alac
cess
ible
per
seto
rule
so
fth
e
syn
tax
atal
l—e.
g.,
seco
nd
po
siti
on
,in
terp
rete
das
imm
edia
tely
foll
ow
ing
the
firs
tfu
llp
ho
no
logi
cal
wo
rdo
fa
ph
rase
or
clau
se.
Sim
ple
clit
ics
are
un
acce
nte
dva
rian
tso
ffr
eem
orp
hem
es,
wh
ich
may
be
ph
on
olo
gica
lly
red
uce
dan
dsu
bo
rdin
ated
toa
nei
ghb
ori
ng
wo
rd.
Inte
rms
of
thei
rsy
nta
x,th
ou
gh,
they
app
ear
inth
esa
me
po
siti
on
aso
ne
that
can
be
occ
up
ied
by
the
corr
esp
on
din
gfr
eew
ord
.
Fin
ally
,bo
un
dw
ord
sar
efo
rms
that
are
alw
ays
un
acce
nte
dan
dp
ho
no
log-
ical
lysu
bo
rdin
ated
toa
nei
ghb
ori
ng
wo
rd.
Th
eyar
eo
ften
syn
tact
ical
lyas
soci
-
ated
wit
ha
wh
ole
ph
rase
,w
hil
eb
ein
gp
ho
no
logi
call
yas
soci
ated
wit
ha
sin
gle
wo
rdin
(or
adja
cen
tto
)it
.
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
Exa
min
ing
this
clas
sifi
cati
on
,w
eca
nse
eth
atit
has
som
esl
igh
tly
pec
uli
ar
pro
per
ties
.F
or
exam
ple
,th
ed
iffe
ren
ceb
etw
een
spec
ial
and
sim
ple
clit
ics,
on
the
on
eh
and
,an
db
ou
nd
wo
rds,
on
the
oth
er,
isb
ased
on
wh
eth
ero
rn
ot
a
rela
ted
no
n-c
liti
c(f
ree)
form
exis
ts.
Bu
tw
hat
reas
on
do
we
hav
eto
bel
ieve
that
this
isre
ally
sign
ifica
nt?
Th
atis
,ass
um
ing
that
acl
ust
ero
fp
rop
erti
es(n
ot
just
asi
ngl
eo
ne)
can
be
iden
tifi
edto
sep
arat
eb
ou
nd
wo
rds
fro
mth
etw
o(o
ther
)
typ
eso
fcli
tic,
itis
by
no
mea
ns
ob
vio
us
that
thes
esh
ou
ldal
lco
-var
yd
epen
din
g
on
wh
eth
ero
rn
ot
the
form
inq
ues
tio
nal
tern
ates
wit
han
oth
er(s
yno
nym
ou
s
bu
tfr
ee)
form
of
the
sam
ele
xica
lit
em.
Co
nsi
der
the
En
glis
hp
ron
ou
ns
wh
ich
can
app
ear
eith
erre
du
ced
(If
he
com
esn
ear
me,
I’ll
hit
’m[h
Rm "
])o
ru
nre
du
ced
(sh
ew
ante
dto
mee
th
im
[mij
thm
]).
Th
efo
rmer
isid
enti
fied
asa
clit
icb
yZ
wic
ky’
scr
iter
ia,
invi
rtu
e
of
the
latt
er’s
exis
ten
ce.
Th
eas
sum
pti
on
mad
eat
the
ou
tset
of
Zw
ick
y’s
pa-
per
,mo
tiva
tin
gso
me
of
his
dec
isio
ns
abo
ut
term
ino
logy
and
cate
gori
es,i
sth
at
clit
ican
dn
on
-cli
tic
inca
ses
like
that
of
En
glis
ho
bje
ctp
ron
ou
ns
are
rela
ted
by
ph
on
olo
gica
lru
le.
Wh
enw
elo
ok
mo
recl
ose
ly,
tho
ugh
,th
istu
rns
ou
tto
be
fair
lyim
pla
usi
ble
,at
leas
tin
the
gen
eral
case
.
Zw
ick
yan
dP
ull
um
’s(
)
pap
ero
nre
du
ced
form
so
fn
egat
ion
inE
ng-
lish
,fo
rin
stan
ce(w
hic
hI
wil
ld
iscu
ssin
mo
red
etai
lb
elo
w),
ob
serv
esth
atth
e
clit
icfo
rms
of
En
glis
hau
xili
arie
sli
kew
ill
and
wou
ldsu
gges
tp
roce
sses
that
are
oth
erw
ise
qu
ite
un
pre
ced
ente
din
En
glis
hp
ho
no
logy
.If
thes
ecl
itic
sar
eli
nke
d
toco
rres
po
nd
ing
no
n-c
liti
cs,
then
this
isal
mo
stce
rtai
nly
afa
ctab
ou
tth
ere
l-
evan
t(p
ho
no
logi
call
yco
mp
lex)
lexi
cal
entr
ies,
no
ta
mat
ter
of
ph
on
olo
gica
lly
pre
dic
tab
leva
rian
tso
fsi
mp
lefo
rms.
Bu
tw
hy
sho
uld
the
stru
ctu
ral
char
ac-
ter
of
ali
ngu
isti
cfo
rmas
a“c
liti
c”d
epen
dcr
uci
ally
on
the
con
tin
gen
tm
atte
r
of
wh
eth
erit
hap
pen
sto
be
lin
ked
wit
han
oth
er,
no
n-c
liti
cfo
rmin
asi
ngl
e
(syn
tact
ical
lyan
dse
man
tica
lly,
bu
tn
ot
ph
on
olo
gica
lly)
un
ifo
rmle
xica
len
try?
Mac
aula
y(
)
des
crib
esa
set
of
clit
icfo
rms
inth
eO
tom
angu
ean
lan
-
guag
eM
ixte
c,an
dm
akes
this
po
int
ingr
eate
rd
etai
l.Sh
esh
ow
sth
atin
that
lan
guag
eth
ere
are
ph
on
olo
gica
lru
les
del
etin
ggl
ott
alst
op
s,co
ales
cin
gse
qu
en-
ces
of
iden
tica
lvo
wel
s,an
dd
elet
ing
wo
rd-i
nit
ial
syll
able
s,in
rap
idsp
eech
.
Th
ese
pro
cess
esh
ave
the
effe
cto
fre
du
cin
gd
isyl
lab
icfo
rms
tom
on
osy
llab
les
un
der
app
rop
riat
eco
nd
itio
ns,
and
som
efo
rms
sho
wan
alte
rnat
ion
that
is
dri
ven
by
thes
eru
les.
We
can
see
that
the
vari
atio
nb
etw
een
dis
ylla
bic
and
mo
no
syll
abic
form
sis
aco
nse
qu
ence
of
thes
eru
les,
bec
ause
insl
ow
ersp
eech
the
lost
syll
able
sar
e“r
esto
red
.”
Bu
tth
ere
are
oth
erfo
rms
for
wh
ich
the
‘sh
ort
’fo
rmd
oes
no
tco
rres
po
nd
toan
ylo
nge
rsl
ow
-sp
eech
form
,an
din
som
eo
ther
case
s,th
eal
tern
atio
nis
no
t
som
eth
ing
that
can
be
der
ived
fro
mth
e(i
nd
epen
den
tly
mo
tiva
ted
)p
ho
no
logy
.
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
Fo
rin
stan
ce,
the
thir
dp
erso
nm
ascu
lin
eo
bje
ctp
ron
ou
nis
/càà
/in
its
full
form
,b
ut
/–re
/w
hen
red
uce
d.
Th
efu
llfo
rmo
fth
efi
rst
per
son
fam
ilia
rp
ro-
no
un
is/r
uP
u/,
for
bo
thsu
bje
cts
and
ob
ject
s;th
eco
rres
po
nd
ing
red
uce
dfo
rm
/-ri
/ca
no
nly
be
use
dfo
rsu
bje
cts,
ho
wev
er.
Th
ere
du
ced
form
of
/ru
Pu
/as
an
ob
ject
isth
e(p
ho
no
logi
call
yp
red
icta
ble
)sh
ape
/-ru
/.T
hes
ed
iver
sere
lati
on
s
sho
wth
atth
ere
du
ced
form
sar
en
ot—
or
atle
ast
no
tin
the
gen
eral
case
—
der
ived
by
the
op
erat
ion
of
ph
on
olo
gica
lru
les.
Itlo
ok
s,th
en,
asif
the
clit
ican
dn
on
-cli
tic
form
sin
such
case
sar
eo
ften
lexi
cal
alte
rnat
es.
Fo
rin
stan
ce,
En
glis
hw
ould
has
two
lexi
cal
shap
es:
the
clit
ic
form
/–d
/an
dth
en
on
-cli
tic
/wU
d/.
Th
eM
ixte
cth
ird
-per
son
mas
culi
ne
ob
ject
has
the
form
s/c
àà/
and
/–re
/,et
c.In
each
of
thes
eca
ses,
the
form
sin
the
lexi
cal
entr
ym
ust
be
acco
mp
anie
db
yso
me
stat
emen
to
fth
eir
dis
trib
uti
on
.
Bu
tin
that
case
,th
ed
iffe
ren
ceb
etw
een
clit
icfo
rms
and
bo
un
dw
ord
slo
ses
mu
cho
fit
sth
eore
tica
lin
tere
st:
ab
ou
nd
wo
rdis
just
anu
nac
cen
ted
lexi
cal
item
that
do
esn
ot
hap
pen
toh
ave
any
no
n-c
liti
cle
xica
lal
tern
ant—
sure
lyn
ot
afu
nd
amen
tald
iffe
ren
ceo
fst
atu
s.
Wh
atab
ou
tca
ses
wh
ere
ther
ere
ally
isso
me
mo
tiva
ted
ph
on
olo
gica
lre
-
du
ctio
nth
atre
late
sth
ecl
itic
toth
en
on
-cli
tic
form
?T
his
isth
eca
sew
ith
mu
ch(t
ho
ugh
no
tal
l)o
fth
eM
ixte
cle
xico
n,
for
exam
ple
,an
dp
erh
aps
itis
also
tru
efo
rE
ngl
ish
ob
ject
pro
no
un
s.In
that
case
,w
ew
ant
tosa
yth
ele
x-
ical
entr
yp
rovi
des
on
lyo
ne
lexi
cal
shap
e,an
dth
ep
ho
no
logy
has
anef
fect
that
yiel
ds
are
du
ced
form
(acl
itic
).H
ere
itap
pea
rsth
atw
eh
ave
som
eth
ing
wh
ich
isd
iffe
ren
tb
oth
fro
mp
ure
no
n-c
liti
csan
dfr
om
lexi
call
yd
istr
ibu
ted
clit
ics. Bu
tw
hat
isit
that
we
hav
ein
such
case
s?E
very
thin
gd
epen
ds
on
wh
atw
e
wan
tto
say
the
nat
ure
of
a“c
liti
c”is
,an
din
par
ticu
lar,
wh
eth
erth
eex
iste
nce
of
cert
ain
rule
sin
the
ph
on
olo
gyco
uld
be
rele
van
tto
anit
em’s
clas
sifi
cati
on
.
If“c
liti
c”is
a(l
exic
alo
rgr
amm
atic
al)
cate
gory
like
no
un
,ver
b,e
tc.,
itis
sure
ly
qu
ite
ano
mal
ou
sto
sugg
est
that
ap
ho
no
logi
cal
rule
cou
ldco
nve
rtso
met
hin
g
into
on
e.B
ut
infa
ct,
ther
eis
no
reas
on
tob
elie
veth
at“(
ph
on
olo
gica
l)cl
itic
”
isa
pri
mit
ive,
on
the
ord
ero
fth
ele
xica
lca
tego
ries
.
Cli
tic
beh
avio
rin
volv
es(a
)th
eab
sen
ceo
fau
ton
om
ou
sac
cen
t,a
pro
per
ty
shar
edb
ym
ost
(th
ou
ghas
we
wil
lse
e,n
ot
all)
affi
xes;
and
(b)
ph
on
olo
gica
l
sub
ord
inat
ion
toan
oth
erw
ord
.In
fact
,as
soo
nas
ther
eca
me
tob
ea
real
theo
ryo
fp
roso
dic
stru
ctu
rew
ith
inw
hic
hto
arti
cula
teth
ep
rob
lem
(wel
laf
-
ter
the
app
eara
nce
of
Zw
ick
y’s
pap
er),
itb
ecam
ep
oss
ible
togi
vea
coh
eren
t
defi
nit
ion
of
the
ph
on
olo
gica
lp
rop
erty
that
mak
esso
met
hin
ga
clit
icw
ith
ou
t
trea
tin
g“c
liti
c”as
ale
xica
lor
gram
mat
ical
cate
gory
.T
he
nec
essa
ryfr
amew
ork
,
wh
ich
we
wil
ld
iscu
ssin
mo
red
etai
lin
Ch
apte
r,
isgr
ou
nd
edin
dis
cuss
ion
s
of
the
so-c
alle
d“p
roso
dic
hie
rarc
hy,
”fo
rw
hic
ha
clas
sic
refe
ren
cep
oin
tis
the
pre
sen
tati
on
inSe
lkir
k(
)o
rN
esp
or
and
Vo
gel
(
).
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
Afi
rst
app
roxi
mat
ion
toa
char
acte
riza
tio
no
fcl
itic
s,al
on
gli
nes
we
wil
l
amp
lify
late
r,is
asfo
llo
ws.
Let
us
say
that
the
ph
on
olo
gica
lsu
bst
ance
of
aw
ord
iso
rgan
ized
into
are
lati
vely
hig
h-l
evel
pro
sod
icd
om
ain
,th
e“p
roso
dic
wo
rd.”
Aco
nst
itu
ent
of
this
typ
eis
com
po
sed
of
feet
,w
hic
hin
turn
are
com
po
sed
of
syll
able
s,co
mp
ose
do
fse
gmen
ts,
lin
ked
tofe
atu
res.
Affi
xes,
inco
ntr
ast
to
lexi
cal
wo
rds,
con
sist
of
segm
ents
,o
rsy
llab
les,
or
even
feet
;b
ut
thes
ear
en
ot
(gen
eral
ly)
org
aniz
edin
toa
pro
sod
icw
ord
.P
roso
dic
wo
rds,
intu
rn,
are
the
con
stit
uen
tso
fp
ho
no
logi
cal
ph
rase
s,et
c.W
hen
ph
on
olo
gica
lm
ater
ial
do
es
no
th
ave
eno
ugh
pro
sod
icst
ruct
ure
tob
ein
tegr
ated
into
the
pro
sod
icst
ruc-
ture
of
the
wh
ole
utt
eran
ceo
nit
so
wn
(by
virt
ue
of
no
tb
ein
go
rgan
ized
into
ap
roso
dic
wo
rd),
itm
ust
be
dep
end
ent
on
som
ead
jace
nt
mat
eria
lth
atca
n
pro
vid
eth
en
eces
sary
bri
dge
bet
wee
nlo
wer
-an
dh
igh
er-l
evel
pro
sod
icca
te-
gori
es.
Th
isso
rto
fin
corp
ora
tio
nin
toan
adja
cen
tw
ord
isju
stth
eb
ehav
ior
we
asso
ciat
ew
ith
clit
ics
(in
the
ph
on
olo
gica
lse
nse
),w
hic
hw
eca
nth
us
pro
po
se
totr
eat
asp
roso
dic
ally
defi
cien
tfo
rms.
Ass
um
eth
atp
roso
dic
defi
cien
cyis
no
tto
lera
ted
atth
ep
ho
net
icin
terf
ace:
ino
rder
tob
ep
ron
ou
nce
d,
ever
yb
ito
fp
ho
net
icco
nte
nt
mu
stb
ein
tegr
ated
into
the
pro
sod
ich
iera
rch
yo
fsy
llab
le,
foo
t,w
ord
,p
hra
se,
etc.
As
are
sult
,
wh
ere
ap
ote
nti
alu
tter
ance
con
tain
sso
me
‘defi
cien
t’m
ater
ial,
som
ep
rin
ci-
ple
of
adju
nct
ion
has
too
per
ate
wit
hin
the
ph
on
olo
gyto
inco
rpo
rate
itin
to
the
stru
ctu
reif
itis
tob
ep
ron
ou
nce
d(a
nd
the
ove
rall
stru
ctu
reis
tob
ew
ell-
form
ed).
Th
isu
sual
lyh
app
ens
by
adju
nct
ion
into
anad
jace
nt
con
stit
uen
to
f
the
rele
van
tty
pe:
i.e.
,se
gmen
tsm
ayb
ead
join
edin
toa
nei
ghb
ori
ng
syll
able
,
syll
able
sin
toa
foo
t,fe
etin
toa
pro
sod
icw
ord
,etc
.—th
ou
ghin
som
ein
stan
ces,
asw
ew
ill
see
inC
hap
ter
,
the
adju
nct
ion
may
no
tb
eat
the
low
est
po
ssib
le
leve
lo
fst
ruct
ure
.I
wil
lre
fer
tow
hat
ever
pri
nci
ple
(s)
ala
ngu
age
may
hav
e
for
pro
sod
icin
corp
ora
tio
no
fsu
chst
ray
mat
eria
las
its
rule
(s)
of
Str
ayA
d-
jun
ctio
n.1
Let
us
call
the
adja
cen
tel
emen
tth
atse
rves
asth
eta
rget
of
this
adju
nct
ion
the
clit
ic’s
hos
t.T
his
op
erat
ion
,w
hic
hI
wil
ltr
eat
inm
ore
det
ail
in
Ch
apte
r(
),is
the
ph
on
olo
gica
lfo
rmo
fcl
itic
izat
ion
.2
By
virt
ue
of
no
tp
roje
ctin
gst
ruct
ure
atth
ele
vel
of
the
ph
on
olo
gica
l
wo
rd—
afi
rst
app
roxi
mat
ion
toth
ed
efici
ency
dia
gno
stic
of
sim
ple
clit
ics—
such
elem
ents
also
wil
lno
th
ave
auto
no
mo
us
stre
ss,a
ssu
min
g(a
sis
com
mo
n)
that
stre
ssis
defi
ned
ove
ra
wo
rdtr
ee,
or
atle
ast
wit
hin
that
do
mai
n.
Ph
on
o-
logi
cal
rule
sth
atap
ply
inte
rnal
tow
ord
sw
ill
trea
tth
emas
par
to
fth
esa
me
1T
his
term
ino
logy
sho
uld
no
tb
eco
nst
rued
top
reju
dge
such
mat
ters
asw
het
her
rule
so
rco
n-
stra
ints
are
the
app
rop
riat
ew
ayto
thin
kab
ou
tSt
ray
Ad
jun
ctio
n,
or
ind
eed
wh
eth
erSt
ray
Ad
-ju
nct
ion
isal
way
s“a
dju
nct
ion
”in
form
alte
rms.
We
sim
ply
nee
da
con
ven
ien
tte
rmfo
rth
ew
ayin
wh
ich
lan
guag
esd
eal
wit
hp
roso
dic
ally
defi
cien
tm
ater
ial.
2T
he
pro
po
sal
that
inte
grat
ion
of
oth
erw
ise
defi
cien
tm
ater
ial
into
pro
sod
icst
ruct
ure
isw
hat
isin
volv
edin
ph
on
olo
gica
lcl
itic
izat
ion
has
also
bee
nm
ade
and
def
end
edb
yo
ther
auth
ors
,in
-cl
ud
ing
Lah
iri,
Jon
gman
,an
dSe
ren
o(
)
and
Bo
oij
(
).
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
do
mai
nas
adja
cen
tm
ater
ialt
ow
hic
hth
eyar
ead
join
ed,t
ho
ugh
wh
eth
er“L
ex-
ical
”o
r“P
ost
-lex
ical
”p
ho
no
logy
wil
lap
ply
atth
eb
ou
nd
ary
bet
wee
ncl
itic
s
and
thei
rh
ost
s,w
het
her
the
pre
sen
ceo
fa
clit
icca
naf
fect
the
loca
tio
no
fst
ress
wit
hin
the
ho
st,
and
oth
erp
ho
no
logi
cal
mat
ters
wil
ld
epen
do
nth
ein
tric
a-
cies
of
the
pre
cise
stru
ctu
rew
hic
hre
sult
sfr
om
the
adju
nct
ion
,an
dal
soo
nth
e
det
ails
of
the
ph
on
olo
gies
of
par
ticu
lar
lan
guag
es.
Bu
tth
ism
uch
give
su
san
ove
rall
fram
ewo
rkw
ith
inw
hic
hw
eca
nh
op
eto
exp
lore
the
ph
on
olo
gica
ld
i-
men
sio
no
fcl
itic
izat
ion
,lea
vin
gth
em
orp
ho
syn
tact
icp
ecu
liar
itie
sth
atar
eim
-
po
rtan
tto
Zw
ick
y’s
no
tio
no
fsp
ecia
lcl
itic
sto
be
dea
ltw
ith
inla
ter
chap
ters
.
Let
us
no
wlo
ok
atso
me
con
cret
eex
amp
les
of
“sim
ple
clit
ics”
inm
ore
dep
th.
.
Ca
se
I:A
nIn
tro
du
cti
on
toK
wa
kw
’ala
Cli
tic
s
As
anex
amp
leo
fa
set
of
clit
ics
wh
ose
dis
tin
ctiv
ep
rop
erti
esar
ise
asa
con
se-
qu
ence
of
thei
rp
ho
no
logy
,I
loo
kfi
rst
atth
ed
eter
min
eran
dp
ron
om
inal
cli-
tics
of
Kw
akw
’ala
.A
lth
ou
ghth
esy
nta
xo
fth
ese
elem
ents
isn
ot
un
usu
al,
thei
r
ph
on
olo
gyh
asco
nse
qu
ence
sth
atar
eq
uit
est
rik
ing
atfi
rst
glan
ce,
and
ind
eed
ther
ear
eas
pec
tso
fth
ela
ngu
age’
ssy
nta
xth
atal
sod
eriv
efr
om
thei
rp
ho
no
logy
.
Inla
ter
chap
ters
we
wil
lsee
that
this
lan
guag
eal
sod
isp
lays
“sp
ecia
l”cl
itic
s,b
ut
my
focu
sh
ere
iso
nel
emen
tsw
ho
seb
ehav
ior
der
ives
fro
mth
efa
ctth
atth
eyar
e
pro
sod
ical
lyd
efici
ent
inth
ese
nse
of
the
pre
ced
ing
sect
ion
.
Th
en
ame
Kw
akw
’ala
isco
mm
on
lyu
sed
tod
esig
nat
ea
nu
mb
ero
fd
isti
nct
bu
tre
late
dd
iale
cts
spo
ken
by
an
um
ber
of
dis
tin
guis
hab
letr
ibal
gro
up
so
n
the
no
rth
east
coas
to
fV
anco
uve
rIs
lan
d,
Bri
tish
Co
lum
bia
,an
din
area
so
fth
e
adja
cen
tm
ain
lan
d(o
fw
hic
hth
eK
wag
uì
are
on
e,b
ut
on
lyo
ne)
.T
he
area
inw
hic
hK
wak
w’a
lais
spo
ken
isid
enti
fied
as“K
wak
wak
a’w
akw
”o
nth
em
ap
inF
igu
re.
,fo
llo
win
gcu
rren
tlo
cal
usa
ge.
Itis
am
emb
ero
fth
eN
ort
her
n
Wak
ash
anfa
mil
yo
fla
ngu
ages
,re
late
dto
the
oth
erN
ort
her
nW
akas
han
lan
-
guag
esO
ow
ikya
la(“
Ow
iken
o”),
Hei
ltsu
k(B
ella
Bel
la),
and
Hai
sla;
and
mo
re
dis
tan
tly,
toth
ela
ngu
ages
of
the
Sou
ther
nW
akas
han
fam
ily
(“N
oo
tka,
”“N
iti-
nah
t,”an
dM
akah
).T
he
tim
ed
epth
of
the
enti
reW
akas
han
fam
ily
isp
rob
ably
som
eth
ing
like
year
s,an
dth
ato
fit
sn
ort
her
nb
ran
chp
erh
aps
(Bac
h
and
Ho
we
).
Kw
akw
’ala
isb
ette
rk
no
wn
as“K
wak
iutl
”3fr
om
the
nam
eF
ran
zB
oas
use
d
for
the
lan
guag
ein
his
exte
nsi
vew
ork
on
it.
Th
isin
clu
des
two
full
gram
mar
s
3T
his
der
ives
fro
ma
nin
etee
nth
-cen
tury
mis
sio
nar
yo
rth
ogr
aph
y(H
all
),an
dis
actu
ally
inte
nd
edto
rep
rese
nt
the
nam
eo
fth
ep
eop
le(t
he
[kw
ag,u
ì])
,as
op
po
sed
toth
en
ame
of
thei
rla
ngu
age,
([k
wak
w’a
la])
.A
lth
ou
ghth
isw
riti
ng
syst
emfa
ils
tore
pre
sen
tse
vera
lm
ajo
rp
ho
no
log-
ical
dis
tin
ctio
ns
inth
ela
ngu
age,
ith
asa
grea
td
eal
of
sen
tim
enta
lap
pea
lto
man
yo
fit
ssp
eake
rs,
esp
ecia
lly
amo
ng
old
erp
eop
le.
Wri
tin
gsy
stem
sth
atar
em
ore
nea
rly
adeq
uat
eto
the
ph
on
olo
gyo
fK
wak
w’a
lain
evit
ably
invo
lve
afa
irn
um
ber
of
dia
crit
ics
and
un
usu
alch
arac
ters
,a
feat
ure
that
spea
kers
dis
like
sin
ceit
seem
sto
mak
eth
eir
lan
guag
elo
ok
stra
nge
and
exo
tic.
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
F
.
.So
me
Fir
stN
atio
ns
lan
guag
eso
fB
riti
shC
olu
mb
ia.
“Kw
akw
aka’
wak
w”
=
Kw
akw
’ala
;o
ther
No
rth
ern
Wak
ash
anla
ngu
ages
are
Hai
sla,
Hei
ltsu
k,
and
Ow
eeke
no
.
Sou
ther
nW
akas
han
lan
guag
esin
clu
de
Nu
u-c
hah
-nu
lth
(“N
oo
tka”
)an
dD
itid
aht
(“N
itin
aht”
).R
epro
du
ced
cou
rtes
yo
fth
eM
use
um
of
An
thro
po
logy
,U
niv
ersi
tyo
f
Bri
tish
Co
lum
bia
.C
op
yrig
ht
.
(Bo
as
,
)
and
man
yvo
lum
eso
fte
xts,
pre
par
edo
ver
ap
erio
do
fm
any
year
s.T
he
des
crip
tio
nh
ere
isb
ased
on
my
ow
nfi
eld
wo
rkd
uri
ng
seve
ral
sum
-
mer
sin
the
s,b
ut
Ih
ave
dra
wn
mo
sto
fm
yex
amp
les
and
cite
dfo
rms
fro
m
Bo
as’s
wo
rk,
tofa
cili
tate
com
par
iso
n.
Ih
ave,
ho
wev
er,
mo
difi
edB
oas
’str
an-
scri
pti
on
sto
refl
ect
my
ow
nu
nd
erst
and
ing
of
Kw
akw
’ala
ph
on
olo
gica
lst
ruc-
ture
.A
sn
ote
din
An
der
son
(
b
),B
oas
emp
loye
dre
pre
sen
tati
on
sth
atar
e
extr
emel
ycl
ose
toth
esu
rfac
ep
ho
net
ics,
inw
ays
that
som
etim
eso
bsc
ure
thei
r
stru
ctu
ral
inte
rpre
tati
on
.
To
app
reci
ate
the
role
of
the
clit
ics
inK
wak
w’a
lam
orp
ho
syn
tax,
itis
nec
-
essa
ryto
intr
od
uce
som
eo
fth
eb
asic
feat
ure
so
fth
ela
ngu
age’
ssy
nta
x(c
f.A
n-
der
son
(
)an
dre
fere
nce
sci
ted
ther
efo
rfu
rth
erd
etai
ls).
Th
eb
asic
clau
se
stru
ctu
reis
qu
ite
rigi
dly
VSO
,an
dco
nfo
rms
toth
esc
hem
ain
(.
).
(.
)V
—Sb
j(—
x .-O
bj)
(—s-
Ob
j)(—
PP
* )
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
Th
eve
rbal
way
sco
mes
firs
tin
the
clau
se,
alth
ou
ghth
ese
nte
nce
-in
itia
l
elem
ent
iso
ften
ase
man
tica
lly
emp
tyau
xili
ary
verb
,w
ith
the
lexi
cal
verb
fol-
low
ing.
Th
eve
rbis
then
imm
edia
tely
foll
ow
edb
yth
esu
bje
ctif
this
iso
vert
.A
s
dis
cuss
edin
An
der
son
(
),a
sen
ten
cem
ayco
nta
inm
ore
than
on
eve
rb.
Inth
atca
se,
the
sub
ject
may
imm
edia
tely
foll
ow
eith
erth
ese
nte
nce
-in
itia
l
verb
—ty
pic
ally
,a
sem
anti
call
yem
pty
auxi
liar
y—o
rth
ela
stve
rbin
the
se-
qu
ence
.R
egar
dle
sso
fth
ep
osi
tio
no
fth
esu
bje
ct,
rem
ain
ing
argu
men
tsan
d
adju
nct
sfo
llo
wal
lver
bs,
inth
ese
qu
ence
tob
ed
escr
ibed
bel
ow
.I
abst
ract
away
fro
mth
isli
mit
edo
pti
on
alit
yin
the
po
siti
on
of
the
sub
ject
inth
ed
iscu
ssio
n
bel
ow
.
Th
esu
bje
ctis
foll
ow
edin
its
turn
by
on
eo
rb
oth
of
two
kin
ds
of
ob
-
ject
argu
men
tp
hra
se.
Th
ese
are
call
ed“o
bje
cts”
and
“in
stru
men
tals
”b
yB
oas
,
tho
ugh
thei
rp
reci
sese
man
tics
do
no
tal
way
sco
rres
po
nd
toth
ese
des
crip
tive
term
s,an
dth
eysh
ou
ldb
ere
gard
edas
form
alca
tego
ries
.“O
bje
cts”
are
mar
ked
wit
hx .
and
“in
stru
men
tals
”w
ith
s;th
eyco
me
inth
ato
rder
ifb
oth
are
pre
sen
t.
An
exam
ple
con
tain
ing
ano
vert
sub
ject
and
bo
thty
pes
of
ob
ject
argu
men
tis
give
nin
(.
).
(.
)y@
lkw@
mas
=id
ab@
gwan
@m
a=x .
-a’w
atsi=
s-a
gwax
.ňu
x .w
cau
seh
urt
-
m
an-
-
d
og-
-
st
ick
Th
em
anh
urt
the
do
gw
ith
the
stic
k
No
n-s
ub
ject
argu
men
tsca
nb
esu
pp
lied
by
wea
kp
ron
om
inal
elem
ents
,
such
asth
ew
ord
-fin
al=
san
d=
qin
the
exam
ple
sin
(.
).
(.
)a.
x .w@
sPid
=id
ab@
gwan
@m
a=x .
-ag@
nan
@m
a=s
stru
ck-
man
-
-
chil
d-
Th
em
anst
ruck
the
chil
dw
ith
it
b.
x .w@
sPid
=id
ab@
gwan
@m
a=q
stru
ck-
man
-
Th
em
anst
ruck
him
c.x .w
@sP
ida=
∅=
q=
s
stru
ck-h
e-
-
He
stru
ckh
imw
ith
it
Pro
no
min
alfo
rms
also
exis
tfo
rth
esu
bje
ct,
bu
tth
ese
beh
ave
som
ewh
atd
if-
fere
ntl
yfr
om
the
no
n-s
ub
ject
pro
no
min
als.
Sin
ceth
eth
ird
-per
son
form
is
typ
ical
lyn
ull
ph
on
olo
gica
lly,
Iw
ill
ign
ore
the
sub
ject
form
sfo
rth
ep
rese
nt.
Inth
eex
amp
les
of
(.
)an
d(
.),
we
hav
ese
vera
lre
pre
sen
tati
vein
-
stan
ces
of
sim
ple
clit
ics.
No
tefi
rst
that
each
full
no
min
alex
pre
ssio
nis
pre
-
ced
edb
ya
det
erm
iner
elem
ent:
-id
a,-x .
a,-s
a,et
c.A
lth
ou
ghth
isp
rovi
des
case
mar
kin
gan
dd
eict
icin
form
atio
nab
ou
tth
en
om
inal
that
foll
ow
s,it
atta
ches
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
ph
on
olo
gica
lly
toth
ep
rece
din
gw
ord
,re
gard
less
of
that
wo
rd’s
syn
tact
icaf
-
fili
atio
n.
Th
isp
roso
dic
atta
chm
ent
sho
ws
us
that
thes
eel
emen
tsar
ecl
itic
s,
and
the
way
itw
ork
ssh
ow
su
sth
atSt
ray
Ad
jun
ctio
nin
Kw
akw
’ala
op
erat
es
rigi
dly
toad
join
pro
sod
ical
lyw
eak
mat
eria
lto
the
left
,des
pit
eth
esy
nta
ctic
ally
cou
nte
r-in
tuit
ive
nat
ure
of
the
resu
lt.
As
illu
stra
ted
in(
.),
any
of
the
ove
rt(t
hir
d-p
erso
n)
no
min
alar
gum
ents
may
be
sub
stit
ute
db
ya
pro
no
min
alfo
rm.
Th
ese
are
also
(sim
ple
)cl
itic
s,an
d
atta
chto
the
pre
ced
ing
wo
rd.
Co
nsi
sten
tw
ith
the
clai
mth
atth
ese
are
‘sim
ple
clit
ics,
’th
eyap
pea
rin
the
po
siti
on
of
the
corr
esp
on
din
gfu
lln
om
inal
argu
men
t
exp
ress
ion
.A
nd
like
the
det
erm
iner
s,th
eyat
tach
toth
eir
left
.
Th
eco
reo
fth
ecl
ause
can
be
foll
ow
edb
yan
yn
um
ber
of
adju
nct
exp
res-
sio
ns.
Th
ese
take
the
form
of
pre
po
siti
on
alp
hra
ses,
alth
ou
ghit
isw
ort
hn
ot-
ing
that
the
lan
guag
eh
aso
nly
ave
rysm
all
nu
mb
ero
fp
rep
osi
tio
ns.
Mo
stP
Ps
emp
loy
the
sam
ep
rep
osi
tio
n,
la4
wit
hth
ese
man
tics
of
the
adju
nct
rela
tio
n
sup
pli
edb
yaf
fixe
sw
ith
inth
eve
rb.
As
anal
tern
ativ
eto
afu
llca
se-m
arke
dn
om
inal
exp
ress
ion
inar
gum
ent
po
siti
on
,n
on
-su
bje
ctar
gum
ents
can
be
sup
pli
edb
yA
dju
nct
ph
rase
sin
stea
d,
asil
lust
rate
din
(.
).
(.
)a.
la-ň
-@n
kw
’ix .P
id-uň
y@s-
gad
ak
wix .
ayu
-k
-
-Ist
rike
-yo
uw
ith
-
cl
ub
-
I’ll
stri
keyo
uw
ith
this
clu
b
b.
noìa-∅
-s-i
sk
wix .
ayu
lax .-
ists
’a’y
a
thre
aten
-he-
-his
clu
bto
-his
you
nge
rb
roth
er
He
thre
aten
edh
isyo
un
ger
bro
ther
wit
hh
iscl
ub
c.la
-’m
is- @
sń
iqal
a-ň@
-saň
a’n@
mga
x-@
n
-
-y
ou
nam
e-
-
wo
lfto
-me
An
dso
you
wil
ln
ame
me
(wit
h)
wo
lf
Th
ere
are
no
ind
epen
den
tcl
itic
form
sfo
rfi
rst-
per
son
(sin
gula
ro
rp
lura
l,
incl
usi
veo
rex
clu
sive
)o
bje
cts.
An
ob
ject
argu
men
tw
ith
firs
t-p
erso
nre
fere
nce
mu
stb
esu
pp
lied
by
anad
jun
ct(s
uch
asga
x
e n‘m
e’in
(.
c)).
Fu
rth
er,t
her
ear
e
no
no
n-c
liti
cp
ron
ou
ns
that
occ
up
yar
gum
ent
po
siti
on
s.T
he
on
lyfu
llw
ord
s
wit
h“p
ron
om
inal
”re
fere
nce
are
pre
dic
ates
(e.g
.,n
ugw
aP
e m‘i
tis
I’).
Th
ese
are
enti
rely
par
alle
lto
the
lan
guag
e’s
‘wh
-wo
rds’,
wh
ich
sim
ilar
lyar
ep
red
icat
esan
d
no
tn
om
inal
s(e
.g.,
e ngw
a-‘(
tob
e)w
ho
?’,’m
as-‘
(to
be)
wh
at?’
).
To
som
eex
ten
t,A
dju
nct
sal
tern
ate
wit
har
gum
ent
no
min
als,
assh
ow
n
in(
.).
4It
isin
tere
stin
gth
atth
isfo
rmis
ho
mo
ph
on
ou
sw
ith
the
verb
la‘g
o’,a
nd
that
itis
sup
ple
tive
lyre
pla
ced
by
the
form
gax
wh
enth
eo
bje
ctis
firs
tp
erso
n.
Th
is,
init
stu
rn,
ish
om
op
ho
no
us
wit
hth
eve
rbga
x‘c
om
e’.
Th
eo
rigi
no
fth
efo
rmin
ase
rial
verb
con
stru
ctio
nse
ems
evid
ent.
A
spec
tsof
the
Th
eory
ofC
liti
cs
(.
)a.
’nik@
-∅-x .
-is
x .w@
nu
kw
say-
he-
-h
isch
ild
He
said
toh
isch
ild
b.
? ’n
iki-∅
lax .-
isx .w
@n
uk
w
say-
he
to-h
isch
ild
He
said
toh
isch
ild
Th
esa
me
argu
men
tca
nn
ot
be
rep
rese
nte
dsi
mu
ltan
eou
sly
by
anad
jun
ct
and
ano
vert
elem
ent
(e.g
.,a
clit
icp
ron
ou
n)
inar
gum
ent
po
siti
on
,h
ow
ever
;
that
is,t
her
eis
no
‘do
ub
lin
g’o
fo
vert
pro
no
un
s,as
sho
wn
in(
.).
(.
)a.
nik@
-∅-q
say-
he-
He
says
toh
im
b.
* nik@
-∅-q
lax .-
isx .w
@n
uk
w
say-
he-
to
-his
chil
d
He
says
toh
isch
ild
Th
eb
asic
set
of
clit
icp
ron
ou
ns
isgi
ven
inF
igu
re.
.
Person
Subject
Object
Instrumental
-@n
(ň)
—-@
n(ň
)
I
- @n
ts—
-@n
ts
E
- @n
ux .w
—-@
nu
x .w
-@
s-uň
-us
∅
-q-s
F
.
.C
liti
cp
ron
ou
ns
inK
wak
w’a
la
We
see
that
argu
men
tp
osi
tio
ns
can
be
fill
edb
yan
yo
fth
efo
llo
win
g:a
(cas
e-m
arke
d)
full
no
min
alex
pre
ssio
n;
a(p
ho
no
logi
call
y)w
eak
pro
no
min
al
inth
esa
me
po
siti
on
asa
full
no
min
al,
atta
chin
gp
ho
no
logi
call
yto
its
left
;o
r
else
by
anem
pty
pro
,w
hic
hI
assu
me
too
ccu
py
argu
men
tp
osi
tio
ns
wh
enth
e
refe
ren
to
fth
eco
rres
po
nd
ing
argu
men
tis
spec
ified
by
anA
dju
nct
.In
this
,I
foll
ow
the
lin
ear
gued
for
by
Bak
er(
)
wit
hre
spec
tto
all
argu
men
tp
osi
-
tio
ns
inM
oh
awk
.I
wil
lre
turn
toth
isan
alys
isin
late
rch
apte
rsto
exp
lore
its
con
seq
uen
ces
inm
ore
det
ail.
No
tice
that
the
clit
icel
emen
tsin
tro
du
ced
abo
vere
ally
do
form
par
to
f
ap
ho
no
logi
cal
wo
rdw
ith
the
pre
ced
ing
wo
rd.
Th
isis
con
firm
edb
yth
e
ph
on
olo
gy:
atth
eb
ou
nd
ary
bet
wee
na
clit
ican
dit
sh
ost
,we
get
wo
rd-i
nte
rnal
ph
on
olo
gyra
ther
than
the
ph
on
olo
gyw
hic
ho
ther
wis
eo
ccu
rsac
ross
wo
rd
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
bo
un
dar
ies.
On
esm
all
exam
ple
of
this
,ci
ted
by
Bo
as(
),
isth
eru
leo
f
con
son
anta
lep
enth
esis
give
nin
(.
),a
rule
wh
ich
do
esn
ot
app
lyto
/ ìs/
se-
qu
ence
sfo
rmed
acro
ssth
eb
ou
nd
arie
sb
etw
een
wo
rds.
(.
)a.
∅→
t/ì —
s
b.
du
g .w
e ìts<
du
g .w
e ł=s
‘it
was
seen
by
him
’
Eve
nm
ore
dia
gno
stic
inth
isre
gard
isth
ep
lace
men
to
fst
ress
.St
ress
in
Kw
akw
’ala
app
ears
on
the
firs
tfu
llvo
wel
(or
no
n-g
lott
alsy
llab
icre
son
ant)
of
the
wo
rd,
wh
ere
the
rele
van
tn
oti
on
of
“wo
rd”
incl
ud
esa
ho
stan
dan
yfo
l-
low
ing
clit
ics.
Cli
tics
thu
sd
isp
lay
thei
rd
epen
den
tst
atu
sb
yn
ot
init
iati
ng
new
stre
ssd
om
ain
s.
We
cou
ldex
pre
ssth
ep
ho
no
logi
cal
beh
avio
ro
fcl
itic
sin
Kw
akw
’ala
info
r-
mal
lyb
yth
eru
lein
(.
).
(.
)StrayAdjunction
(Kw
akw
’ala
):A
djo
inst
ray
mat
eria
lto
aP
Wo
rdo
nit
s
left
.
InC
hap
ter
,I
wil
lre
fin
eth
isd
escr
ipti
on
som
ewh
atb
yre
cast
ing
itw
ith
in
afr
amew
ork
bas
edo
nco
nst
rain
tsan
dsi
tuat
ing
itw
ith
ina
bro
ader
acco
un
to
f
pro
sod
icca
tego
ries
inge
ner
al.
Th
ere
isac
tual
lya
goo
dd
eal
mo
reto
say
abo
ut
the
Kw
akw
’ala
det
erm
iner
syst
em,a
nd
Iw
ill
exp
lore
itfu
rth
erin
Ch
apte
r
.
Th
ecl
itic
nat
ure
of
det
erm
iner
sin
Kw
akw
’ala
isn
ot
sim
ply
am
atte
ro
fth
e
way
inw
hic
hth
eyar
ep
ron
ou
nce
d.
Ith
assi
gnifi
can
tim
pli
cati
on
sfo
rth
era
nge
of
syn
tact
icp
oss
ibil
itie
sin
the
lan
guag
e.T
hes
efo
llo
wfr
om
the
fact
that
the
left
edge
of
an
om
inal
exp
ress
ion
inK
wak
w’a
lais
alw
ays
mar
ked
wit
ha
clit
ic
det
erm
iner
,an
dth
ism
ust
atta
chto
its
left
asa
con
seq
uen
ceo
f(
.).
Fro
m
this
,it
resu
lts
that
an
om
inal
exp
ress
ion
can
no
tb
ep
ron
ou
nce
db
yit
self
,si
nce
itm
ust
alw
ays
be
pre
ced
edb
ya
ho
stfo
rit
sin
itia
lcl
itic
.W
hen
ther
eis
no
pre
ced
ing
con
stit
uen
t,th
ep
lace
of
such
ah
ost
mu
stb
esu
pp
lied
by
anin
itia
l
pro
thet
icst
em,a
sin
(.
).
(.
)*(
yi) =
x .u
x .d
ag
e nan
e m
(∅)-
ch
ild
(it’
s)th
atch
ild
Ase
con
dco
nse
qu
ence
of
the
dep
end
ent
nat
ure
of
Kw
akw
’ala
det
erm
iner
s
isth
atn
on
om
inal
can
ever
app
ear
inse
nte
nce
-in
itia
lpo
siti
on
,as
(e.g
.)a
top
ic
ph
rase
.A
gain
,su
chan
init
ial
ph
rase
wo
uld
hav
en
op
rece
din
gh
ost
for
its
de-
term
iner
clit
ic,a
nd
ap
roth
etic
stem
wo
uld
alte
rth
esy
nta
xo
fth
eco
nst
ruct
ion
.
Itis
actu
ally
qu
ite
un
usu
alfo
ra
VSO
lan
guag
eli
keK
wak
w’a
lato
lack
such
an
init
ial
top
icco
nst
ruct
ion
.
Asp
ects
ofth
eT
heo
ryof
Cli
tics
We
can
com
par
eth
issi
tuat
ion
wit
hth
atin
clo
sely
rela
ted
lan
guag
esw
ho
se
clit
icsy
stem
sar
ed
iffe
ren
tfr
om
that
of
Kw
akw
’ala
.B
oth
Hai
sla
and
Hei
lt-
suk
(Bel
laB
ella
)la
ckd
eter
min
ercl
itic
sat
the
left
edge
of
no
min
alex
pre
s-
sio
ns,
alth
ou
ghth
eyd
oh
ave
oth
erd
eter
min
ercl
itic
elem
ents
.In
Oo
wik
y’al
a
(Ow
eeke
no
,Riv
ers
Inle
t),d
eter
min
erel
emen
tsar
eal
lin
tern
alto
the
no
min
al,
and
no
det
erm
iner
clit
icap
pea
rsat
the
left
edge
asin
Kw
akw
’ala
.T
he
exam
ple
s
in(
.
)ar
eta
ken
fro
mB
oas
’s(
)
coll
ecti
on
of
bil
ingu
alte
xts,
and
pro
vid
e
bo
thO
ow
iky’
ala
and
Kw
akw
’ala
vers
ion
sfo
rco
mp
aris
on
.
(.
)
a.(O
)gi
suk
wa’
lah
anń
@m
a=se
(K)
la’l
aiax
.Pid
@la=
x .is
han
aň’@
ma
then
too
k(-
his
)ar
row
(-h
is)
Th
enh
e ito
ok
his
iar
row
b.
(O)
wal
a’li
sub
ots
ow
i’la
han
ń@
ma=
se
(K)
la’l
aid
ax.P
id=
x .a
han
aň’@
ma=
s
Th
ento
ok
(-
)
arro
w-h
is
Th
ensh
e ito
ok
his
j,∗
iar
row
InH
eilt
suk
(Bel
laB
ella
;cf
.R
ath
(
)
),th
ed
eter
min
ersy
stem
isfa
irly
intr
icat
ean
din
volv
esa
nu
mb
ero
fco
mp
on
ent
par
ts(l
ike
Kw
akw
’ala
,as
we
shal
lse
ein
Ch
apte
r
).A
sth
eex
amp
les
in(
.)
illu
stra
te,
ho
wev
er,
no
ne
of
thes
ep
arts
isa
clit
icap
pea
rin
gat
the
left
edge
of
the
no
min
al.
(.
)a.
p’á
law
ísm
=á=
x .i
lau
xwň
iás=
a=x .
i
wo
rkm
an-
1-
o
nro
of–
-
Th
em
anw
ork
edo
nth
ero
of
b.
p’á
lap
’ác’
uá=
ya=
sw
ísem
=x .
ila
uxw
ňiá
s=a=
x .i
wo
rkd
ilig
ent-
-
man
-
on
roo
f–
-
Th
ed
ilig
ent
man
wo
rked
on
the
roo
f
c.p
’ála
’wál
a=ya
=s
p’á
c’u
á=s
wís
em=
x .i
la
wo
rkre
ally
-
-
dil
igen
t-
m
an-
o
n
uxw
ňiá
s=a=
x .i
roo
f–
-
Th
ere
ally
dil
igen
tm
anw
ork
edo
nth
ero
of
Co
rres
po
nd
ing
toth
isd
iffe
ren
cein
the
det
erm
iner
syst
ems
amo
ng
Wak
ash
anla
ngu
ages
,w
efi
nd
asy
nta
ctic
dif
fere
nce
:la
ngu
ages
wit
ho
ut
left
edge
clit
icd
eter
min
ers
also
allo
wa
con
stru
ctio
nw
ith
anin
itia
ln
om
inal
rep
rese
nti
ng
ato
pic
,th
ou
gho
ther
wis
eth
eir
wo
rdo
rder
isve
rysi
mil
arto
wh
at
we
fin
din
Kw
akw
’ala
.T
he
exam
ple
sin
(.
)
wit
hin
itia
lto
pic
sar
ep
rese
nte
d
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
for
Bel
laB
ella
by
Bo
as(
:
),
wh
oex
pli
citl
yli
nk
sth
emto
the
abse
nce
of
init
ial
det
erm
iner
clit
ics.
(.
)
a.(g
i)’m
@n
uk
pk
w’a
la
(th
en)
on
e-p
erso
nsa
y
(Th
en)
on
em
ansa
id..
.
b.
h@
lxP
ain
oxw
láoň
de
g .@n
@m
-xd
e=a=
se
Kil
ler
wh
ale
rem
ove
dw
ife-
form
er-
-yo
ur
Ak
ille
rw
hal
eto
ok
away
you
r(r
emo
ved
fro
mp
rese
nce
)w
ife
Hai
sla,
like
the
oth
erN
ort
her
nW
akas
han
lan
guag
esex
cep
tK
wak
w’a
la,l
ack
s
det
erm
iner
clit
ics
atth
ele
fted
ges
of
no
min
als
and
allo
ws
init
ial
top
ics
asil
-
lust
rate
din
(.
),
dra
wn
fro
ma
pu
bli
shed
text
(Lin
coln
,R
ath
,an
dW
ind
sor
(
)).
(.
)
a.k
wa’
nal
asgu
łdh
’x .w
h’a
’mak
am
ia-g
ila-
su=
si
yell
ow
ced
artr
yfi
rst
fish
-mak
e-
-
Yell
ow
ced
arw
oo
dw
asth
efi
rst
thin
gh
etr
ied
totu
rnin
tosa
lmo
n
b.
hn
ńm
-’w
smsa
’wat
ih
s=q
ids
Gal
a=ya
ds
bgw
anm
=x .
id
u
arro
w-s
till
use
by-
fi
rst-
peo
ple
-
and
łk’w
=is
bo
w-
Th
ear
row
was
stil
lu
sed
by
them
,th
efi
rst
peo
ple
,an
dth
eb
ow
Fin
ally
,w
efi
nd
ave
rysi
mil
arsi
tuat
ion
inD
itid
aht
(“N
itin
aht”
),a
sou
th-
ern
Wak
ash
anla
ngu
age
(cf.
Klo
keid
(
)).
Inth
isla
ngu
age,
asth
eex
amp
les
in(
.
)sh
ow
,a
det
erm
iner
app
ears
afte
rth
efi
rst
wo
rdo
fth
en
om
inal
and
case
isin
dic
ated
by
ase
par
ate
wo
rd(P
oyoq
w‘
’in
thes
ese
nte
nce
s).
(.
)
a.tl
’itc
hit
l=ib
t=PP
aJo
hn
bo
wat
cP
oyo
qw
sho
ot-
-
Joh
nd
eer
Joh
nsh
ot
ad
eer
b.
tl’i
tch
itl=
ibt=
PPa
Joh
nb
ow
atc=
PPaq
Po
yoq
w
sho
ot-
-
Joh
nd
eer-
Joh
nsh
ot
the
dee
r
c.tl
’itc
hit
l =ib
t=PP
aJo
hn
Pıx .
=PP
aqb
ow
atc
Po
yoq
w
sho
ot-
-
Joh
nb
ig-
dee
r
Joh
nsh
ot
the
big
dee
r
Cru
cial
ly,n
ole
ft-e
dge
det
erm
iner
clit
icap
pea
rsin
Dit
idah
tn
om
inal
s,an
d
acco
rdin
gly,
init
ial
top
ics
are
po
ssib
leas
in(
.).
Asp
ects
ofth
eT
heo
ryof
Cli
tics
(.
)
[o
yoq
w=
ob
t=PP
a[
Pıx .
=PP
aqb
ow
atc
]]
tl’i
tcit
lJo
hn
-
-
big
-
d
eer
sho
ot
Joh
n
Th
eb
igd
eer,
Joh
nsh
ot
(it)
Th
eco
rrel
atio
nb
etw
een
det
erm
iner
syst
ems
and
the
po
ssib
ilit
yo
f
sen
ten
ce-i
nit
ial
top
ics
mak
eit
clea
rth
atth
eab
sen
ceo
fth
isla
tter
con
stru
ctio
n
inK
wak
w’a
lam
ust
be
du
eto
the
imp
oss
ibil
ity
of
pro
vid
ing
ah
ost
for
the
det
erm
iner
clit
ics
that
app
ear
atth
ele
fted
ges
of
no
min
als
inth
isla
ngu
age.
Alt
ho
ugh
the
dis
tin
ctiv
ep
rop
erti
eso
fth
ese
elem
ents
are
ph
on
olo
gica
lin
nat
ure
,th
eyh
ave
syn
tact
icco
nse
qu
ence
s.
Iw
ill
retu
rnto
the
clit
ics
of
Kw
akw
’ala
inC
hap
ter
,
wh
ere
add
itio
nal
elem
ents
wit
hth
ep
rop
erti
eso
f“s
pec
ial”
clit
ics
wil
lb
ed
iscu
ssed
.T
her
eis
con
sid
erab
lym
ore
tob
esa
idab
ou
tth
ep
ho
no
logi
cal
dim
ensi
on
of
clit
iciz
a-
tio
nb
efo
rew
em
ove
on
toth
ose
syn
tact
icm
atte
rs,
ho
wev
er.
At
this
po
int
I
wo
uld
like
tore
turn
toth
efo
un
dat
ion
alis
sues
of
ho
wto
iden
tify
clit
ics,
and
ho
wto
dis
enta
ngl
eth
ed
iver
sese
nse
sin
wh
ich
som
eth
ing
can
be
tho
ugh
to
f
mea
nin
gfu
lly
asd
eser
vin
gth
atd
esig
nat
ion
.
.
Dim
ensi
on
so
fC
liti
c-h
oo
d
Let
us
retu
rnto
the
typ
olo
gyo
fcl
itic
elem
ents
,as
pre
sen
ted
ori
gin
ally
in
Zw
ick
y(
).
On
that
pic
ture
,th
eel
emen
tsZ
wic
ky
call
edsi
mp
lecl
itic
sar
e
mer
ely
on
e(o
rm
ore
)o
fth
eal
tern
ativ
ep
ho
no
logi
cal
form
so
fce
rtai
nle
xica
l
item
s(i
np
arti
cula
r,th
ep
roso
dic
ally
defi
cien
tre
aliz
atio
n(s
)o
fth
eit
emin
qu
esti
on
).“B
ou
nd
wo
rds”
are
the
lim
itin
gca
seo
fth
is:
lexi
cal
item
sth
at
only
hav
ep
roso
dic
ally
defi
cien
tp
ho
no
logi
cal
form
s.A
nd
wh
ere
afr
eefo
rm
un
der
goes
ph
on
olo
gica
lre
du
ctio
nto
bec
om
ea
clit
ic,
wh
atth
atm
ean
sis
that
the
rule
inq
ues
tio
nre
du
ces
its
pro
sod
ico
rgan
izat
ion
(per
hap
sp
run
ing
its
“wo
rd”
no
de,
soas
tom
ake
itan
iso
late
dfo
ot
or
syll
able
),w
ith
the
resu
ltth
at
itco
mes
un
der
the
sam
ep
ho
no
logi
cal
regu
lari
ties
asfo
rms
that
are
lexi
call
y
defi
cien
t.
On
this
acco
un
t,th
ere
are
thre
eq
uit
ed
isti
nct
cate
gori
eso
fel
emen
tth
at
dis
pla
yth
esa
me
pro
sod
icb
ehav
ior:
bo
un
dw
ord
s,w
hic
har
eu
nif
orm
ly
defi
cien
tin
pro
sod
y;(s
imp
le)
clit
ics,
sen
sust
rict
o,th
ep
roso
dic
ally
defi
cien
t
alte
rnan
tso
fce
rtai
nfr
eefo
rms;
and
free
form
sw
hic
hh
ave
un
der
gon
e
ph
on
olo
gica
lre
du
ctio
n.B
ut
itis
far
fro
mcl
ear
that
this
dis
tin
ctio
nis
am
ean
-
ingf
ul
on
e.F
or
inst
ance
,w
esa
wab
ove
that
Kw
akw
’ala
has
no
full
form
sw
ith
pro
no
min
alre
fere
nce
.O
nly
the
clit
ics
of
Fig
ure
.
serv
eth
atp
urp
ose
inth
e
lan
guag
e.Si
nce
thes
ew
ord
sh
ave
no
lexi
cal
no
n-c
liti
cal
tern
ants
,an
dar
en
ot
ph
on
olo
gica
lly
red
uce
dfr
om
free
form
s,th
eyar
e(i
nth
ecl
assi
fica
tio
nu
nd
er
dis
cuss
ion
)b
ou
nd
wo
rds.
Inth
ere
late
dla
ngu
age
Hei
ltsu
k(B
ella
Bel
la),
ho
w-
ever
,fi
rst-
and
seco
nd
-per
son
form
sh
ave
bo
thcl
itic
and
ind
epen
den
t,fu
ll-
wo
rdal
tern
ants
,as
inF
igu
re.
(dra
wn
fro
mB
oas
(19
47
:29
6)
and
Rat
h(1
98
1))
.
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
Per
son
Ind
epen
den
tfo
rmS
ub
ject
Ob
ject
Inst
rum
enta
l
nu
gwa
-nu
gwa,
-@n
-@nň
aq@
s-
I
nu
gw@
nts
-@n
ts-@
nň@
nts
q@
nts
-
E
nu
gw@
ntk
w-@
ntk
w-@
nň@
ntk
wq@
ntk
w-
q
su-(@
)s(u
)-uň
-us
—
∅-q
-s
F
.
.P
ron
ou
ns
inH
eilt
suk
(Bel
laB
ella
)
Inth
efi
rst-
and
seco
nd
-per
son
case
s,th
ecl
itic
pro
no
un
san
dfu
llfo
rms
are
op
tio
nal
vari
ants
,as
sho
wn
by
the
pai
rsin
(.
).
Th
ese
exam
ple
sar
eci
ted
fro
mR
ath
(
)
,wit
hth
eo
rth
ogr
aph
yu
sed
ther
ead
just
edsl
igh
tly
tofa
cili
tate
com
par
iso
nw
ith
oth
erex
amp
les
inth
ep
rese
nt
dis
cuss
ion
.
(.
)
a.a@
mb
aya
his
nú
gwa
/qs=
a@m
bay
a
ahea
d
me
sg-
ahea
d
on
eah
ead
of
me
on
eah
ead
of
me
b.
a @m
bay
ah
isq
sú/a@
mb
ay=
us
ahea
d
you
ahea
d-
on
eah
ead
of
you
on
eah
ead
of
you
Inth
eth
ird
per
son
,h
ow
ever
,o
nly
the
clit
icfo
rm(a
sin
a
e mba
ya=
s‘o
ne
ahea
do
fh
im’)
isfo
un
d.
Th
efi
rst-
and
seco
nd
-per
son
clit
icfo
rms
inH
eilt
suk
are
tru
lycl
itic
sin
Zw
ick
y’s
clas
sifi
cati
on
,si
nce
they
hav
efu
ll-f
orm
vari
ants
,
bu
tth
eth
ird
-per
son
form
isin
stea
da
“bo
un
dw
ord
.”C
lear
lyth
isd
isti
nct
ion
do
esn
ot
corr
esp
on
dto
the
on
ew
ew
ant:
rath
er,
we
wan
tto
clas
sify
all
of
the
pro
sod
ical
lyd
epen
den
tfo
rms
(i.e
.,al
lo
fth
ep
ron
om
inal
sin
Kw
akw
’ala
,an
d
bo
thth
ep
rocl
itic
and
encl
itic
form
sin
Hei
ltsu
k)
ascl
itic
s,re
gard
less
ofw
het
her
or
no
tth
eyh
ave
no
n-c
liti
cle
xica
lal
tern
ants
.
Th
em
ost
app
rop
riat
ese
nse
of
clit
ic,
then
(at
leas
tin
the
pre
sen
tp
ho
no
-
logi
cal
con
text
)se
ems
tob
eo
ne
that
isin
dep
end
ent
of
the
exis
ten
ce(o
rla
ck
ther
eof)
of
no
n-c
liti
cal
tern
ate
form
so
fth
eit
emin
qu
esti
on
.
(.
)
Ph
on
olo
gic
alC
liti
c:A
lin
guis
tic
elem
ent
wh
ose
ph
on
olo
gica
lfo
rmis
defi
cien
tin
that
itla
cks
pro
sod
icst
ruct
ure
atth
ele
vel
of
the
(Pro
sod
ic)
Wo
rd.
We
cou
ldth
enu
seZ
wic
ky’
ste
rmsi
mp
lecl
itic
tore
fer
toan
elem
ent
wh
ose
on
lycl
aim
tocl
itic
-ho
od
isp
ho
no
logi
cal
inth
ese
nse
of
(.
),
tho
ugh
Iw
ill
usu
ally
use
ph
onol
ogic
alcl
itic
inst
ead
inth
isb
oo
k,
toh
igh
ligh
tth
en
atu
reo
f
the
elem
ents
un
der
dis
cuss
ion
.
Rec
all
that
clas
sica
lu
sage
(e.g
.,th
ato
fW
acke
rnag
el)
equ
ated
clit
icst
a-
tus
wit
hla
cko
fin
dep
end
ent
acce
nt,
and
that
pro
per
tyfo
llo
ws
dir
ectl
yfo
r
Asp
ects
ofth
eT
heo
ryof
Cli
tics
elem
ents
that
sati
sfy
(.
).
Ph
on
olo
gist
sh
ave
assu
med
atle
ast
sin
ceth
eap
-
pea
ran
ceo
fL
iber
man
and
Pri
nce
(
)
that
stre
ssac
cen
tis
defi
nit
ion
ally
a
pro
per
tyo
fth
em
etri
cal
stru
ctu
reo
fP
roso
dic
Wo
rds,
and
ob
vio
usl
yan
ele-
men
tth
atd
oes
no
th
ave
such
stru
ctu
red
oes
no
t,b
yit
self
,p
roje
ctst
ress
.B
ut
that
anal
ysis
also
allo
ws
us
toac
com
mo
dat
eo
ne
of
the
typ
eso
fcl
itic
that
Zw
ick
y(
)
con
sid
ers
un
usu
al.
In(M
od
ern
)G
reek
,en
clit
ics
do
no
tre
ceiv
est
ress
.T
hu
s,[ð
óse
]‘g
ive!
’;
[ðó
se=
mu
]‘g
ive
me!
’w
ith
no
stre
sso
nth
ecl
itic
=m
u.
Bu
tw
hen
two
such
encl
itic
sar
eat
tach
edto
the
sam
eh
ost
,ast
ress
app
ears
on
the
pen
ult
imat
eo
ne,
asin
[ðó
se=
mú=
to]
‘giv
eit
tom
e!’
Th
ecl
aim
that
=m
u‘m
e’is
acl
itic
seem
s
tob
eco
mp
rom
ised
by
the
fact
that
ith
asan
acce
nt.
Th
ean
swer
toth
isap
par
ent
con
un
dru
mis
that
,w
hil
eit
do
esn
ot
con
sti-
tute
aP
roso
dic
Wo
rdin
its
ow
nri
ght,
acl
itic
do
es(i
nd
eed
,m
ust
)ge
tin
cor-
po
rate
din
toth
ela
rger
pro
sod
icst
ruct
ure
pro
ject
edb
yit
sh
ost
.T
he
rele
van
t
stre
ssw
hic
hap
pea
rso
nth
ecl
itic
isas
sign
edn
ot
toth
ecl
itic
per
se,
bu
tra
ther
toth
ela
rger
wo
rdo
fw
hic
hit
is(n
ow
)a
par
t—sp
ecifi
call
y,in
Mo
der
nG
reek
,
toth
ep
enu
ltim
ate
syll
able
.
Iw
illd
iscu
ssp
roso
dic
stru
ctu
rean
dit
sas
sign
men
tin
mo
red
etai
lin
Ch
ap-
ter
.
Ass
um
efo
rn
ow
,ho
wev
er,t
hat
anap
pro
pri
ate
stru
ctu
reh
asal
read
yb
een
assi
gned
toth
ew
ord
[ðó
se]
‘giv
e!’
con
sist
ing
of
aw
ord
con
tain
ing
asi
ngl
e,
left
-do
min
ant
foo
tin
clu
din
gb
oth
of
its
syll
able
s.N
ow
wh
enju
sta
sin
gle
ad-
dit
ion
alsy
llab
leis
inco
rpo
rate
din
toth
ew
ord
(by
wh
atev
erp
rin
cip
leo
fSt
ray
Ad
jun
ctio
nap
pli
esin
Mo
der
nG
reek
),as
in[ð
óse
mu
]‘g
ive
me!
’n
on
ewfo
ot
isco
nst
ruct
edo
nth
isad
ded
mat
eria
l,si
nce
feet
inG
reek
mu
stb
em
inim
ally
bis
ylla
bic
,an
d[m
u] σ
rem
ain
sa
syll
able
—p
art
of
the
Pro
sod
icW
ord
(an
dth
us
pro
no
un
ceab
le),
bu
tn
ot
par
sed
asp
art
of
any
foo
t.W
hen
two
clit
ics
are
add
ed,
ho
wev
er,
asin
[ðó
se=
mú=
to],
ther
eis
no
wen
ou
ghm
ater
ial
tob
uil
da
new
foo
t(c
om
po
sed
of
the
two
encl
itic
syll
able
s),
and
thu
sto
crea
tea
new
stre
ss.
Bu
tth
isfo
ot
(an
dth
esy
llab
les
that
com
po
seit
)is
no
ta
wo
rdth
atp
roje
cts
stre
sso
nit
so
wn
:ra
ther
,it
isp
art
of
ala
rger
Pro
sod
icW
ord
,wh
ose
bas
eis
the
clit
ics’
ho
st[ð
óse
].5
Th
ere
isth
us
no
con
trad
icti
on
bet
wee
nth
ecl
itic
stat
us
of
the
pro
no
min
alel
emen
ts=
mu
and
=to
,o
nth
eo
ne
han
d,
and
thei
rm
anif
es-
tati
on
wit
hp
ho
net
icst
ress
on
the
oth
er.
.
Cas
eII
:Ho
w“S
imp
le”
are
En
gli
shA
ux
ilia
ryC
liti
cs?
Inlo
ok
ing
atth
ep
ho
no
logi
cald
imen
sio
no
fcl
itic
izat
ion
,we
hav
eal
read
yse
en
on
ese
to
f“s
imp
lecl
itic
s,”
inth
eK
wak
w’a
lap
ron
ou
ns
and
det
erm
iner
sd
is-
cuss
edin
sect
ion
.
.T
hes
eil
lust
rate
on
ere
lati
vely
sim
ple
inst
ance
inw
hic
h
5Se
eal
soSt
eria
de
(
)
for
anac
cou
nt
of
mo
reco
mp
lex
case
so
fth
isso
rt.
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
we
mig
ht
be
tem
pte
dto
attr
ibu
ted
isti
nct
ive
syn
tax
toa
set
of
clit
ics,
bu
tw
her
e
ittu
rns
ou
tth
atth
ere
leva
nt
pro
per
ties
foll
ow
fro
mth
eir
ph
on
olo
gica
lch
arac
-
ter
alo
ne.
Wh
atm
akes
the
Kw
akw
’ala
elem
ents
of
sect
ion
.
clit
ics
isa
pu
rely
ph
on
olo
gica
lp
rop
erty
,b
ut
on
ew
ith
syn
tact
icco
nse
qu
ence
s.T
he
nee
dfo
r
ap
roso
dic
ho
sten
tail
sth
ere
stri
ctio
nth
atth
eyca
nn
ot
app
ear
inco
nst
ruc-
tio
ns
wh
ere
they
wo
uld
be
init
ial
wit
hin
ap
hra
se,
such
asin
the
po
siti
on
of
a
sen
ten
ce-i
nit
ialt
op
ic.
Th
eir
syn
tax
foll
ow
sw
ith
ou
tad
dit
ion
alst
ipu
lati
on
fro
m
thei
rp
ho
no
logy
.
Bef
ore
pro
ceed
ing
toa
mo
rege
ner
alth
eore
tica
lfra
mew
ork
for
the
ph
on
ol-
ogy
of
clit
iciz
atio
n,
Ilo
ok
firs
tat
aso
mew
hat
mo
ren
oto
rio
us
exam
ple
,w
her
e
the
“sim
pli
city
”o
fth
ed
esig
nat
ion
“sim
ple
clit
ic”
isra
ther
mo
rese
rio
usl
yin
qu
esti
on
.T
his
isth
eca
seo
fth
ere
du
ced
form
so
fa
nu
mb
ero
fau
xili
ary
verb
s
inE
ngl
ish
.T
hes
eh
ave
oft
enb
een
sugg
este
dto
be
sim
ple
clit
ics,
bu
tan
eno
r-
mo
us
lite
ratu
reat
test
sto
the
fact
that
atle
ast
sup
erfi
cial
ly,t
hey
hav
ed
isti
nct
ive
syn
tact
icp
rop
erti
es.
We
nee
dto
det
erm
ine
wh
eth
er,
asin
the
Kw
akw
’ala
case
,
thes
eca
nb
ed
eriv
edfr
om
the
ph
on
olo
gyo
fth
eit
ems
inq
ues
tio
n.
Au
xili
ary
Red
uct
ion
inE
ngl
ish
Th
eb
asic
fact
sar
eq
uit
est
raig
htf
orw
ard
.Se
vera
lco
mm
on
En
glis
hau
xili
ary
verb
s,in
clu
din
gis
and
has
,ca
nap
pea
rei
ther
ina
full
form
or
red
uce
d—
in
thes
eca
ses,
toa
sin
gle
con
son
ant
’s.
(.
)
a.F
red
isth
eo
nly
wer
ewo
lfI
kn
ow
.
b.
Fre
d’s
the
on
lyw
erew
olf
Ik
no
w.
c.F
red
has
on
lyb
een
aw
erew
olf
sin
cela
stw
eek
.
d.
Fre
d’s
on
lyb
een
aw
erew
olf
sin
cela
stw
eek
.
Th
eq
ues
tio
ns
that
aris
eco
me
fro
mth
efa
ctth
atsu
bst
itu
tio
no
fth
ere
-
du
ced
form
for
the
full
form
of
the
auxi
liar
yis
no
ten
tire
lyfr
ee.
Un
der
som
e
circ
um
stan
ces,
on
lyth
efu
llfo
rmca
nap
pea
r,as
illu
stra
ted
by
the
sen
ten
ces
in
(.
).
(.
)
a.D
oyo
uk
no
ww
hat
Fre
dd
ieis
/*’s
(th
isye
arfo
rH
allo
wee
n)?
b.
To
mm
yh
asb
een
aw
erew
olf
mo
reo
ften
than
Fre
dd
ieh
as/*
’s(a
t
Hal
low
een
).
Wh
ile
no
tal
lof
the
En
glis
hau
xili
ary
verb
sh
ave
thes
ere
du
ced
form
s,q
uit
e
an
um
ber
do
.T
he
on
esin
wh
ich
we
wil
lb
ein
tere
sted
are
tho
sein
Fig
ure
.
.
Th
eyap
pea
rin
ap
rop
ersu
bse
to
fth
ep
osi
tio
ns
wh
ere
un
red
uce
dfo
rms
can
app
ear:
that
is,
anu
nre
du
ced
form
can
alw
ays
sub
stit
ute
for
are
du
ced
on
e,b
ut
no
tvi
ceve
rsa.
Th
efa
ctth
atth
ere
du
ced
auxi
liar
ies
app
ear
inp
osi
tio
ns
wh
ere
the
syn
tax
wo
uld
pu
tco
rres
po
nd
ing
no
n-c
liti
cfo
rms
sugg
ests
that
they
Asp
ects
ofth
eT
heo
ryof
Cli
tics
Fu
llfo
rm
Re
du
ce
d
is’s
are
’re
am’m
has
’s
hav
e’v
e
had
’d
wil
l’l
l
wo
uld
’d
F
.
.E
ngl
ish
Red
uce
dA
uxi
liar
ies
are
sim
ple
rath
erth
ansp
ecia
lcl
itic
s(i
nZ
wic
ky’
ste
rmin
olo
gy).
On
the
oth
er
han
d,
the
rest
rict
ion
so
nw
her
eth
eyo
ccu
r,su
chas
tho
seil
lust
rate
din
(.
),
hav
eo
ften
bee
nas
soci
ated
wit
hth
esy
nta
x.W
en
eed
anac
cou
nt
bo
tho
fth
e
po
ssib
ilit
yo
fth
ese
elem
ents
and
also
of
the
lim
itat
ion
so
nth
eir
app
eara
nce
.
We
also
wan
tto
keep
ano
ther
con
sid
erat
ion
inm
ind
.W
hat
ever
the
cor-
rect
anal
ysis
turn
so
ut
tob
e,it
has
tob
eo
ne
that
chil
dre
nca
np
lau
sib
lyac
qu
ire
qu
ite
easi
ly.
Ab
asic
fact
abo
ut
this
mat
ter
isth
eo
bse
rvat
ion
that
tran
scri
pts
of
chil
dre
n’s
utt
eran
ces
con
tain
esse
nti
ally
no
inst
ance
so
fre
du
ced
form
sw
her
e
thes
ear
eim
po
ssib
lein
adu
ltsp
eech
.F
urt
her
mo
re,i
nex
per
imen
tsd
esig
ned
to
bia
sch
ild
ren
tow
ard
pro
du
cin
gin
app
rop
riat
ein
stan
ces
of
the
red
uce
dfo
rms,
they
stil
ld
on
ot
do
so.6
Th
issu
gges
tsth
atth
eco
rrec
tac
cou
nt
mu
stb
eq
uit
e
dee
ply
emb
edd
edin
pri
nci
ple
so
fU
niv
ersa
lG
ram
mar
that
pla
usi
bly
gove
rn
chil
dre
n’s
gram
mar
sat
all
stag
es,
rath
erth
anb
ased
on
det
aile
dla
ngu
age-
par
ticu
lar
stip
ula
tio
ns.
Kai
sse’
s(
)
An
alys
isA
con
ven
ien
tst
arti
ng
po
int
isK
aiss
e’s
(
)
exte
n-
sive
dis
cuss
ion
of
ara
nge
of
clit
iciz
atio
np
hen
om
ena
inE
ngl
ish
,ev
enth
ou
gh
Kai
sse’
sn
oti
on
of
“sim
ple
clit
ics”
was
evid
entl
yso
mew
hat
dif
fere
nt
fro
mth
e
on
esu
gges
ted
her
e.H
erd
escr
ipti
on
had
its
ori
gin
sin
anea
rlie
rp
aper
enti
tled
“Th
eSy
nta
xo
fA
uxi
liar
yR
edu
ctio
nin
En
glis
h,”
and
Ih
ave
pro
po
sed
that
itis
char
acte
rist
ico
fsi
mp
lecl
itic
sth
atth
eir
syn
tax
has
no
thin
gsp
ecia
lab
ou
tit
.If
thes
eit
ems
aris
eth
rou
ghth
ein
terv
enti
on
of
spec
ifica
lly
syn
tact
icef
fect
s,th
ey
wo
uld
no
tb
esi
mp
lecl
itic
sin
my
sen
se.
Alt
ho
ugh
she
foll
ow
sZ
wic
ky
(
)
inp
roce
edin
gfr
om
ad
efin
itio
no
f
clit
icth
atas
sum
esa
rela
tio
nb
etw
een
red
uce
dan
dfu
llfo
rms
(wh
ich
Isu
g-
gest
edin
sect
ion
.
isn
ot
real
lya
sign
ifica
nt
pro
per
ty),
Kai
sse
do
esn
ot
dep
end
6Se
eA
nd
erso
nan
dL
igh
tfo
ot
(
)
and
refe
ren
ces
cite
dth
ere
for
dis
cuss
ion
and
sup
po
rto
fth
ese
clai
ms.
Wh
atis
aC
liti
c?
esse
nti
ally
on
this
.Sh
ear
gues
that
ano
ther
dis
tin
ctio
nis
rath
erm
ore
imp
or-
tan
t:am
on
gth
eit
ems
that
hav
eb
oth
afu
llan
da
ph
on
olo
gica
lly
red
uce
dfo
rm,
the
dif
fere
nce
isso
met
imes
attr
ibu
tab
leto
the
ph
on
olo
gyal
on
e,an
dso
me-
tim
esid
iosy
ncr
atic
.
Fo
rex
amp
le,d
on’t
dis
pla
ysth
esh
apes
[dõ
]an
d[d
on
]w
hic
har
ise
fro
mo
r-
din
ary
fast
-sp
eech
red
uct
ion
pro
cess
es.
Red
uct
ion
of
afi
nal
clu
ster
/nt/
toth
e
nas
alal
on
e,an
dfu
rth
erre
du
ctio
no
fa
fin
aln
asal
ton
asal
izat
ion
of
ap
rece
din
g
vow
el,
are
pro
cess
esth
atap
ply
rath
erge
ner
ally
inth
ep
ost
-lex
ical
ph
on
olo
gy
of
En
glis
h,e
spec
iall
yin
rap
idsp
eech
.T
he
spec
ialf
orm
[d@
](a
sin
Id
on’t
wan
t
to,p
ron
ou
nce
das
[a�d
@"w
an@
]),t
ho
ugh
,ap
pea
rsto
be
ale
xica
lly
idio
syn
crat
ic
vari
ant
of
don
’t,
rath
erth
anb
ein
gp
rod
uce
db
yp
rod
uct
ive
pro
cess
es.
Th
isis
sugg
este
db
yth
efa
ctth
atth
ep
ho
no
logi
call
ysi
mil
arau
xili
ary
won
’th
asfo
rms
[wõ
]an
d[w
on
](i
nH
ew
on’t
beth
ere,
and
she
won
’tar
rriv
eu
nti
lla
ter)
,b
ut
no
form
[w@
].
Kai
sse
argu
esth
atal
lo
fth
ere
du
ced
auxi
liar
ies
and
mo
dal
sin
Fig
ure
.
are
lexi
call
ysp
ecifi
ed,
and
do
no
tar
ise
thro
ugh
the
op
erat
ion
of
ph
on
olo
gica
l
rule
s.Si
nce
En
glis
hd
oes
no
th
ave
pro
du
ctiv
ep
ho
no
logi
calr
ule
sth
atco
uld
de-
rive
the
ob
serv
edre
du
ced
form
so
fis
,are
,am
,has
,hav
e,h
ad,w
ill,
wou
ld,t
hes
e
vari
ants
mu
stal
lb
ele
xica
lly
list
edal
tern
ativ
est
ems.
Co
mp
are,
e.g.
,w
ould
(wit
hth
ere
du
ced
vari
ant
’d)
wit
hco
uld
,sh
ould
,wh
ose
on
lyva
rian
ts[k
@d
]an
d
[š@
d]
can
be
der
ived
by
fast
-sp
eech
ph
on
olo
gy.
Th
isd
iffe
ren
cep
oin
tsu
pa
sign
ifica
nt
issu
ein
wo
rkin
go
ut
ath
eory
of
the
ph
on
olo
gyo
fcl
itic
izat
ion
.G
iven
ale
xica
lly
det
erm
ined
alte
rnat
ion
,su
ch
asw
efi
nd
for
inst
ance
wit
hh
asve
rsu
s’s
,w
eca
nst
ud
yth
ed
istr
ibu
tio
no
fth
e
red
uce
dfo
rm(’
s)an
das
kw
hat
the
con
dit
ion
sar
eu
nd
erw
hic
hit
can
be
use
do
r
inse
rted
.If
the
very
exis
ten
ceo
fth
ere
du
ced
form
foll
ow
sfr
om
the
ph
on
olo
gy,
tho
ugh
,th
ere
are
no
con
dit
ion
so
nw
her
eit
can
be
inse
rted
.T
he
full
form
is
inse
rted
ever
ywh
ere,
and
then
the
po
st-l
exic
alp
ho
no
logy
do
esw
hat
itli
kes
on
the
bas
iso
fd
eriv
edst
ruct
ure
.B
ecau
seo
fth
isd
iffe
ren
ce,w
hen
we
eval
uat
eth
e
con
dit
ion
so
ncl
itic
izat
ion
,we
hav
eto
be
clea
rin
each
case
that
we
are
actu
ally
dea
lin
gw
ith
acl
itic
form
,an
dn
ot
just
wit
ha
ph
on
etic
vari
ant
der
ived
by
the
ph
on
olo
gyfr
om
afu
llfo
rm.
Kai
sse’
svi
ewo
fw
hat
isgo
ing
on
inth
ere
du
ced
form
sw
asp
rem
ised
on
the
no
tio
nth
atth
esy
nta
xis
imp
lica
ted
.H
erre
solu
tio
no
fth
ep
rob
lem
was
as
foll
ow
s:u
nd
erce
rtai
nci
rcu
mst
ance
s,o
ne
syn
tact
icel
emen
tm
ayb
ecl
itic
ized
toan
oth
erin
the
spec
ific
sen
seo
fb
ein
gsy
nta
ctic
ally
adjo
ined
toit
.W
hen
that
hap
pen
s,th
ecl
itic
vari
ant
of
the
lexi
cal
item
isch
ose
n,a
nd
oth
erw
ise,
the
no
n-c
liti
cva
rian
tis
use
d.
Th
eb
asic
op
erat
ion
invo
lved
incl
itic
izat
ion
isth
us
a
syn
tact
ico
ne,
and
the
con
dit
ion
so
nth
eap
pea
ran
ceo
fp
ho
no
logi
calc
liti
csar
e
tob
eso
ugh
tin
the
pro
per
ties
of
the
syn
tact
icre
pre
sen
tati
on
.