article writing dr. fatemeh hemmati english language department university of payame noor

Article writing

Dr. Fatemeh Hemmati

English Language Department

University of Payame Noor

Features of the courseName: Article Writing

Number of modules: 2

An obligatory course for the BA students of English

The course is usually taken in the fifth or sixth semester.

Features of the coursePrerequisites: Grammar and Writing 1 and 2

Advanced Writing

The assigned bookThe assigned book for the course is:

Academic Writing Course

New edition, by R.R. Jordan

Collins study skills in English

The aims of the course To enable English language students to

express themselves coherently in writing.

To provide samples of academic writing and appropriate practice material for such students.

The aims of the course To act as a revision course for students who

have previously learned English with the sentence as the grammatical unit.

These students now need to write in English for academic purposes.

The design of the courseThe book is divided into two parts:

1. Functions of written English

2. Appendices

There is also a key at the end of the book which provides additional comments on the exercises and answers to most of them.

The design of the course

The grammatical features of English have been organized into language functions that are used to express a particular notion or idea.


Appendices act as a bank of reference material which contains information and examples generally useful to the students when they are writing.


Each of the units of the book has two or three stages which are graded in the amount of help and guidance they give.


All the units except the last one conclude with a structure and vocabulary aid to provide assistance with the words and the grammatical constructions needed in the unit.

Structure and cohesionUnit 1

Functions of Written English

Structure and Cohesion

Unit 1, structure and cohesion

Structure and cohesion

Structure and cohesion is about the general organization of a piece of academic writing, its structure and particularly the way in which the different parts are linked together.


Structure and CohesionA piece of academic writing may be an essay, a

report, an assignment, or a project.

In the following slides the overall structure of an essay is explained.


The overall structure of an essay

Generally an essay has three main sections:

1. Introduction

2. Development

3. Conclusion

Most pieces of formal writing are organized in a similar way.


Introduction

In the introduction you write about:

The subject or the topic and what aspect of the topic or what question about it is going to be discussed or answered.

In other words, you state the problem. Unit 1, structure and cohesion

Introduction

Another dimension of the introduction is related to the explanation on the way the subject is to be treated.

In other words, you have to state the problem and the way to treat it.


Development (body)In the development section, you present,

analyze, discuss and…

For example, if in the introduction you have promised the reader to write about two advantages and two disadvantages of a specific language teaching method,

Development (body)

you will need four paragraphs in the development section to write about those four advantages and disadvantages.


Development (body) Remember that each paragraph in the

development section needs its own topic sentence and supporting sentences.


Conclusion

The concluding paragraph of an essay acts like the concluding statement of a paragraph. It ties together all of the ideas expressed in the composition.


Conclusion

It might give a summary of the main points. Some writers prefer to present their own views/opinions and their decisions based on what they have written in the essay.


Conclusion

Remember that if you are writing a six paragraph essay, one paragraph should be devoted to the introduction, one paragraph to the conclusion and four paragraphs to the development.


Language functions

Writers use different structures and modes of writing to communicate their ideas to other people. Therefore, in an essay you might find descriptions, definitions, classifications,…


Language functions

Language functions consist of sentences and/or paragraphs that are joined together or linked by connectives (words or phrases that indicate a logical relationship).


Linking sentences by means of connectivesThere are three basic connectives: And Or But Other connectives can be grouped according

to the similarity of their meaning to these three basic connectives.


Linking sentences by means of connectives

If the development of the topic is straightforward, the ideas will be added together one after the other. The basic connective ‘and’ is used here.


Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’‘And’ and other connectives which are similar in

meaning are used in the following situations:a. Listingb. Summationc. Transitiond. Appositione. Resultf. Inference Unit 1, structure and cohesion

Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’

Listing has two subcategories which are:

Enumeration and addition.

Enumeration indicates a cataloguing of what is being said.

Most enumeration belongs to clearly defined sets. Unit 1, structure and cohesion


There are many words that act as enumeration signals to tell the reader that a list or category of things will be introduced.

Examples:

First,…second,…third,…

One,… two,… three,… Unit 1, structure and

cohesion

Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’ Addition is the second subcategory of listing

in which the writer adds something else to what has been previously indicated either simply to add to it or to confirm it.

Example:Also, moreover, besides, too,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion


In addition to reinforcing and confirming what has been said before, addition may be in the form of equation which focuses on…


the similarity between what has been said before and what is being added.

Example:

Equally, similarly, in the same way,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion


The second group of connectives that are similar to ‘and’ in meaning are the ones that show transition.

Transition can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought.



Examples:

Now, with reference/ respect/ regard to, regarding, let us turn to,…

‘As for’ and ‘as to’ are often used when discussing something briefly.



The third category which is summation indicates a generalization or summing-up of what has preceded.

Examples:

In conclusion, in brief, overall, to sum up,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion


Apposition is the forth category which is used to refer back to previous sentences or to parallel or related references.

Example:That is, for example, in other words, i.e., mainly,

chiefly,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion


The fifth category, result, expresses the consequence or result of what was said before.

Examples:

Therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, … are some of the examples of this category.



The sixth category, inference, indicates a deduction from what is implicit in the preceding sentence(s).

Examples:

Then, in other words, in that case,… Unit 1, structure and

cohesion


Attention

Using many of the above mentioned connectives require special punctuation.

Example:

He passed his examination; therefore, he had some good news to tell his parents.



The second basic connective which is ‘or’ is a connective of reformulation.

Sometimes the comments may be expressed in another way, or an alternative proposal may be made. This is represented by ‘or’.


Connectives similar in meaning to ‘or’

A number of other connectives have a similar meaning to ‘or’.

These connectives are of two types: Reformulation and Replacement.



Reformulation expresses something in another way.

Better, rather, in other words, to put it simply,…

Replacement expresses an alternative to what has preceded.



Alternatively, on the other hand,…

Example:

Helen speaks English like a native speaker. To put it more simply, she speaks it excellently.



The third basic connective which is ‘but’ represents occasions in arguments etc. when the opposite is considered or referred to.


Connectives similar in meaning to ‘but’

There are two categories of connectives that have similar meaning to ‘but’:

Contrast and Concession.

Contrast indicates contrast with what has preceded.

Instead, on the contrary, by contrast,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion

Connectives similar in meaning to ‘but’

Concession indicates the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before.

Examples:

In spite of, although, even if, however,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion

Connectives similar in meaning to ‘but’The time for discussion was limited. However, Nevertheless, In spite of that, Yet,

it was still possible to produce some interesting

arguments. Unit 1, structure and cohesion

Description: process and procedureUnit 2

Description:

Process and Procedure

General description, specific procedure, advice

Unit 2, description: process and procedure

Description: process and procedureIn describing a process or reporting a procedure,

sequence or order is important.

The present passive tense (is/are + pp form of the verb) is used to give a general description.


Description: process and procedure Paper is made from wood. First, the trees are cut down. After the branches and leaves are removed,

the trees are transported to the sawmill… Pay attention both to the tense and the

sequence. Unit 2, description: process and procedure

Description: process and procedureThe past passive tense (was/were + pp of the

verb) is used when we report a particular procedure in the past.

Consider the following example:

Description: process and procedure

A survey was conducted among 50 students at Manchester University. The purpose of the survey was to discover…the type of writing that was expected of the students…



A description that does not involve a process or procedure is often written in the present simple active tense.



Some descriptions of procedure give advice in the form of what you should do. In other words, they give direct instructions by using the imperative form of the verb.


Description: process and procedureThink carefully about the topic.

Understand what is required in the essay.

Make a note of your ideas…

The above imperative sentences are the first stages of the procedure for writing an essay.


Apart from working as an example, the complete procedure can help students write a good essay.



The advice on the stages of writing an essay is followed by some more advices to improve your academic writing. There is no specific order:


Write precisely, accurately and explicitly. Carefully paragraph the writing. Acknowledge the source of quotations. Include variety in the writing. … Unit 2, description: process and procedure

Description: process and procedureRemember that all the direct imperative advices

can be written in passive voice and indirectly:

The writing should be paragraphed carefully.

The source of quotations has to be acknowledged…


Physical descriptionUnit 3

Description:

Physical

Physical description may occur in a number of subjects and disciplines.

Unit 3, description:

physical

Physical descriptionFor most descriptions the present simple active

and the present simple passive are used.

Great Britain is an island that lies off the north-west coast of Europe. The island is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean …

Unit 3, description: physical

Physical description

To write the physical description of a country, location, size, physical background, climate, population, language and religion are considered.


Physical descriptionSome useful vocabulary to write about: The climate of a country:

Desert, tropical, Mediterranean, polar,…

The weather conditions:

Nouns; flood, mist, typhoon, sunshine,…

Adjectives: stormy, cloudy, mild, icy,…


Physical description Administrative areas:

provinces, states, territories, districts,…

Terrain:

Nouns: forests, mountains, hills, plains,…

Adjectives: flat, wooded, grassy, sandy, dusty,… Unit 3, description: physical

Physical description Compass points:Nouns: North, South, South-West,…Adjectives: northern, north-western, …

Location: Iran is situated/located in (to, on)…The south of Iran is on the coast. Unit 3, description: physical

NarrativeUnit 4, Narrative

Narrative is an account or description of events in the past which entails following a time sequence or chronological order.

Unit 4, narrative

Narrative

The introduction to many pieces of academic writing contains some kind of historical background or development which is usually in the form of narrative.

Unit 4, narrative

NarrativeVerb forms commonly used in narratives:

The simple past active, Simple past passive Past perfect active (had + pp of the verb).

Unit 4, narrative

NarrativeRemember that time sequence or chronological

order is very important in narrative. The earliest event is usually written first.

The beginning of E.E.C. date from May 9th 1950…

Unit 4, narrative

Narrative Writing about the origin and development of

organizations such as universities, the United Nations, … in narrative is very popular.

Imitate the passages of the book to write about some Iranian organizations.

Unit 4, narrative

Narrative The chronological order of narratives is also

manifested in writing a curriculum vitae.

c.v. is a brief account of your career. Apart from your name, date of birth and address, there has to be a summary of your education.

Unit 4, narrative

Narrative

The summary of education is followed by an account of your employment or career. The information is normally given in chronological order.

Unit 4, narrative

NarrativeUseful vocabulary for describing:

Post-school education:

Institutes of higher education, further education, adult education, art and design, technology,…

Unit 4, narrative

Narrative Academic year:

Terms, semester, Summer trinity,… Staff:

Research assistant, lecturer, director,… Students:

Undergraduate, postgraduate, part-time,… Unit 4, narrative

Narrative University officers:

Librarian, Chancellor, registrar,… Finance:

Sponsorship, scholarship, fee, loan,… Assessment:

Dissertation, tests, essays, examinations,… Unit 4, narrative

Narrative Facilities:

Library, sports, health and welfare,… Research:

Surveys, experiments, computers,… Qualifications:

Diploma, first-degree (B.A., B.Sc.),… Unit 4, narrative

Narrative Teaching:

Seminars, lectures, tutorials,…

Academic writing:

Essay, report, exam answers, paper,…

Unit 4, narrative

DefinitionsUnit 5, Definitions

Simple definitions Academic definitions Extended definitions

Unit 5, definitions

Definitions

When we describe things we sometimes need to define them as well, especially in academic writing, so that it is perfectly clear what we mean.

Unit 5, definitions

DefinitionsThe language construction for definition:

Thing to be defined + verb + general class word + ‘wh’-word + particular characteristics.

DefinitionsExample:A botanist is a person who studies plants. 1 2 3 4 51 = thing to be defined2 = verb3 = general class word4 = ‘wh’-word5 = particular characteristics Unit 5, definitions

DefinitionsFrequently used verb tenses for definitions are

present simple (active and passive). Verbs that are often used for definition: Is Is concerned with Deal with Relates to Involves Unit 5, definitions

DefinitionsThree types of mistakes may occur when a short

definition is being written.

1. An example may be given rather than a definition.

A dictionary is a book like ‘Collins Cobuild English dictionary’.

Unit 5, definitions

Definitions2. The general class, or the particular

characteristics, may be omitted from the definition. It will then be incomplete.

An ammeter is used to measure electric current.

Unit 5, definitions

Definitions3. The word to be defined, or another form of it,

may be used in the definition itself. If the reader does not understand the word, he/she will not understand the repeated form of it either.

A lecturer is a person who lectures.

Unit 5, definitions

DefinitionsSome definitions use a reduced relative clause.

Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of carbon atoms.

Plastics are compounds made with log chains of carbon atoms.

The reduced relative clause

Definitions Academic subjects can be defined more

specifically. This can be done if more information is given.

In other words, a definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or to give more information.

Unit 5, definitions

ExemplificationUnit 6

Exemplification

Exemplification (or exemplifying) is the action of giving examples.

Unit 6, exemplification

Exemplification

Exemplification is commonly used throughout academic writing and plays an important role in definitions (to make them more clear).


Exemplification There are different ways of exemplifying. Illustration For example A case in point An example For instance Such as Unit 6, exemplification

Exemplification Remember that each of the above words or

phrases is used in its own structure.

At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls; this is an example of animals communicating with each other.


Exemplification Cries, such as those of anger, fear and pleasure,

are uttered by apes.

There are important differences between human language and animal communication: for example, animal’s cries are not articulate.


Exemplification Animals’ cries lack, for instance, the kind of

structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words.

A good illustration of changing an utterance by substituting one word for another is a ….


Exemplification

The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the great tit is a case in point.


Exemplification Some common verbs in exemplification:

Passive voice:

the point is shown by…

The point is illustrated by…

The point is exemplified by… Unit 6, exemplification

Exemplification

Active voice:

The human language shows this…

The human language illustrates this…

The human language exemplifies this…


Exemplification

Using such as is another method of expressing examples:

Writers such as Dickens and Hardy are…

Such writers as Dickens and Hardy are…


Classification

Unit 7

Classification

When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we are classifying those items.

Unit 7, classification

Classification

Classification is normally made according to a criterion or several criteria.

For example, the students of a class can be classified according to their age, height, weight, intelligence, …


Classification

Another example is the classification of drinks. The first criterion is if they are alcoholic or non-alcoholic. Then, the non-alcoholic ones can be divided according to the criterion of being hot or cold and…


Classification

Some of the most common verbs of classification are:

To classify, to sub-classify To categorize, to sub-categorize To group, to sub-group To divide into, to sub-divide To arrange into Unit 7, classification

Classification

Some of the most common nouns of classification are:

Categories, sub-category Classes, sub-class Groups, sub-group Types, sub-order Kinds, sub-division Unit 7, classification

Comparison and Contrast

Unit 8, Comparison and Contrast

Unit 8, comparison and contrast

Comparison and Contrast In most academic subjects we often need to

compare and contrast things.

The language of comparison and contrast is frequently needed when studying tables and other statistical information.


Comparison and ContrastThe comparative and superlative of adjectives

and adverbs are very common in comparison and contrast.

There is more rain in May than in March.

The most convenient way of doing it is…


Comparison and ContrastThere are a number of constructions using

comparisons. Some of the most common ones are:

a. Showing equivalence as … as the same as as many as as much as Unit 8, comparison and contrast

Comparison and Contrastb. Showing non-equivalence

not as … as

not so …. as

-er than

more than

not as many not as much Unit 8, comparison and contrast

Comparison and Contrastc. Showing one item compared with a number

(i.e. the superlative)

the -est

the most …

d. Showing parallel increase

the -er ….the -er

Look at the following examples:


The higher you climb a mountain, the less oxygen you will get.

The more you study, the better your mark will be.

The smaller the problem, the less interesting he found it. Unit 8, comparison and contrast

Comparison and ContrastA number of other constructions that express

similarity are: both … and be similar (alike) in be similar in that be similar (alike) in that like and … both Unit 8, comparison and contrast

Comparison and ContrastContrast is shown by the following structures: Instead Conversely Then Be not the same as



On the contrary By contrast In comparison On the one hand … on the other hand


Comparison and Contrast Be dissimilar in that Norway and Sweden are dissimilar in that

Norway has a much smaller population than Sweden.

Be different from Whereas (while) The main difference is/one of the differences

is… Unit 8, comparison and contrast

Cause and Effect

Unit 9, Cause and effect

Event

Situation

Action

Idea

Problem

Back in time

or sequence

Cause

Reason

Forward in time

or sequence

Effect

Consequence

Cause and Effect

In academic writing, events are frequently linked with their cause and effect.

There are several ways to express the relationship between cause and effect.

Unit 9, cause and effect

Cause and Effect

The result or consequence of what was said before is expressed by:

So Therefore As a result Accordingly Thus

Cause and Effect

Hence For this reason Because of this/that Now As a consequence Unit 9, cause and effect

Cause and Effect

All the above mentioned connectives or markers of cause-effect relationship can be used to connect the following sentences:


Cause and Effect

The demand has increased.

The prices are higher.

The demand has increased; as a result, the prices are higher.

Pay attention to the punctuation. Unit 9, cause and effect

Cause and Effect

Remember that you can reverse the order of the cause and effect sentences. However, the structure of the sentence will be slightly different.


Cause and Effect

The following sentences can be connected either as one sentence or as two separate ones.

Prices rose.

Fewer goods were sold.


Cause and Effect

Prices rose; as a result, fewer goods were sold.

Fewer goods were sold, because prices rose.

Prices rose. As a result, fewer goods were sold.


Cause and Effect

Some of the other connectives and markers of cause-effect structures are:

Be due to Because/as/for As a result of The result/consequence is Result in Unit 9, cause and effect

Generalization, Qualification and CertaintyUnit 10

Generalization, Qualification and Certainty


In some academic writing it is necessary to give a straightforward factual information as it is. Often, however, it is necessary to make general comments or generalize about the information.

Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty

Generalization, Qualification and CertaintyExample: A straightforward description of factual

information: Out of the one million registered as

unemployed, one in five were women. %60 of the unemployed men were to be found in services and engineering.



Now compare them to the generalized sentences. Notice the change of figures:

Out of all those registered as unemployed a minority were women. The majority of unemployed men were to be found in services and engineering.



The generalization can be made more precise by qualifying them. When we make a qualification we may be giving our own opinion or interpreting the information.



To qualify involves using a scale of qualification.

On the one end of the scale we have 100% of something which will need quantity words such as all/every/each. The frequency adverb will be ‘always’ and the adjectives will be ‘certain(ly)’, ‘definite(ly)’.



On the other end of the scale there is 0% which necessitates quantity words such as no/none/not any. The frequency adverb will be ‘never’ and the verb will be:

will not is/are not can/could not Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty


In between these two scales there are percentages from 1 to 99. Each of them will need proper quantity words, frequency adverbs, adjectives and verbs.



Certainty has direct relationship with the scale of quality.

Different degrees of certainty can be expressed by verbs and phrases such as:

It appears that… It seems that… Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty

Generalization, Qualification and Certainty It tends to be… There is a tendency to… It is said that… It is apparently… It is seemingly… It has been suggested that… It is very probable that… Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty


Some impersonal verb phrases imply stronger evidence:

It is generally agreed that… It is widely accepted that… It is generally recognized that…


Data InterpretationUnit 11, Interpretation of data

Charts, graphs, diagrams and tables

The unit looks at ways in which we can comment on significant features in diagrammatic information.

Data InterpretationAlthough the information contained in diagrams

etc. is normally clear, it requires some written comments.

Remember that not all the information should be described.

Unit 11, Interpretation of data

Data Interpretation

It is usual to introduce the information with a general comment and then describe or comment on the most significant or important information.


Data Interpretation To interpret diagrams and graphs, you need to

understand the relationship between the vertical and the horizontal axes.

At the beginning you can describe the graph as factual information (numbers and statistics).


Data Interpretation

Remember that pie charts do not have axes; therefore, your comments have to be based on the amount of each piece of the graph compared to the other pieces.


Data InterpretationSome useful sentences to start your

interpretation of a graph, chart, table,…

As can be seen from the diagram… According to the chart… As is shown in the graph… It can be seen from the table that… Unit 11, Interpretation of data

Data Interpretation

The idea of certainty of language and the scale of qualification are very important in your data interpretation.


Data Interpretation

For example, if your graph shows only a slight rise, there are a number of words like ‘minimal’, ‘small’ and ‘slow’ that can be used in your interpretation and not others such as ‘large’, ‘sharp’ and ‘rapid’.


Discussion Unit 12, Discussion

In developing an argument or discussion we need to express our opinion or views.

DiscussionA discussion or argument in academic writing

has to present a balanced view.

What other people have already said about the same subject has to be looked at.

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionA discussion may consist of looking at he

advantages and the disadvantages of a particular idea or proposal or action.

Also, arguments for (or in favor) or against need to be presented equally.

Unit 12, Discussion

Discussion

After presenting all sides of an argument, different opinions may be evaluated, compared and contrasted. Eventually, the writer’s own views or opinions may be presented.

Unit 12, Discussion

Discussion One important step in the process of

discussion is the introduction.

A good introduction should not be too long or too short (the length depends on how long the body of the essay is).

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionThe introduction is important for a number of

reasons:

1. If it is clearly constructed, it will create a good impression on the reader.

2. It will indicate the structure of the essay by giving an overview of the content in sequence. Unit 12, Discussion

Discussion3. It introduces the subject of the essay and the

questions to be answered.

4. It may provide the reader with a definition or some historical background of the subject.

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionBefore starting to write a discussion essay, take

note of the points for and against the subject.

Discuss both sides of the argument, comparing and contrasting them.

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionWhere necessary, make qualified generalizations

and give reasons for your own view at the end.

Agreement and disagreement with what you have written may be total or partial.

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionAgreement:

I agree with X when he writes that…

Partial agreement:

I agree with what he says, but …

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionEmphatic agreement:X is certainly correct when he says that….

Another way of placing emphasis on what is written is using ‘negative inversion’.

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionIn negative inversion the word order after some

introductory words should be inverted.

Rarely had such a noise been heard.

Never …

Seldom…

On no account… Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionCautious agreement:

X may be correct when he says that…

Disagreement:

I disagree with X when he says that…

Unit 12, Discussion

DiscussionA point of view may be expressed cautiously or

tentatively or strongly and emphatically.

Some ways to express your views:

The first thing we have to consider…

One of the main arguments in favor of… Unit 12, Discussion

Drawing ConclusionsUnit 13

Drawing Conclusions

Drawing Conclusions

Drawing a conclusion often involves making a summary of the main points already made. Therefore, tying the topic sentences of the paragraphs of the main body together can make part of your conclusion.

Unit 13, Drawing

Conclusions

Drawing ConclusionsIn addition, one’s own opinion or viewpoint may

be added, if it is appropriate.

In conclusion we can say that…

Finally, we can/may say that….

Unit 13, Drawing Conclusions

Drawing ConclusionsA mistake that is sometimes made in conclusions

is to add a conclusion that does not follow logically from what has been written before.

This is called a non-sequitur.

Avoid doing it!


Drawing ConclusionsVocabulary and structure to help you summarize:

In short,… In a word,… In brief,… To sum up,…


Drawing ConclusionsVocabulary and structure to help you write the

concluding remarks:

In conclusion,… On the whole,… Altogether,… In all,… Unit 13, Drawing Conclusions

Reports Unit 14

Reports: Studies and Research

Report on your studies

Research report (thesis or dissertation)

Reports

In writing a report on your studies use simple present and progressive tense to write about what you are doing now and present perfect tense for what you have already done.

Unit 14, reports: studies and research

Reports Organize your report in three sections: Introduction (general information about your

courses, when you started… ), development (what you have done, your progress,… ) and conclusion (what you have completed so far, what you want to do next,…).


Research ReportThe structure of a research paper, a thesis or

dissertation, is very different.

The basic framework for a research report has three main sections:

Introduction Main body conclusion Unit 14, reports: studies and research

Research Report

However, there are some preliminaries at the beginning and some extras at the end which are added to the three main sections to make the whole thesis.


Research ReportPreliminaries include four parts:

1. The title: the fewest words possible that adequately describe the paper

2. Acknowledgements: thanking colleagues supervisors, sponsors etc. for their assistance


Research Report3. List of contents:

the sections of the thesis, in sequence

4. List of figures/tables:

the sequence of charts, or diagrams that appear in the text


Research Report

The introduction has two sub-sections:

1. The abstract:

An extremely concise summary of the report, including the conclusions. It provides an overview of the whole report for the reader.


Research Report2. Statement of the problem:

A brief discussion of the nature of the research and the reasons for undertaking it. A clear declaration of proposals and hypotheses.


Research ReportThe main body consists of four sections

(chapters):1. Review of the literature: A survey of selective, relevant and

appropriate reading. Report of what others have said and done on the subject.


Research Report2. Design of the investigation:

A statement and discussion of the hypotheses and the theoretical structure in which they will be tested and examined, together with the methods used.


Research Report3. Measurement techniques used:

Detailed description and discussion of testing devices used. Presentation of data supporting validity and reliability. A discussion of the analysis to be applied to the results to test the hypotheses.


Research Report4. Results:

The representation in a logical order of information and data upon which a decision can be made to accept or reject the hypotheses.


Research ReportThe concluding part consists of two sections:1. Discussion and conclusion: The interpretation of the results and their

relationship with the research problem and hypotheses. The making of implications and recommendations.


Research Report2. Summary of conclusions:

A concise account of the main findings, and the inferences drawn from them.


Research ReportThe last part of the thesis, extras, has two

sections:

1. Bibliography:

An accurate listing in strict alphabetical order of all the sources cited in the text.


Research Report2. Appendices:

A compilation of important data and explanatory and illustrative material, placed outside the main body of the text.


Surveys and QuestionnairesUnit 15

Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and QuestionnairesBefore writing a research paper, it is necessary

to do the research.

Accordingly, students in humanities and social sciences at times need to undertake surveys as part of their studies.

Unit 15, Surveys and Questionnaires


Survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the current status of that population with respect to one or two variables.



A questionnaire is a list of planned written questions relating to a particular topic, usually intended to gather descriptive information from a number of selected responses.



Questionnaires may be a part of the surveys and the results may be incorporated in a report. Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.


Referencing Referencing:

Footnotes Quotations References and Bibliographies

Appendix 9

Footnotes Footnote is a note at the bottom of a page in a

book or journal.

It is used to explain a word or other item or to add some special information or a reference.

Appendix 9

Footnotes Sometimes footnotes appear at the end of the

article or even at the back of a book.

A small number is written above the item in the text. The explanation of the item is then given at the bottom of the page (usually in a different font).

Appendix 9

Quotations

When referring to a book or article in an essay, the normal procedure is to give the author’s surname, the year of publication and the page number (only for direct quotation) in parentheses.

Appendix 9

QuotationsThere are three basic ways of using quotations in

an essay:

1. For short direct quotations, quotation marks are used around the author’s words and they are incorporated in the text.

Appendix 9

Quotations2. For long direct quotations, the quotation is

written with indentation and in a different font to separate it from the text.

3. Indirect quotations in which ideas are rewritten in the author’s own words are incorporated into the text.

Appendix 9

BibliographyReferences at the end of an essay or book are

arranged in alphabetical order of the authors’ surname or the name of the organization.

If more than one reference is given, then the earlier dated reference will appear first.

Appendix 9

Bibliography

If two or more references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be labeled in sequence with letters after the year (Smith, 1999 a).

Appendix 9

BibliographyThe sequence of information commonly used in

references to books:

Author’s name, initials, date in brackets, title (underlined or in italics), place of publication, publisher.

Appendix 9

BibliographyExample:

Frank. A.C. (1987), Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America, New York, Monthly Review Press.

Appendix 9

BibliographyThe sequence of information used for articles in

journals:

Author’s surname, initials, date (in brackets), title of article, name of journal (underlined or in italics), volume number, issue number, season or month (if any), page number.

Appendix 9

Bibliography Example:

Murray, R. Daniel and Smith, E.O. (1993), The role of dominance and interfamilial bonding in the avoidance of close inbreeding. Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 5, 481- 489

Appendix 9

Wish you all the best

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