Asia and EuropeChapter 21: External Relation

November 4th, 2013

Professor BaconSophie ZAGATO

Plan

1) External Trade

2) Foreign security and Defense Policies

3) Development policies

4) The external Dimension of Internal Policies

5) The consistency and Representational Problems

6) Concluding remaks

7) Personal thoughts

External tradeA. The EU in the world trading system

The EU as a united front to the world for contracting the terms of trade and agreements.

The Common Customs Tariff (CCT) and the Common Commercial Policy (CCP) force the member states to act in common.

What are the common actions undertaken by the EU?1) the fixing and adjusting of external customs tariffs2) the negotiation of customs and trade agreements with non-member countries3) the taking of action to impede imports 4) Usage of different forums concerning the trade negotiations issue such as:

a. Single statesb. Other regional groupings (ex: EFTA, ASEAN)c. International frameworks (ex: WTO)

I. External TradeB. Trade Policies

Main Ideas:The EU as committed to liberal trade policy.

EU priority then being external trade negotiations and the opening up of its market

Examples: 1) the lowering of international customs duties

2) the removal of non-tariff barriers to trade

3) the opening up of restricted spheres of trading activity (ex: financial services)

BUT: Beware the desire for some states to adopt protectionist measures for national economic interests

Which sectors are protected ?• The agricultural sector : benefits from high domestic support + protected by high tariffs on imports.

• The motor vehicle industry (vs Japanese import)

• Textiles: long restrictions of various sorts of imports from the Far East.

2009 World GDP World GDP in $

World import/export

Population

EU-27 24% 13’000billion

1/5th 500million

USA 21% 10’500billion

EU Slightly more than US

290million

Japan 11% 5’500 billion

7% 127million

External TradeC. Trade and Trade-dominated agreements

Aim:

1) to increase the open market access arrangements

2) to broaden the forms of cooperation.

3 levels of development cooperation policy (from min to max)

1) Trade agreements

2) Trade and economic cooperation agreements

3) Association agreements

Who gets to participate?

1) Potential future EU members

2) Mediterranean states

3) Non-EU members of the European Economic Area (EEA) (Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein)

External TradeD. Policy processes

Before the Lisbon Treaty: EU Commission + the Council were responsible for the agreements regarding trade.

Since the Lisbon Treaty: Involvement of the European Parliament in the decision-making stage.

Emergence of Tensions between institutions:

1)The power balance between the Council and the Commission can be very delicate

2) The different national interests and preferences of the member states can create difficulties in the Council.

3) There can be tensions between Commissioners and Directorate-General (administrative unit in the Commission

4) The European Parliament has seen its power increase with the Lisbon Treaty.

Foreign and Defense PolicyProblems related to use of resources• EU owns a great number of resources but how to harness and used them in an effective manner ?

• It prevents the EU of becoming a main actor in foreign and defense policy field.

• The Treaty on the European Union (TEU) obliges the member states to try to act in common whenever possible.

What are the limitations to integration ?• Obstacles in the marshalling of potential power resources.

• The field remains inter-governmental with voluntary cooperation and unanimity decisions processes

Therefore the EU is seen as a civilian/soft international power.

its contribution is modest in areas of foreign and defense policy

Foreign and Defense PolicyA. The Evolution of the EU’s security and defense policy

Chronology1970: Signature of European Political Cooperation (EPC)

1993’s Maastricht Treaty : The EPC was replaced by the Common Foreign and Security Policy

In the 1970-80’s: Increasing of Member States’ cooperation on foreign policy matters.

Limits:

-None incorporation of the importance of policy cooperation in the Single European Act (SEA).

-The European Political Cooperation (EPC) continued to be led on a more voluntary basis with unanimity decisions

making

- No state could be prevented from engaging in independent action

Since the 1990’s: The EU can do more than issuing general declarations and imposing mild economic sanctions against a

state to indicate its disapprovalWhy was there such a change before and after 1990 ?

I. Ending of the cold warII. German reunificationIII. 1990-1991 Gulf warIV. The EU’s response to the post 1991 break-up of YugoslaviaV. After the Single European Act, there has been significant advances on Foreign policy (even though it remains essentially intergovernmental in nature)

Foreign and Defense PolicyA. The Evolution of the EU’s security and defense policy

ChronologyWhat happened since the 1990’s ?

Feb 1992 Maatricht Treaty(signed): The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CESP) constitutes the EU’s second pillar

Oct 1997 Amsterdam treaty (signed): QMV became possible for some policy implementation decisions

Feb 2001 Nice treaty (signed): strengthened the CESP

Dec 2007 Lisbon Treaty (signed): Gave more overall coherence to the foreign policy area.

Limits to Evolution:1) No coherent and cohesive EU foreign policy based on a united political strategy.

2) The EU’s foreign policy is sometimes used as a Top-up to national foreign policy

mechanism for furthering national interests and a useful framework for dealing with issues that states prefer not to manage themselves.

Defense Policy (specifically)Situation: No integration. At most, inter-state cooperation.

Why? :

1) security and defense are associated to the essence of national sovereignty.

2) different member states have different defense capabilities.

3) different degrees of willingness to use armed force.

4) different degree of commitment to the various security/defense organizations (NATO)

5) States also more or less follow the USA policies. Mainly after 9/11

What Problems did the EU encounter ?• Conflicts in the Balkans: The USA wants to share the burden

priming of the unsatisfactory features the EU military position.

lack of effective military operational capabilities + non efficient decision-making process

• The USA took the leadership but the EU might wanted to deal differently with the conflict

1994: Creation of the European Security and Defense Identity (ESDI). Concerned with military restructuring. It enables the Europeans to exercise a greater and more independent influence within NATO.

Defense PolicyChronology

Since the Saint-Malo summit: the EU has advanced rapidly in terms of security and defense.

1999 Cologne summit:

Power of the Council: Ability to take decisions on the full range of conflict prevention and crisis management.

December 1999 Helsinki summit:

Creation of the European Rapid Reaction Force: Mobilization of 60’000 within 60 days.

June 2000 Feira summit:

Mobilization of 5000 civilian police within 30 pays for crisis situation.

December 2003 Brussels summit:

Idea of effective multilateralism through the UN and regional organizations, a focus on conflict prevention and crisis management, maintenance of close relations with NATO and provision for autonomous EU operations in some circumstances.

December 2008 summit

A declaration of the Council on the Enhancement of the European security and Defense Policy

The Lisbon Treaty:

Mutual defense clauses

Defense PolicyCore features and Policy levels

Limits of the EU defense policy: 1) Nato and/or national efforts remain the central source of defense power

2) The EU will act only when the NATO decides not to act.

3) The decision making process of the CSDP is inter-governmental.

4) No European Army

There are 3 types or Policy levelsI. Soft security

Focus on the promotion of peace and security + use of non-military tools for this purpose.

II. Hard security

Being prepared to use military capability for purposes such as conflict resolution, peace keeping and peace monitoring.

III. Defense policy

It has at its core military force.

The EU is not seeking such a capability aimed at defense of territory and high security.

Defense PolicyPolicy Instruments

Policy Instruments

1) Adoption of actions + official positions + use diplomatic channels to exert political pressure

2) The EU can offer and withdraw ways of trade, benefits, economic and financial assistance, technical, scientific, cultural and other forms of cooperation.

3) Military capability is only available for restricted purposes

When to use these instruments ?

to defend the aims of: Art 21 of the TEU

The EU is guided by principles such as democracy, rule of law, fundamental freedoms, human dignity[…] and will therefore rule with a high degree of cooperation in order to safeguard its values, fundamental interests, security, independence and integrity.

Obstacles to further development:

1) Culture of (semi-)neutrality

2) Raise of Sovereign Concerns

3) Division of countries on ends and means

4) No need for developed defense policies since other options are available (NATO + OSCE: Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe)

EU dependency ?

Without a higher level of expenditure, the EU will continue to be heavily reliant on NATO and the USA for key military resources as satellite technology, heavy airlift, logistic support, and some armaments.

Foreign Policy and DefensePolicy Process

The Common Foreign and Security Policy CFSP have never been quite part of the EU and displayed 4 distinct policy features.

1) the CFSP processes have never been placed within the TFEU

2)The CFSP has not much moved towards QMV

3) the CFSP is particularly centered on an intensive network of consultative arrangements.

4) Since the Amsterdam treaty, the CFSP has its own institutional position with the High representative. It was then strengthened with the Lisbon treaty.

III. Development PolicyFacts

1) EU as major actor in international development policy.

2) EU: 45% on international development aid

3) Individual member states: another 10%.

Policy contentAim: 1)Reduction and eradication of poverty

2) pursuit of the Millennium Development Goals.

3) Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger

4) the achievement of universal primary education,

5) the promotion gender equality,

6) the reduction of mortality rate of children

7) the improvement of maternal health,

8) the combat against HIV/AIDS/malaria

9) ensuring environmental sustainability

Moreover, the development policy is based on the respect of human rights, fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law.

III: Development PolicyForms of Aid

Forms of Aid:1) Generalized preferences

2) Food aid

3) Emergency aid

4) Aid to non-governmental organizations

5) Cotonou Partnership with ex-colonies (African, Caribbean and Pacific countries)

Further Facts1) EU development policies are conducted alongside National Policies.

2) No exclusive EU competence in Development Policies.

3) Sometimes the EU has the leading role, sometimes not…

4) Different aims, priorities, interests of Member States concerning Development issues

III. Development PolicyPolicy Process

Most important actors:1) The Foreign affairs council

2) The commissioner for development

3) The development DG

4) The EP committee on development

5) The diplomatic missions of developing countries in Brussels

6) The EU delegations in developing countries

Institutional structure of the Cotonou Agreement:There are 3 principle bodies in the structure: 1st body: Council of ministers + a member of the commission + a member of the government of each ACP country

Aim: take major political and policy decisions which are necessary under the agreement

2nd body: The committee of Ambassadors =representatives of each EU member state+ a representative of the commission + representative of each ACP state.

Aim: monitoring the implementation of the Agreement and the progress towards the objectives + coordinating the work of many committees

and subsidiary bodies.

3rd body: Joint assembly = MEPs + ACP members of parliament or national representatives

Aim: general advisory and deliberating body.

IV. The external Dimension of Internal PoliciesStatement:

Many EU internal policies have significant external dimensions

Ex: Transport, road, maritime transport, energy, environmental policies, water damage, pollution

Policy Actions: TFEU by the Lisbon Treaty, Art 216.

Member states can conclude agreements with third states or IOs in order to achieve the policy objectives which are stated in the Treaty.

Different procedures apply depending on the nature of the agreements

Further information:

Different distribution in competences: the EU doesn’t have the exclusive right to negotiate external agreement on internal policies

Ex: Fisheries: the commission is the sole EU representative and negotiator.

Environment policy: there is a mixed competence.

The Commission acts on behalf of the EU and the National representatives act on behalf of their Member State.

V. The consistency and Representational Problems

Consistency is important but hard to achieve due to overlapping and interrelating reasons

Reasons:

a. great spread of EU external relations interests and activities

b. diversity of actors

c. differing powers of EU in different policy contexts

d. differing powers of the EU in differing spheres of external relations

e. conflicting preferences of member states on many policy issues

f. varying policy development: from commercial issues to defense policy.

 

• The EU has become increasingly multidimensional in character. Therefore coordination arrangements have become increasingly necessary.

Problem:

Who speaks for EU ? The nature of its representation varies according to circumstances.

Conclusion

1) The EU exercises a major influence on the worlds stage in respect of trade, development and environment policy but only a modest influence in foreign and defense policy.

2) Defense mechanisms remain essentially intergovernmental in nature.

3) The defense expenditure in the EU is not used to its maximum effect.

Too many duplications in a world in which security threats have changed

Too much spending on an individual level and not enough on research and sophisticated weaponry

Personal Thoughts1) Very broad chapter but fails to go in the interesting details

2) We see that since the EU is led by sovereign states, there seems to be one exception to each rule

3) Somehow, the defense policy field, at least, seems to be the most coherent

4) EU as new form of neo-colonialism ?

Eradicate extreme poverty, hunger, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality, reduce motility rate of children, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS/malaria, and ensure environmental sustainability

Moreover, the development policy is based on the respect of human rights, fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law.

Personal thoughts1) Does classical security still make sense nowadays ?Clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4qHSX2QR0Q

Within Europe, seems like the answer is no

In the international realm, transnational terrorism and cyber-attacks are the new threats.

2) Transnational terrorism attacks have led to a greater institutional cooperation within the EUI personally believe that having competent institutions to process international information is a “defense and security policy” which is at least as valuable if not more than the possession of hardware.

3) Implementation by the Commission of new measure after the 9/11a) a definition of terrorism

b) a creation of an anti-terrorist cell within Europol

c) the creation of Eurojust

“This challenge to sovereignty comes from the fact that terrorism has to be understood as a

global scourge, not a national one, and it requires a global response” (Guillet: 2004, p.457). not based on classical weaponry

Asks for cooperation within and outside Europe

Personal thoughtsmandates and sources of new institutions

FRONTEX:

“[it] develops and operates information systems enabling the exchange of Information regarding emerging risks and the current state of affairs at the external borders form the basis of risk analysis and so-called “situational awareness”.

(source: http://www.frontex.europa.eu/about-frontex/mission-and-tasks)

Europol

Mandate: Drugs, Trafficking in Human beings, terrorism…Their mission : Support its Member States in preventing and combating all forms of serious international crime and terrorism(source: https://www.europol.europa.eu/content/page/mandate-119)

Eurojust (the European Union’s Juridicial Cooperation Unit):  

“Eurojust supports in any way possible the competent authorities of the Member States to render their investigations and prosecutions more effective when dealing with cross-border crime[…] Eurojust's competence covers the same types of crime and offences for which Europol has competence, ”.(source: http://eurojust.europa.eu/about/background/Pages/mission-tasks.aspx)