artificial cranial modification on a female skeleton from the byzantine site of maroneia (thrace,...

8/3/2019 Artificial Cranial Modification on a Female Skeleton From the Byzantine Site of Maroneia (Thrace, Greece)

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Artificial Cranial Modification on a Female

Skeleton From the Byzantine Site ofMaroneia (Thrace, Greece)

PARASKEVI TRITSAROLI*

Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece

ABSTRACT Artificial cranial modification is one of the most often documented types of intentional intervention on thehuman skeleton in the anthropological record. A female cranium exhibiting headshaping recently came to lightat the Early Byzantine site of Maroneia, in Thrace, northern Greece. Headshaping was practiced by severaldifferent population groups during the migration period (1st9th c. AD), but was unknown in Byzantinecustoms. Homogeneity in burial customs, evidenced by the skeletons position and orientation and bycemetery topography, strongly supports the hypothesis that this burial belonged to a Christianised citizenwhohad the right to be buried in a commonChristiancemetery. Headshaping providesstrong evidencefor thecultural adaptability and complexity of Early Byzantine society at Maroneia, an important provincial urbancentre of the Byzantine Empire. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: circular cranial modification; burial customs; migration period; Byzantium; Greece

Introduction

Early Byzantine period (4th8th c. AD) was marked byfrequent geopolitical changes and significant popu-

lation movements into and within Europe, includingthe Balkans. Historical sources indicate that peoplefrom different religions and ethnicities were not alwaysin conflict with each other during Byzantine times, butpeacefully coexisted within the generally Christian,Orthodox society. Furthermore, the large territorialextent of the Byzantine Empire had lead to the creationof a much diversified population. Different populationgroups were distinguished by their origin, language,religious beliefs and customs (Lefort, 2006). This studyattempts to explore the cultural diversity of the EarlyByzantine society through the first case of artificialcranial modification that was uncovered at the site of

Maroneia in the northern Greek region of Thrace.The expansion of cranial modification in the area

of Europe is related to the migration period duringthe 1st9th c. AD (Fo` thi, 2000). Several artificiallymodified skulls from historical times have beenuncovered in Western Europe (Delisle, 1889; Kiszely,

1978; Simon, 1978; Duday, 1983; Formicola & Scarsini,1987; Buchet, 1988; Maureille et al., 1995; Benus et al.,1999; Kustar, 1999) indicating the presence ofelements originating from the East (Buchet, 1988;Buchet, 1997). Dingwall (1931) recounts that headdeformation produced by the application of wads, pads andbandages to the head is prevalent throughout the Tiflis area [theregion around the Caucasus and the Black Sea] amongArmenians, Jews, Greeks and Ossetes, and the result is to flattenthe forehead. More precisely, artificial cranial modifi-cation is associated with the Alans, Avars, Quades,Goths, Gepids and Huns. Several cases close to Greeceare reported in Romania, Bulgaria, the area of former-Yugoslavia, Hungary and Italy, dating from 2nd to 8thc. AD (Kiszely, 1978). This period covers the transitionfrom late antiquity to the foundation of the ByzantineEmpire and extends to the so-called Dark Ages.

Consequently, headshaping in Byzantine Greece didnot arise in isolation from practices in surroundingregions.

Artificial cranial modification was not a customarypractice in Christian tradition and culture, and neverdocumented before in Byzantine cemetery populationsfrom Greece. The discovery of the skeleton with theshaped head at the site of Maroneia suggests thepresence of an individual with a cultural backgrounddistinct from that of the other, non-head-shaped

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)Published online 13 January 2010 in Wiley Online Library(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1153

* Correspondence to: Wiener Laboratory, American School of ClassicalStudies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece.

e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 23 February 2009

Revised 11 December 2009Accepted 18 December 2009


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individuals in the sample. Thus, this specimenrepresents an additional source of information aboutculture contact in the Early Byzantine period by thespread of different cultural practices in the Greekterritory.

The paper describes the individual with the shapedhead and combines anthropological information onheadshaping with archaeological and historical evi-dence on burial customs and cemetery topography. Atthe present state of analysis, there is no reliableevidence available to discuss the origin of thisindividual. The study addresses two major issues:firstly, evaluate artificial cranial modification as anindicator of regional connections and cultural diffu-sion; and secondly, investigate the ways in which EarlyByzantine society integrated an individual usingartificial skull modification as marker of socioculturaldifference.

Maroneia in the Early Byzantine period

The ancient city of Maroneia in Thrace was foundedin the 7th c. BC and continuously occupied until thepost-Byzantine period (13th c. AD). Maroneiaremained prosperous through antiquity until the EarlyByzantine era, when, like other ancient city-states, itwas transformed into a Byzantine fortress (Doukata-Demertzi, 2005). Several of the sites occupationalphases, including that belonging to the Early Byzantineperiod, reveal that Maroneia was for many centuries anurban centre with flourishing commercial exchangesand an industrial and agrarian economy (Doukata,1991a; Doukata, 1991b; Doukata-Demertzi, 1994).Maroneia was also a cosmopolitan city with richecclesiastical and secular buildings, whose prosperousport lay on the northern Aegean route to Constanti-nople, capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Considering its strategic location, Maroneia didntescape invasions and conflicts with migratory popu-lation groups. From the mid 3rd c. AD until AD 382,Maroneia was dominated by Visigoths and Ostrogoths.

The Huns also attacked the Balkans twice. They firstunsuccessfully threatened Maroneia in AD 441,followed by the Bulgarians (AD 491515), Antes(AD 517578) and Avars (AD 583679) (Tziovas,1932; Tremopoulos, 1966). Nevertheless, archaeolo-gical and historical evidence attest that Maroneia wasnot abandoned but survived theses trials, retained itspopulation (Doukata-Demertzi, 2008) and soonregained its role as a functional urban centre of theByzantine State.

Materials

The Byzantine site of Maroneia, situated today in theareas of Paleochora and Aghios Charalambos, lies approxi-mately 3 km southeast of the modern village of

Maroneia in southern Rodopi (Figure 1). Burial groundshave been identified both inside and outside theByzantine city walls of Maroneia (Triantafyllos, 1973;Aliprantis, 1994; Karadima, 1994, 1995; Aliprantis,1996; Doukata, 1996; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997).Extramural burials presently include graves in the areaof the ancient theatre (Figure 2) and distributed amongcontemporary farms located mainly to the north andeast of the fortified city.

Archaeological and historical research reveals thatcemeteries during the Early Byzantine period were onlyallowed outside city walls, whereas burials in laterperiods could be placed within fortified cities (Marki,

1990; Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, 1995; 1997; Dou-kata-Demertzi, 1997). Burials from the extramuralcemetery at Maroneia consequently belong to theEarly Byzantine period. Furthermore, archaeologicalevidence shows that the ancient theatre was aban-doned in the 5th c. AD; this date represents a terminuspost quem for the cemetery burials. The individual

Figure 1. Map of Greece showing the location of the site ofMaroneia (Department of Rodopi, Thrace).

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)

Cranial Modification in Byzantine Greece 465


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01/T05 with the shaped head comes from cist graveN5, which was excavated in 2001 on the west slope ofthe ancient theatre (Figure 2). Archaeological findingswithin the intramural city suggest Maroneias EarlyByzantine period ended in the early 6th c. AD. The

basilica at Paleochora inside the city walls was destroyedand the site converted to a cemetery during the DarkAges (Doukata-Demertzi, 1999). Thus, the chrono-logical succession of the two cemeteries, along with thetopographic evolution of the burial grounds, dates the

Figure 2. Ancient theatre of Maroneia (courtesy of C. Karadima, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini) (top) and Early Christian graves atthe ancient theatre (drowning by N. Hatzidakis, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini (bottom). This figure is available in colour online atwileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.


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burials from the extramural cemetery, including theburial of the woman with the shaped head, between the5th and early 6th c. AD.

Burials from the extramural cemetery were single(n30) and double (n3). Cist, pit and tile graveswere used. The deceased were orientated west-east,some of them with little northwest-southeast deviation,in a supine position with forearms folded on chest orabdomen, in accordance with common Christiancustom. The skeleton 01/T05 comes from a singleprimary burial in a cist grave covered with roofingstone slabs. No offering or accompanying objects werefound in the burial. To date 36 individuals (32 adultsand 4 subadults) have been analysed. For the purposesof the present study, only adults were considered. Atotal of 28 adult skulls were examined, and these are ofvarying degree of completeness.

Methods

Determination of sex was carried out using dimorphicaspects of the pelvis (Bruzek, 2002), while age-at-deathwas estimated from morphological changes of the pubicsymphysis and auricular surface, in accordance withBuikstra& Uberlaker (1994).Stature calculationsfocusedon femoral length (Olivier, 1960; Olivier & Tissier,1975a; Olivier & Tissier, 1975b) to achieve resultscomparable with other Greek skeletal series from thesame time period (Tritsaroli, 2006a). Several bone and

dental paleopathological lesions were recorded (follow-ing Buikstra & Uberlaker, 1994). Although detailedresults of the general skeletal features of this sample areprovided elsewhere (Tritsaroli, 2006b), includingpaleodemography, skeletal markers of occupational

stress and paleopathology, lesions are noted in thepresent report thatdifferentiate the individual displayingheadshaping from the other adults examined.

Artificial cranial modification and headshaping areterms used to describe changes of skull shape by meansof

dynamic distortion of the normal vectors of the infantile neurocranial growth through the agency of externally appliedforces (Moss, 1958). In living populations, a distinctionis made between unintentional and intentional (orartificial) modification, but in archaeological skeletalmaterial, such a difference is difficult to demonstrate. Inthe present paper, evidence of headshaping wasassessed on the basis of metric analysis, visual, x-rayand CT inspection. These features are employed inorder to: (1) differentiate between pathologicalconditions, unintentional positional causes and inten-tional causes for modified head shapes, and (2) indicatethe type of modification, and consequently the method

used to achieve the particular cranial shape observed.Metric analysis uses the adult skulls as a whole whilethe rest of the methods focuses on the modified skull.

A set of 33 standard measurements were taken (as inBuikstra & Uberlaker (1994) for skulls and mandibles onadult males, females and individuals of unknown sex, inorder to quantify the morphological effects of head-shaping on the cranium 01/T05 compared to theunmodified skulls. Because of the fragmentary nature ofthe sample, the total number of adult skulls representedis not reflected in the measurement sets, as only theindividual with the shaped head yield a full set of data.

In order to obtain reliable results, 19 measurementstaken for less than five adult skulls and mandibles werenot included in the statistical analysis. Table 1 presentsstandard deviation values that were estimated for 14measurements of more than five unmodified adult

Table 1. Number of cranial and mandibular measurements, means and standard deviations (SD) for the adults and the modified skullaccording to sex determination. The left side was included for the pair measurements.

Measurements (in mm.) N Males Females Unknown sex Means SD Skull 01/T05 (female)

Basion-bregma height 5 2 3 0 139 5.8 144Maximum frontal breadth 5 3 2 0 117 4.8 116Foramen magnum length 5 1 3 1 34 1.9 30Porion-bregma height 6 3 3 0 128 6.9 136Biauricular breadth 6 3 3 0 119 5.1 116Maximum cranial breadth 7 3 4 0 134 3.1 126Parietal arch 8 3 5 0 130 9.6 113Occipital arch 11 4 5 2 111 7.5 113Mastoid length 14 3 6 5 34 3.4 37Mandibular length 7 4 2 1 73,1 5.27 70Bigonial width 7 4 2 1 98 8.35 93Mandibular angle 9 4 3 2 27,9 6.19 27Minimum ramus breadth 10 4 3 3 33,6 2.5 32Maximum ramus height 5 3 1 1 64,6 5.59 59




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skulls and mandibles, with statistical significance setat 0.05. Finally, bivariate plots analysis was undertakenusing cranial measurements to compare heights,breadths and arches; analysis focuses on the fourfollowing sets: porion-bregma height versus basion-bregma height; maximum cranial breadth versusmaximum frontal breadth; maximum frontal breadthversus parietal arch and maximum cranial breadthversus parietal arch.

Unintentional modification can be caused bynutritional, hormonal or genetic factors, but alsohabitual positioning or commonly preferred posturesduring sleep (Dingwall, 1931; Rhode & Arriaza,2006; Lekovic et al., 2007); the most commonfeatures which are typically associated with inten-tional headshaping are cranial synostosis andpositional deformations. Cranial synostosis is apathological condition that describes the premature

fusion of one or more sutures of the skull (Cohen,1980). When sutures fuse prematurely, head growthoccurs along the axis of the fused suture (Glass et al.,2004). The effects of artificial cranial modificationand cranial synostosis appear similar, but head-shaping is produced by environmental factors, whilemany cranial synostoses seem primarily to begenetically induced (OLoughlin, 1996). For theindividual 01/T05 premature cranial synostosis isscored as present or absent (White, 1996). Prematuresynostosis is identified by a marked differential fusionbetween one suture and other major vault sutures

(the suture scored as presenting premature synostosismust be obliterated both endocranially and ectocra-nially when other sutures are still open).

Positional deformations, also called deformationalmodifications of the calvarium, may result fromaccidental and prolonged application of pressure onthe posterior portion of the skull through, for example,sleeping regularly in a supine position on a relativelyhard surface during infancy and childhood (Ortner &Putschar, 1981; Di Rocco et al., 1998; Bridges et al.,2002; Tubbs et al., 2006). The most common form ofpositional deformation is deformational nonsynostoticplagiocephaly; it is characterized by significant

asymmetry that affects the cranial vault, face and skullbase (Littlefield et al., 2005). In order to exclude thepossibility of asymmetries on the skull 01/T05, naked-eye observation is used.

Analyses of intentional cranial modification considerboth skull shape and deforming devices, such asboards, pads or stones applied to the head of a newbornwhen the cranium and calvaria are malleable. Theabnormal concavities and convexities on the modifiedskulls ectocranial surface are recorded; additionally,

modifications on diploic bone are confirmed by usingx-ray and computed tomography (CT). Radiographicanalysis (50 kV, 0.15 mA, 90 cm, 0.25 sec), conductedat the Wiener Laboratory (ASCSA) in Athens,employed an Agfa Automatic X-ray Film Processor.CT Imaging was achieved using a

Toshiba Aquilion 16(16-slice CT scanner) at Evangelismos GeneralHospital in Athens. The morphology of the cranialface and base is also noted since it can be influenced bychanges in the growth pattern of the cranial vault thatare externally derived (Anto` n, 1989; Kohn et al., 1993;Frie & Baylac, 2003).

The small sample size and the fragmentary nature ofthe skulls, analysed here, allow neither for comparisonsto be made on the frequency of sutural bones norinvestigations into the aetiological relationshipbetween headshaping and the occurrence of super-numerary ossicles (Ossenberg, 1970; Gottlieb, 1978;

Anto` n et al., 1992; Konigsberg et al., 1993; White, 1996;OLoughlin, 2004). It is also noted that age-relatedsutural changes and obliteration can be misleading;consequently, observations on sutural complexityshould be made only on adults who have not exceeded40 years of age, as determined by patterns of cranialsuture fusion (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985), which is thecase of the specimen with the shaped head examinedhere. Therefore, a brief reference will be made on thedegree of interdigitation, and the absence or presenceof 10 sutural bones will be mentioned, as these arelisted in OLoughlin (2004). The data on sutural

complexity could potentially be used in future research,when a larger sample will be excavated and other casesof headshaping will be identified from the samecemetery.

Results

Analysis of the adult sample (Tritsaroli, 2006b) showedeight males and nine females. Most of the adults (16 of19 for whom age-at-death could be estimated) wereover 30 years old. Stature was estimated at 169.8 cmfor males (n6) and 156.2 cm for females (n4).

Signs of healed trauma were identified on upper limbs,clavicles, thorax and the vertebral column. Three of thefour individuals showing trauma were females. Lowincidence of caries and periodontal disease coupledwith a high incidence of calculus suggest that mensdiet contained more meat, while women frequentlyconsumed food rich in carbohydrates (cereals, bread)and sugar (fruits) (Tritsaroli, 2006b).

The skeleton 01/T05 with the shaped head belongsto a female 4450 years old, very well preserved. Her


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skeletal stature was estimated at 153.2 cm, which issimilar to the rest of the sample. Contrary to most ofthe other females, however, this individual presentslow incidence of caries and high incidence ofcalculus. Moreover, horizontal bone loss in mostupper and lower jaws molars and premolars isattested. Five healed rib fractures, located betweenthe fourth and ninth ribs (three on the right, two onthe left), and a possible fracture on the distal shaft ofthe right ulna were recorded and present similardegrees of healing.

Metric analysis shows that differences betweenthe modified skull and the rest of the adults are mainlylocated on the cranial vault. Two measurements,maximum cranial breadth and parietal arch, showeda clear distinction between the modified skull andthe rest of the adult sample since they aresignificantly smaller for the modified skull

(Figure 3). Moreover, the modified skulls basion-bregma height and porion-bregma height are locatedat the upper limits of statistical significance whileforamen magnum length and biauricular breadth arelocated at the lower limits of statistical significance(Figure 3). Studies have shown no significant effect ofartificial shaping on most mandibular measurements(Cheverud & Midkiff, 1992), but antero-posterior(AP) modification can affect the remodelling processof the mandibular angle and lead to a smallermandibular angle in adulthood (Ogura et al., 2006).

No differences were found for the mandibulardimensions of the modified skull (Figure 4); however,the minimum ramus breadth and maximum ramusheight approached lower limits of statistical signifi-cance.

Comparison using bivariate plots analysis showsthat: (1) porion-bregma height versus basion bregmaheight of the modified skull is grouped with males(Figure 5), (2) maximum frontal breadth of themodified skull is placed among females (Figure 6,Figure 7) and (3) parietal arch versus maximun cranialbreadth of the modified skull are evidently smaller fromboth males and females (Figure 8). Measurements takenon four individuals, two females, one male and one ofunknown sex, although not appropriate for statisticalanalysis, showed notable differences between theseunmodified skulls and the modified skull 01/T05(Table 2). These measurements pertain mostly to the

face: frontal arch, nasal, upper facial and orbitalheights. All of them were found to be higher for themodified skull. The metric features taken togethershow that the skull 01/T05 is narrower and higher thanunmodified skulls, resulting from intentional modifi-cation.

The skull presents no depressions or grooves at thelevel of the sutures that could indicate prematureclosure. Furthermore, all cranial sutures show similardegree of fusion and thus premature cranial synostosisis scored as absent. In superior view, the skull is

Figure 3. Means and standard deviation values for the cranial measurements for the modified and the unmodified adult skulls. Blacksquare, modified skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.




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symmetrical without the possibility of occipital orpositional plagiocephaly (Figure 9). The symmetry ofthe modified skulls shape and the absence ofpaleopathological lesions on its surface show thatthe modification did not result from pathologicalprocesses or unintentional practices. Taphonomicdeformation is also excluded.

The skull shows obvious points of pressure in thefrontal, post-coronal and occipital regions. A concavity

in the middle of the frontal bone associated with a post-coronal transverse groove and a concavity at thesquamous portion of the occipital were also observed(Figure 10). The bone is strongly convex and elevatedat the bregma. The bunning of the skulls nuchal area is,in fact, suggestive of artificial modification, while theshape of the frontal bone is a type of distortion that canonly be achieved by manipulation with pressure, whichcauses the frontal bone to recede posteriorly at an

Figure 4. Means and standard deviation values for the mandibular measurements for the modified and the unmodified adult skulls.

Black square, modified skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.

Figure 5. Bivariate plots of porion-bregma height vs. basion-bregma height. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, femaleunmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.


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increased rate (Schendel et al., 1980). The superior-most portions of the occipital and parietal bonesextend posterosuperiorly resulting in a long loaf-likeappearance in superior view (Dingwall, 1931; Anto` n,1989). The aforementioned distortions are alsoconfirmed by evidence from the sagittal section ofthe skull by CT scan (Figure 11a) and x-ray(Figure 11b): the diploe of the cranial vault is

underdeveloped in the frontal, postbregmatic and

occipital regions where pressure has been applied,resulting in an undulation of diploic bone.

In frontal view, the shaped head 01/T05 is swollensymmetrically in the region of the squamosal suture.This distortion probably resulted from movement ofthe brain as it adapted to the changing shape of itscontainer (Gerszten, 1993). The orbits are also verydeep, while the interorbital region has become very

wide. Regarding sutural complexity, the Maroneian

Figure 6. Bivariate plots of maximum cranial breadth vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles,female unmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.

Figure 7. Bivariate plots of parietal archvs. maximum frontal breadth.Analysis madeon six individuals. Opencircles, female unmodifiedskulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.




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woman is of advanced age with an elevated degree ofsuture closure. As far as observations can be made,however, sutural interdigitation seems low and allsutural bones are recorded as absent.

In summary, evidence obtained by metric analysis isconsistent with visual, x-ray and CT observations andshows morphological changes mainly on the cranialvault, but also on base and face. These features describe

clearly a skull with intentional modification; they allowfor identification of the type of modification, andconsequently the method used to achieve the particularcranial shape.

Discussion

Artificial cranial modification (headshaping) is amongthe most common manifestations of culturally inducedmodifications of head shape during infancy (Ortner &Putschar, 1981; Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin,

1998; Ortner, 2003). It is a cultural marker that servesto define territory or social boundaries, reaffirmethnicity, and maintain and strengthen exchangenetworks (Wobst, 1977; Schijman, 2005). Headshap-ing, moreover, is performed to demonstrate groupaffiliation (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995; Hoshower et al.,1995; Tubbs et al., 2006), elite status (Snorrason, 1946;Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995) or as a product of fashion

and imitation. The anthropological record containsnumerous cases of skulls intentionally modified datingfrom prehistoric to modern times that were docu-mented in geographically diverse areas (Gerszten &Gerszten, 1995; Lorentz, 2009). This global distri-bution suggests that artificial cranial modificationoriginated independently in various regions of theworld (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995).

In the territory of modern Greece, several cases ofheadshaping are reported from different time-periods(Lorentz, 2009). The first skull was found about ahundred years ago at Trikeri, Volos, but neither its origin

Figure 8. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum cranial breadth. Analysis made on eight individuals. Open circles, femaleunmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.

Table 2. Row measurements for the frontal arch, interorbital breadth, nasal height, upper facial height and orbital height (left) on fouradult skulls and the modified skull.

Measurements ( in mm.) 1st (female) 2nd (female) 3rd (male) 4th (unknown sex) Skull 01/T05 (female)

Frontal arch 115 110 114 124Interorbital breadth 24 22 24 18 27Nasal height 50 49 50 50 55Upper facial height 63 61 59 61 70Orbital height (left) 38 34 32 33 36


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nor its ethnic place are known (Kiszely, 1978). Twoimportant series of shaped skulls come from the

Neolithic cave cemetery in Tharrounia, Euboia and theNeolithic settlement of Khirokitia in Cyprus (Manoliset al., 2000; Lorentz, 2009). Extensive study of

Neolithic samples indicates that headshaping was usedas a marker of social differences (Lorentz, 2003, 2004,2005, 2009). Finally, evidence of headshaping dated tothe Roman period is reported from the Athenian Agora(Lorentz, 2009).

The skull of the skeleton 01/T05 from the extramural cemetery of Maroneia shows evidence ofheadshaping, a practice that so far is undocumentedin Early Byzantine cemetery samples from Greece. Thiscase is compared with two main types of headshapingthat are commonly adopted for classification, inaccordance with the methods used to achieve theparticular cranial shape (Anto` n, 1989; Kohn et al.,1993):

(1) AP type, including the tabular forms (tabula erectaand tabula obliqua) of Dembo & Imbelloni (1938). APmodification results from pressure applied on the

frontal and occipital bones by binding the headwith pads or affixing it to a cradleboard. Skulls withAP modification are characterized by the flatteningof the frontal and occipital bones and the compen-satory lateral expansion of the parietal bones fre-quently accompanied by plagiocephaly of the erecttype (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938).

(2) Circumferential or circular type (C), includingHrdlickas Aymara type (Hrdlicka, 1922) and theannular (erecta and obliqua) type (Dembo & Imbeloni,1938). Circumferential modification involves use ofbandages or wrapping materials applied circumfer-entially on the head (Dingwall, 1931). Skulls with

circumferential modification extend posterosuper-iorly. A posterior elongation of the superior portionof the cranial vault including the frontal, parietaland occipital regions characterizes the circumfer-entially modified skull. This extension of the skullresults in a long, loaf-like appearance in superiorview, while the cranium becomes ovoid.

All morphological features observed on the Mar-oneian skull 01/T05 are characteristic of the circum-ferential type of modification. The post-coronaltransverse groove suggests bandage marks. Thismorphology may have been induced by a bandage

running over the point bregma and under the mandible,a method of artificial modification that would explainthe post-coronal depression and parietal bulge (Meik-lejohn et al., 1992; Ozbek, 2001). Underdevelopmentof the diploe of the frontal bone is observed in circularband deformations (Molleson & Campbell, 1995).

Judging from all these features, it seems likely that theskull from Maroneia was intentionally shaped by meansof bandages rather than boards. Since no modificationswere observed on the mandible, a single or double

Figure 9. Superior view of the modified skull 01/T05. This figureis available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

Figure 10. Left lateral view of the modified skull 01/T05 withoutthe mandible.




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bandage running over to the point of the occipitalsquamous, then up to the frontal bone and the post-coronal region, seems to have been applied. Con-sequently, an annular modification was achieved bycircumferentially wrapping the cranial vault (Tritsaroli,2008) with a binding that was progressively adjusted(Schijman, 2005).

In addition to the circular skull modification,paleopathological features taken together appear todistinguish this woman from the rest of the sample,

particularly other females, with respect to her labourand nutritional habits. The injury near the wrist mayhave resulted from a fall, since an individual, whenfalling, instinctively extends one or both arms tominimise trauma risk. The fractured ribs on both sidesmay be due to accidents, falls or direct blows to thechest. The dental and alveolar lesions coupled withperiodontal disease suggest consumption of largequantities of meat. With respect to the Maroneiasample, these lesions suggest a diet more characteristicof male nutritional habits. In contrast to other womenburied in the cemetery, this female individual,apparently following traditions linked to a different

cultural background, seems to have adopted a lifestylewith higher risk of trauma and a diet rich in calories.

Anthropological record includes several cases ofcircumferentially modified skulls from areas in closeproximity to northern Greece (Kiszely, 1978; Schij-man, 2005). In Hungary, for example, published skullsdating to the early migration period all show the samecircular type of modification (Kustar, 1999; Marcsik &Pap, 2000), with many of them attributed to Germanicgroups. In Italy, a possible case of artificial modification

has also been identified dating to the 5th7th c. AD(Saponetti et al., 2005). Finally, the Huns are known forhaving frequently practiced a pronounced form ofcircular modification and for spreading this type ofmodification throughout the Eurasian steppes after AD200 (Torres-Rouff & Yablonsky, 2005). In particular,they are known to have practiced cranial vaultmodification in order to give themselves a moreferocious and terrifying appearance as warriors.Artificial cranial modification was also practiced by

subjugated groups assimilated into Hun culture.Historical research indicates that during the 5th c.AD relationships between the Byzantine Empire andthe Huns were tense (Ostrogorsky, 1996) and mainlybased on warfare and economy. Attila unified the Hunsin AD 434 and gained military and diplomaticsuperiority over his rivals by creating a vast empirethat extended from the Danube to the Dnieper.The Huns became extremely dangerous for theByzantine Empire when they threatened the ByzantineDanube frontier. Anthemios (404414), the PraetorianPrefect of the East, repelled the Huns installed at theDanube frontier; many prisoners were transferred to

Asia Minor, among them were members of Germantribes who allied themselves with the Huns. In AD 430the Huns forced the Byzantine Emperor to pay tributewhich amounted to 350 pounds of gold; in AD 435 thistribute increased at 700 pounds, and in AD 443 at 2.100pounds (Christofilopoulou, 1993). In AD 447, Attilaturned the Huns against the Byzantine Empire andrampaged through the Balkans as far as central Greece.They reached Constantinople in AD 448, but refrainedfrom attacking the city. Attilas devastating invasion of

Figure 11. Left lateral scan section (a) and left lateral x-ray (b) of the modified skull 01/T05.


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the Balkans and Thrace, which ended in AD 449,probably razed over 70 cities.

Frontier zones like Thrace are areas that facilitatesocial and cultural intercourse. Under the conditionsdescribed above, culture contact emerged between theHuns and the Byzantines at some regions of NorthernGreece including Thrace. The presence of head-shaping, a practice unknown to Christian customs, is ofgreat importance because it allows for evaluation ofregional connections and cultural diffusion. Thecircular type of modification exhibited by a femaleindividual, whose burial dates to the 5th6th c. AD,coincides with or may slightly post-date the presenceof the Huns in Northern Greece, especially at the cityof Maroneia; this case of cranial vault modification,therefore, is most likely linked to Hun tradition(Tritsaroli, 2008).

Headshaping is tied up with sociocultural practices

related to the care of children, which may be seen astraditional and slow to change (Lorentz, 2009). InByzantine culture, the newborn baby was washed andswaddled in woollen wrappings (fasciae) during sevendays in order to straighten its body and make itbeautiful (Koukoules, 1951). On the contrary, theperiod of time required to produce a permanent cranialmodification can vary, ranging from a few months afterbirth up to one year or until the child can walk(Schendel et al., 1980). Additionally, this practice needsa considerable length of time in order to beappreciated, and for this reason it cannot be adopted

through sporadic culture contact. In the case examinedhere, it seems improbable that headshaping waspracticed by the Byzantines. Consequently, head-shaping likely indicates the presence of an individualwith a distinct cultural background rather than theadoption of the practice itself by the Early Byzantinesociety of Maroneia.

Additional information regarding the place and roleof the woman with the shaped head within the EarlyByzantine society is provided by cemetery topographyand burial customs. Byzantine cemeteries were oftenorganised on the basis of social, ethnic, or othercriteria. Literary evidence indicates that the Byzantines

reserved special burial places for foreigners who didnot have the means to pay for their own funeral(Koukoules, 1951). Analyses of grave typology anddecoration at the Early Byzantine cemetery ofThessaloniki, moreover, have led to the identificationof various ethnic groups including Jews and Goths(Marki, 2006). Graves of Goths were often groupedwithin the cemetery to maintain family and ethnicidentity (Marki, 2006). A large number of anthro-pomorphic graves found in the city of Veroia were also

attributed to Goths, who were present in the cityduring the 4th and 5th c. AD (Pazaras, 1978). Anotherexample of ethnic differentiation comes from the EarlyByzantine cemetery at Akraiphnio (Tritsaroli, 2008),where the position and orientation of one of theskeletons suggested an association with Muslimtraditions.

At Maroneia, the generally homogeneous burialcustoms and scarcity of offerings and accompanyingobjects within burials seem to indicate no differences inethnic, cultural or religious affiliation among thedeceased. The single primary burial of the woman withthe shaped head in question, therefore, appears toresemble the rest of the burials in the cemetery, as wellas other funerary samples from the same time periodstudied elsewhere in Greece (Tritsaroli, 2006a).

Conclusions

During the turbulent Early Byzantine period, the city ofMaroneia experienced continuous occupation anddevelopment that chiefly resulted from its strategiclocation at a crossroad between the Balkans andthe East. Maroneias survival through these trials canbe attributed in large part to the ability of the localpeople to adapt to changes imposed upon them. Thepractice of annular cranial modification now detectedat Maroneia seems to indicate the presence of anindividual possessing a different culture, (Buchet, 1988;

Pilet et al., 1994; Buchet, 1997) who made an effort todemonstrate group cohesion (Torres-Rouff, 2002)while also maintaining the physical identity of alarger, contemporary or recently eclipsed populationgroup. The specimen examined in the present studyexemplifies the biocultural complexity of EarlyByzantine Maroneia. Absence of differential burialtreatment, accompanying objects and artifacts, how-ever, suggests this Maroneian woman with the shapedhead, while maintaining different traditions, was anintegrated member of the local Early Byzantine society.

Based on skeletal, archaeological and historicalevidence, we can conclude that this so-far unique burial

at Maroneia belonged to a Christianised citizen whobore a distinctive mark of her cultural heritage, but whostill had the right to be buried in a common Christiancemetery in accordance with the customs of the citysother inhabitants. The assimilation of an individualwith artificial skull modification into Early ByzantineMaroneian society provides strong evidence of culturalvariability and reflects the cosmopolitan character ofthe city. Future biogeochemical analysis, along withgreater understanding of the geochemical and environ-




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mental settings of Northern Greece and the Balkans,will allow for inferences to be made regarding theorigins of the female with the shaped head and otherindividuals buried in the Maroneia cemetery. Suchadditional study will also begin to elucidate migrationpatterns in Maroneia during the Early Byzantineperiod.

Acknowledgements

The analysis of human skeletal remains from Maroneiawas part of a project funded by the 20052006 J.Lawrence Angel Fellowship in Human Skeletal Studies(Wiener Laboratory, ASCSA). My thanks go to thearchaeologist and excavator of the site Chryssa Kar-adima of the IQ EPCA at Komotini for giving mepermission to study this sample. I am grateful to Sherry

Fox, director of the Wiener Laboratory, for x-rayanalysis, but mostly for her advice during this project.I also extend my gratitude to Dimitrios Chondros,Director of the Radiological Unit of EvangelismosGeneral Hospital in Athens, tutor Dimitrios Exarchosand technician Dora Sidiropoulou for completion ofthe CT. Finally, I would like to thank AnastasiaPapathanasiou (EPASPE at Athens), Sophia Doukata(12th EBA at Kavala), Florent Detroit (MNHN inParis), Nathan K. Harper (University of Nevada)and Eleanna Prevedorou (ASU) for their commentsand suggestions.

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