Book reviews 315

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS, Walter Reitman (Ed.), Ablex Publishing Corporation, New Jersey, 1984. No. of pages: viii + 343.

Because of the volume of information contained within this book this review has used the chapter headings as points of reference to their content.

The approach has been from the viewpoint of a business man wishing to know whether Artifical Intelligence can be used in the firm.

(1) Artificial Intelligence Applications For Business: Getting Acquainted. This chapter discusses the concepts of Artifical Intelligence (AI) and services as a general introduction to the chapters that follow.

(2) Building Expert Systems. A logical 4 stage approach to construction of rule based expert systems is given. The stages are task definition, initial design, knowledge extraction, and technology transfer.

Comparisons are made of the development of expert systems for configuring computer systems (Rl), component selection for the system (XSEL), and constructing a build plan for it (PTRANS).

(3) Knowledge-Based Expert Systems: The Buy or Build Decision. The medical expert system (INTERNIST-1) uses heuristic procedures to produce differential diagnosis using available clinical evidence. The way that the system holds base knowledge and uses weighting factors for diagnoses is discussed with an example of a typical man/system interaction.

(4) Expert Systems: Matching Techniques to Tasks. Dimensions such as domain expertise, ability to search through problems, ability to use symbolic logic, are suggested as appropriate for expert systems. It is noted that these are not limited to AI.

Ways of modelling expertise, including multivariate classification, use of logical frames (logic chunks) and other techniques are discussed. It identifies classificatory or knowledge extraction tasks as those most suitable for expert systems.

(5) Coupling Expert Systems With Database Management Systems. Four methods of communicating between expert systems and Data Management Systems (DMS) are identified. These methods include holding data in ‘core’, for use by specific applications, application independent data management systems, loose coupling; involving extraction of data and passing to the expert, and tight coupling where extracted data is regarded as the experts own data.

(6) Databases, Expert Systems; and PROLOG. Shows 3 systems written using the A1 language known as PROLOG. The construction of an expert system is shown using an expert advice system about plant problems.

(7) A1 and Decision-Making: The Prospector Experience. On the basis that experts structure their explanations of their conclusions in a hierarchy the system PROSPECTOR was designed to do the same. It achieved this by using logical and weighted combinations of propositions and allowing the connection of related propositions.

The system uses an ore-deposit model and it is shown in use with an example problem. Given drill site information PROSPECTOR is shown to make the correct decisions.

(8) Using Expert Systems to Manage Change and Complexity in Manufacture. Because of the changing environment in manufacturing computers the rule-based system IMACS is being developed.

The system takes into account problem orders and any changes in an order. It provides a build plan for each system and highlights impending problems.

An expert technical review system (XCON) is currently in use and this is also discussed. (9) The Industrialization of Knowledge Engineering. This highlights some of the areas that

can be solved by the use of Knowledge Engineering. It shows that it is able to solve those problems that DP is currently unable to solve.

It is declared that knowledge sources are consolidated, expertise preserved and spread, and a business advantage derived.

(10) Natural Language Interfaces: What’s here, What’s Coming and Who Needs It‘? A discussion on the types of computer interface available which currently includes hierarchical menus, Query by Example (QBE) and Natural Language.

The use of Natural Language interface INTELLECT is examined. Assesment of Natural

316 Book reviews

Languages is shown to depend upon its vocabulary, syntax handling, area of applicability, comprehension and ability to infer.

(1 1) Natural Language Communication With Machines. The importance of Natural Language is shown in a military situation where there are likely to be naive users. For Natural Language to be useful it is shown to depend upon its domain knowledge, user goal orientation, and the users conceptual structures.

Examples are given of interactions between user and system. There is a discussion of KL-ONE the Natural Language that can hold hierarchical concepts and has a taxonomy for the placement of new concepts within the hierarchy.

(12) In Response: Next Steps in Natural Language Interaction. This chapter compares the responses of a radio economics expert giving answers to listeners to what an expert system should be able to cope with.

It works on the principle that Natural Language must use conversational principles to ensure clarity for the user. Misconceptions that may arise are discussed. These include Extensional; a correct reply that does not reflect the data, Type; some entity may be assumed to have relationships that do not in reality exist, Object Related; user and system have differing views about an object, Entity Related; where time is not taken into account.

More precise ways of overcoming these problems are discussed. (13) Natural Language Processing in the Commercial World. It is shown that software has

increased in user friendliness. A natural Language front-end (EXPLORER) to an oil wells database is shown as an example of its ability to ‘understand’ contextual references.

This domain-dependent system attempts to understand by building a conceptual analysis whereas it is suggested that a domain-independent system would reference the database physical structure. The concept of a conversational advisory system is shown in the example of a will writer (WILL-WRITER).

(14) Advisory Systems. It points out that expert systems are unable to adapt to changing client needs. To overcome this an ability to learn from experience, to adapt to failure, to infer user goals is shown to be required.

The expert news reader (IPP) is given as an example of how a program can infer and adapt general rules. In a similar system (POLITICS) is shown to have the ability to orient to user goals.

(1 5) Market Trends in Artifical Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence development and propagation is discussed with particular reference to the Schlumberger Dipmeter Advisory System for petrophysical data interpretation.

The stages of A1 development are shown to have gone through initial development, stock market interest and new start-ups.

Current lists of U.S.A. companies in A1 are listed and the future likely strategy for A1 is said to be tool-based for internal application with current databases.

Problems of staffing, knowledge extraction and too high an expectation of the expert system are highlighted.

(1 6) The Artificial Intelligence Tool-Box. Artificial Intelligence programming is defined as programming under uncertainty. It suggests that coding should be deferred as long as practicable. When coding has to be done it should be in an integrated and flexible programming environment. The advantages of producing an embedded domain-specific language for an application is also highlighted.

(17) Integrating Vision and Touch for Robotic Applications. A flexible robot is defined as one that has the ability to see and recognize items. The problems in achieving this are discussed with reference to current research.

The robot should also be able to sense when and where it has an item and that item’s orientation. It is shown that there are advantages in the integration of tactile and visual senses whilst also requiring flexibility in processing.

(18) Managing the Acquisition of an A1 Capability: Some Observations, Suggestions, and Conclusions. This chapter draws together the possibilities for A1 and also gives further sources of information that are available.

The suggestion is made that companies should ask what A1 is and what should be done with it.

Although the book is not totally geared to business applications it is informative and

Books received 3 17

contains several thought provoking applications of Artificial Intelligence. However a problem area is that of jargon which can make the book heavy going. Despite these shortcomings the book does give a flavour of the ‘state of the art’ in Artificial Intelligence which may be taken into account in business systems.

JIM SYMCOX British Aerospace

Books received Arthur, Michael B., Bailyn, Lotte, Levinson,

Daniel J. and Shepard, Herbert A. Work- ing with Careers. New York: Columbia University, 1984. Ppix + 130. $19.00 paperback; $22.50 hardback.

Beehr, Terry A. and Bhagat, Rabi S. Human Stress and Cognition in Organisations: A n Integrated Perspective. New York and Chichester: Wiley, 1958. Pp xv + 450. f46.20.

Blake, Robert R. and Mouton, Jane Srygley. Solving Costly Organisational Conflicts. San Francisco and London: Jossey-Bass, 1984, Pp xx + 327. f22.50.

Brake], Aat (Ed.). People and Organisations Interacting. New York and London: Wiley, 1985. Pp xiii + 258.

Butera, F. and Thurman, J. E. (Eds). Auto- mation and Work Design. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1984. Pp xviii + 758. $77.00.

Callan, Hilary and Ardener, Shirley (Eds). The Incorporated Wife. Kent: Croom Helm Ltd, 1984. Pp iii + 229. f15.95 hardback; f7.95 paperback.

Cooper, C. L. (Ed.). Psychosocial Stress and Cancer. London and New York: Wiley, 1984. Pp xiii + 265. f17.00.

Cox, Charles and Beck, John. Management Development: Advances in Practice and Theory. New York and London: Wiley, 1984. Pp xiii + 280. f21.95.

Cunningham, J. B. and White (Eds). Quality of Working Life: Contemporary Cases. Ottawa: Canadian Government Pub- lishing Centre, 1984. Pp xiv + 484. $26.40.

Drenth, P. J. D., Thierry, H., Willems, P. J. and Wolff, C. J. (Eds). Handbook of Organisational Psychology, Vols. 1 & 2. London and New York: Wiley, 1984. Vol. 1 Pp x + 669. Vol. 2 Pp x + 558.

DuBrin, Andrew J. Foundations of Organ- isational Behavior. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International. Pp xi + 499. f23.70.

Fineman, Stephen. Social Work Stress and Intervention. Aldershot: Gower Pub- lishing Co., 1985. Pp ix + 174. f14.50.

Fisher, S. Stress and the Perception of Con- trol. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- ates Ltd. Pp xxv + 285. f19.95.

Fleishman, Edwin A. and Quaintance, Mari- lyn K. The Description of Human Tasks. Florida: Academic Press Inc, 1984. Pp xvi + 514. $49.00.

Goodman, Paul S. and Atkin, Robert S. (Edsf. Absenteeism. San Francisco and London: Jossey-Bass, 1984. Pp xxi + 436. f28.00.

Gruneberg, Michael and Wall, Toby (Eds). Social Psychology and Organisational Behaviour. New York and Chichester: Wiley, 1984. Pp vii + 265. f15.95.

Hiltz, Starr Roxanne. Online Communities: A Case Study of the Office of the Future. London: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1983. Pp xviii + 261.

Hofstede, G. Culture’s Consequences. Lon- don: Sage Publications, 1984. Pp 327. f11.95.

Howarth, C. The Way People Work: Job Satisfaction and the Challenge of Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984. Pp 180. f12.50 hardback; f3.95 paper- Davidson, Marilyn J. and Cooper, Cary L. back. (Eds). Working Women: An International

Survey. London and New York: Wiley, Human Engineering Guide to Equipment 1984. Pp x + 306. f18.00. Design. Joint Army-Navy-Air Force