art of sixteenth-century europe · 2014-04-03 · john calvin promotes reformation ... titian...

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ave you ever been to the city of Venice or seen pictures of it? Whatkinds of symbolism do you use in your daily life? Venetian artists

were not inspired by the classical monuments of Greece and Rome. Instead,they relied on the colors, textures, and pageantry of Byzantine art. As thesixteenth-century progressed, disturbing events in Europe lead artists inFlorence and Rome to reject the goals of the Renaissance, and a new style ofart called Mannerism evolved. Meanwhile, in northern Europe, some artistscontinued to work in the traditional Gothic style, while others embraced theRenaissance style.

18Art of Sixteenth-CenturyEurope

Read to Find Out As you read this chapter, learn about the art ofVenice during the sixteenth century, including the works of Giorgioneand Titian. Read to find out about the style of art known as Mannerismand why it developed. Read further to discover the styles and works ofnorthern European artists such as Durer, Bosch, and Holbein.

Focus Activity Look at the painting in Figure 18.1. Fall of Icarus, byPieter Bruegel the Elder. Divide a piece of paper into four sections withone art criticism step heading each column. Examine the painting and,following the steps of art criticism, record your answers in each column.

Using the Time Line The Time Line introduces you to the variety ofart styles you will study in this chapter. What aesthetic qualities do yourecognize? In what ways do these works differ from Medieval paintings?Can you identify features that artists may have borrowed from theRenaissance style?

H

1503Venice signspeace treatywith Turks c. 1508

Giorgione uses landscape to set the stage in his paintings

1519Mannerism beginsto appear in Italy

1535Parmigianino paintsThe Madonna withthe Long Neck

1485–90Bosch uses symbolismin Death and the Miser

c. 1450End of Byzantine influence

c. 1540John Calvin promotes Reformation

1500 1540

■ FIGURE 18.1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Landscape with the Fall of Icarus. 1558. Oil on canvas, mounted on wood. 73.5 � 112 cm (283⁄4 � 44�)

Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, Belgium.

395

1546–48Titian paints his powerfulportrait Doge Andrea Gritti(Detail)

1558Bruegel paintsFall of Icarus

c. 1540 Council of Trent beginsCounter-Reformation

c. 1540–1600 Mannerist style spreadsthrough Europe

Refer to the Time Lineon page H11 in yourArt Handbook for moreabout this period.1550 1600

396

LESSON ONE

Vocabulary■ painterly

Artists to Meet■ Giorgione da Castelfranco■ Titian

DiscoverAfter completing this chapter,

you will be able to:■ Identify sources of inspiration

for the works of Venetianpainters.

■ Explain how Giorgione’s use oflandscapes differed from that of earlier painters.

■ Discuss the most important features of Titian’s works.

uring the sixteenth century, as now, Venice could be described as acity of constantly changing lights and reflections. Surrounded by

colorful buildings, shimmering sunlight, and the rippling water of thecanals, Venetian artists were inspired to paint works that glowed with color.

Influences on Venetian ArtCenturies of close contact with the East left their mark on the appear-

ance of Venice. The dazzling mosaics that decorated Venetian churchesand the Venetians’ pervading love of color, light, and texture can be tracedto the Byzantine art style of the East. The Byzantine influence on Venetianart was far different from that of classical Greece and Rome on theRenaissance cities of Florence and Rome.

Unlike their classical counterparts, Byzantine artists were not primarilyinterested in portraying a world of solid bodies and objects existing inspace. Instead, they sought to present a world of carefully designed sur-faces and brilliant colors. Byzantine art did not try to mirror the presentworld. It wanted to offer a glimpse of the next.

Venetian artists skillfully adapted the Byzantine use of color, light, andtexture to their own painting. At the same time, they were aware of thenew Renaissance concern for reality that characterized the art of Florenceand Rome. Near the end of the fifteenth century, Venetian artists had success-fully combined the best of the Byzantine with the best of the Renaissance.This produced a new school where emphasis was placed on color andpainting technique.

Giorgione da Castelfranco (1477–1511)

One of the first great Venetian masters was Giorgione da Castelfranco(jor-joh-nay da cah-stell-frahn-koh), who died of the plague while he wasstill in his early thirties. Art historians can point to no more than a handfulof pictures that were definitely painted by Giorgione.

Giorgione’s paintings reveal that he was among the first artists inEurope to place importance on the landscape. Before his time, artists hadused the landscape to fill in the spaces around their figures. Giorgioneused it to set the stage and to create a mood in his paintings.

The Advantages of Oil PaintGiorgione used oil paint to add a new richness to his colors. This

medium was more suited to the Venetian taste than the cold, pale frescoesof Florence and Rome. It was more vivid and allowed the artist to createdelicate changes in hue, intensity, and value. Further, the artist couldlinger over a painting to produce a glowing effect with colors that stayed

The Art of Venice

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Tour the arts of Venice at theNational Gallery of Art collection.Find the site in Web Links atart.glencoe.com.

http://www.art.glencoe.com

wet and workable for days. Inspired by hisradiant Venetian surroundings, Giorgioneavoided hard edges and lines and bathed hissubjects in a soft, golden light.

The Concert■ FIGURE 18.2

One of Giorgione’s most beautiful and haunt-ing paintings is The Concert (Figure 18.2). Thework shows two travelers who meet alongsidethe road. One is dressed simply and is barefoot.He listens intently as the second, dressed in richgarments, plays a lute. The men are accompa-nied by two women, who may not be flesh and blood at all. Perhaps they exist only in theminds of the two young men. One appears tobe pouring water into a well while the otherholds a flute-like instrument. The women may

represent the sound of water churning in anearby brook and the hum of the breezethrough the tree.

The uncertainty of the subject is part of thecharm of this painting. More important thanthis mystery however, is the calm, gentlemood that the work creates.

Giorgione’s scene appears to glow in the warm rays of a setting sun. The edges of his figures are blurred as though a lightmist is settling around them. This mist sur-rounds and blends together the green andblue shadows and softens the red accents of a cloak and a hat. It also dulls the other colors found farther back in space.Giorgione’s treatment of the landscape and his use of color enabled him to create a haunting picture.

Chapter 18 Art of Sixteenth-Century Europe 397

■ FIGURE 18.2 Giorgione used landscape to provide a mood in this painting. Why is it possible to saythat “music sets the mood for this scene”? How many ways is music suggested?

Giorgione (possibly Titian). The Concert. c. 1508. Oil on canvas. Approx. 105 � 136.5 cm (413⁄8 � 533⁄4�). The Louvre, Paris, France.

Titian (1490–1576)

After his untimely death, Giorgione’sapproach to painting was carried on byanother Venetian artist, Titian (tish-un).

Unlike Giorgione, Titian lived a long life.He died not of old age but of the plague. Anoble’s artist, Titian had many wealthypatrons and painted the portraits of manyroyal and privileged individuals.

The Entombment■ FIGURE 18.3

From Giorgione, Titian learned how to use landscape to set a mood. He also learnedto use oil paints to make works that were rich in color and texture. However, whereasGiorgione’s figures always seem to be inactive—sleeping, dreaming, or waiting—Titian’s are wide awake, alert, and active.Notice that the figures in his painting TheEntombment (Figure 18.3) are more power-fully built and more expressive than thoseof Giorgione.

When Titian combined Giorgione’s lightingand color with these sturdy figures, he createda highly emotional scene. The mourners car-rying the crucified Christ to his tomb turntheir eyes to him and lean forward under theweight of the lifeless body. This helps to directyour gaze to Christ between them.

Use of Light and ShadowThe rapidly fading light of day bathes

the scene in a mellow glow. It heralds theapproach of night and accents the despair ofthe figures in this tragic scene. Curiously,Titian placed the head and face of Christ indeep shadow.

Look again at Giorgione’s painting of TheConcert (Figure 18.2, page 397), and noticethat the faces of the two young travelers alsoare in shadow. Both artists used this tech-nique to arouse your curiosity and to involveyou with their paintings. They challenge youto use your imagination to complete the mostimportant part of their pictures: the faces ofthe main characters.

398 Unit Six Art of an Emerging Modern Europe

■ FIGURE 18.3 Compared with Giorgione’s figures, Titian’s figures appear active and powerful. Identifythe ways that the artist has put emphasis on the figure of the dead Christ.

Titian. The Entombment. c. 1520. Oil on canvas. 149.2 � 215.3 cm (583⁄4 � 843⁄4�). The Louvre, Paris, France.


InfluencingStyles StylesMICHELANGELO TO TITIAN The powerful right hand of Titian’s Doge

Andrea Gritti was modeled after the hand on Michelangelo’s heroic statue ofMoses. Titian knew of this hand from a cast that had been made of it andbrought to Venice by a sculptor named Jacopo Sansovino. Titian realized thatsuch a hand could communicate as well as any facial expression. That hand isas strong and tense as the Doge himself.

■ FIGURE 18.4a

Titian. Doge Andrea Gritti. c. 1546–48. Oil on canvas.133.6 � 103.2 cm (521⁄2 � 405⁄8�). National Gallery ofArt, Washington, D.C. Samuel H. Kress Collection.

■ FIGURE 18.4b

Michelangelo. Moses (detail). c. 1513–15.

Doge Andrea Gritti■ FIGURE 18.4a

Titian’s greatest fame was as a painter ofportraits. One of his most forceful was ofAndrea Gritti, the doge, or ruler, of Venice(Figure 18.4a). Gritti ruled during troubledtimes, when Venice was involved in a seriesof wars and conflicts. In spite of his advancedage—he was more than 80 years old whenTitian painted his portrait—Gritti took anactive role in the fighting. It was this fierce

determination and power that Titian capturedin his portrait.

The doge is shown as if he is about to burstout of the frame. A curving row of buttonscurls up the robe leading to the stern, defiantface. Titian leaves no doubt that this was afierce, iron-willed leader. The visible brush-strokes in this portrait are representative ofTitian’s painterly technique, which involvescreating forms with patches of color ratherthan with hard, precise edges.

Titian’s Enduring FameAll the important people of his day

were eager to have their portraitspainted by Titian. Titian’s patronsincluded Lucrezia Borgia, the Duchessof Farrara; Pope Paul III; and theEmperor Charles V, who made Titian aknight and a count. According toVasari, there was hardly a noble ofhigh rank, scarcely a prince or lady ofgreat name, whose portrait was notpainted by Titian. See Figure 18.5 fora portrait of the young son and heir ofCharles V, Philip II.

As a result of his wealthy patrons,Titian lived like a prince, traveling farand wide to complete his commissions,accompanied by numerous servants,admirers, and students. In his lifetimehe became nearly as famous as the leg-endary Michelangelo, and his fame hasnot lessened over the centuries.

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■ FIGURE 18.5 Titian’s painterly technique is visible in this full-scaleoil sketch of Spanish king Phillip II. Where in the painting is this tech-nique most recognizable?

Titian. Portrait of Philip II. c. 1549–51. Oil on canvas. 106.4 � 91.1 cm (42 � 357⁄8�).Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio. Bequest of Mary M. Emery.

Reviewing Art Facts1. Recall Venetian artists used color,

light, and texture from Byzantinestyles in their work. What did theyincorporate from Renaissance art?

2. Identify What were Giorgione’s mostimportant contributions to painting?

3. Describe What characterizes the fig-ures in Titian’s Entombment (Figure18.3, page 398)?

4. Explain List three ways Titian con-veyed the power of Doge Andrea Grittiin his portrait of the ruler.

Creating Shadow Effects Titian used Michelangelo’ssculpted hand of Moses as inspiration for his painting of thehand of Doge Andrea Gritti (Figures 18.4a and 18.4b). Titianalso used the powerful vehicle of light and shadow to modelthe painted hand and make it appear three-dimensional.

Activity Using charcoal, pastels, or soft pencil, create adrawing of your own hand that uses all the methods used byTitian. Notice that there is no distinct line around the handin Titian’s painting Try making the use of light and shadowmore important than the use of line in your drawing.

LESSON ONE REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for study tools and review activities.


401

LESSON TWO

Vocabulary■ Mannerism■ Protestant Reformation

Artists to Meet■ Parmigianino■ Tintoretto■ El Greco


you will be able to:■ Explain what Mannerism is and

why it developed.■ Identify Mannerist characteristics

in the works of Parmigianino,Tintoretto, and El Greco.

■ Discuss the attitude of theChurch toward the works ofMannerist artists.

rtists such as Giorgione and Titian made Venice a great art centerthat rivaled and then surpassed Florence and Rome. In Rome,

artists were challenged to find new avenues of expression in the vacuumleft by the passing of Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael while facing aworld filled with increasing unrest and uncertainty. It was that unrest anduncertainty that contributed to a style of art known as Mannerism.

MannerismToday, Mannerism is considered a deliberate revolt by artists against

the goals of the Renaissance. Why would Mannerist artists turn against theart of the Renaissance? To answer this question, you must compare theItaly in which the Renaissance masters lived with the Italy in whichMannerist artists lived.

Cultural InfluencesWhen Raphael painted the Alba Madonna around 1510, Italy was at

peace and the Church was the unchallenged seat of authority. It was aperiod of confidence and hope, and this was reflected in the artworks thatwere created. Artists such as Raphael produced works that were carefullythought out, balanced, and soothing.

Then, within the span of a few decades, the religious unity of WesternChristendom was shattered. The Protestant Reformation, a movement inwhich a group of Christians led by Martin Luther left the Church in revolt toform their own religion, began in 1517. This movement, along with theFrench invasion of Italy in 1524 and the French defeat of Rome in 1527,brought about an era of tension and disorder. It was in this setting thatMannerist art was born and matured.

Where the art of the Renaissance tried to achieve balance, Mannerismpreferred imbalance. The calm order found in works such as the AlbaMadonna (Figure 16.24, page 373) was replaced by a restlessness.Mannerism was a nervous art, created to mirror a world filled with confu-sion. Its artists painted the human figure in impossible poses and withunreal proportions. Mannerist artists preferred figures that were slender,elegant, and graceful. Gradually, these figures began to look less naturaland more supernatural.

Parmigianino (1503–1540)

The Mannerist style is evident in the work of Francesco Mazzola, calledParmigianino (par-mih-jah-nee-noh), who was among the first generationof Mannerists in Rome.

Mannerism

A

The Madonna with the Long Neck■ FIGURE 18.6

Parmigianino studied the works of otherpainters and developed his own personal artstyle. His best-known work is The Madonnawith the Long Neck (Figure 18.6).

Description and AnalysisA description of this painting raises a num-

ber of disturbing questions. For example, isthis an interior or an exterior setting? It is dif-ficult to say for certain because the drapery atthe left and the columns at the right suggest abackground that is both interior and exterior.

The figure of the Madonna is also unusual.She is enormous and towers over theother figures in the picture, even thoughshe is seated and they are standing. Shelooks as if she is about to stand; the babyalready seems to be slipping from hismother’s lap. Curiously, the mother showsno concern. Her eyes remain half-closed,and she continues to look content andquite pleased with herself.

The Christ child looks lifeless; his fleshis pale and rubbery, and his proportionsare unnatural. His neck is concealed bythe Madonna’s left hand and his headlooks as if it is not attached to the body.

Crowding in tightly at the left side ofthe picture are a number of figures whohave come to admire and worship theChrist child. They pay little attention,however. Instead, they look about in alldirections—one even stares out of thepicture directly at you. Within that group,notice the leg in the left corner. To whomdoes this leg belong?

The foreground space occupied by theMadonna and other figures is crowded;everyone seems jammed together here.When your gaze moves to the right side ofthe picture, you plunge into a deep back-ground. Notice the small figure of a manreading from a scroll. The size of this manindicates that he is far back in space, butthere is no way of determining the dis-tance between him and the foreground

figures. Who is this man and what is hedoing? It is impossible to know, since theartist gives no clues to his identity.

InterpretationThe questions continue as you move on to

interpretation of the work. Is it just an acci-dent that the Christ child looks lifeless, or thathis arms are outstretched in the same position he would take later on the cross? Could themother be a symbol of the Church? If so, whydoes she seem unconcerned that her child isslipping from her grasp? Why are all thosepeople crowding in at the left—and appar-ently not even noticing the child?


■ FIGURE 18.6 This painting is an early example ofthe Mannerist style, which was intended to reflectthe instability and tensions of European life. Pointout specific ways in which the figures of theMadonna and the baby are distorted.

Parmigianino. The Madonna with the Long Neck. c. 1535. Oil on panel.220 � 130 cm (85 � 52�). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy.

What is Parmigianino trying to say? Couldhe be criticizing the Church and the peoplefor their growing worldliness? Was he trying to say that they were becoming so concerned with their own well-being that they had forgotten the sacrifices made forthem by Christ?

Parmigianino’s painting raises a great manyquestions and offers few answers. No doubtthat is exactly what it was intended to do.

Tintoretto (1518–1594)

Mannerism established itself later in Venicethan in other parts of Italy. The best-knownVenetian artist to work in this style wasTintoretto (tin-toh-reh-toh). Tintoretto’s realname was Jacopo Robusti, but he was the son of a dyer and he became known as“Tintoretto,” the Italian word for “little dyer.” He was able to combine the goals ofMannerism with a Venetian love of color. His style featured quick, short brushstrokesand a dramatic use of light.

Presentation of the Virgin■ FIGURE 18.7

In Tintoretto’s painting Presentation of theVirgin (Figure 18.7), you can see the qualitiesthat make it a Mannerist work. Among these arethe elongated figures with their dramatic ges-tures, the odd perspective, and the strange,uneven light that touches some parts of the pic-ture and leaves other parts in deep shadow.

Almost everyone in the picture is watchingthe young Mary as she climbs solemnly up the stairs to the temple. The woman in the fore-ground points to the small figure of Mary silhou-etted against a blue sky. Without that gestureyou might not notice her at all. Mary may be the most important person in the picture, butTintoretto made her look small and unimpor-tant. The viewer becomes actively involved infinding her and is led to her with visual clues.

Tintoretto wanted to do more than justdescribe another event in the life of theVirgin. He tried to engage the viewer and capture the excitement of that event. Hewanted you to feel as though you were actually there, on the stairs to the temple.


■ FIGURE 18.7 Mary, the maincharacter in this picture, is the smallfigure near the top of the stairs.How does Tintoretto draw theviewer’s attention to that small fig-ure? Do all the figures exhibit aninterest in what is happening? Ifnot, how does this make you feel?

Tintoretto. Presentation of the Virgin. c. 1550.Oil on canvas. 4.3 � 4.8 m (14�1� � 15’9�).Church of Santa Maria dell’ Orto, Venice, Italy.

heaven awaited those who followed theChurch’s teachings. Nowhere was this moreevident than in Spain. There you will find thelast and most remarkable of the Manneristartists, El Greco (el greh-koh). El Greco wasborn on the Greek island of Crete and chris-tened Domeniko Theotocopoulos. He receivedthe nickname El Greco (the Greek) after set-tling in Toledo, Spain in 1577.

The Martyrdom of St. Maurice and the Theban Legion■ FIGURE 18.8

In 1580, El Greco was commissioned topaint two pictures for King Philip II of Spain.One of these, The Martyrdom of St. Mauriceand the Theban Legion (Figure 18.8), so dis-pleased the king that he refused to have ithung in his palace. Today that painting isregarded as one of El Greco’s greatest works.

The painting depicts the fate of Mauriceand his soldiers, who were loyal subjects ofthe pagan Roman emperor and faithfulChristians. When the emperor ordered every-one in the army to worship the Roman godsor face execution, Maurice and his soldierschose death.

El Greco blends the three parts of this storyinto a single scene. In the foreground, Mauriceis seen explaining the situation to his officers.Farther back, he and one of his officers areshown watching their men being beheaded.They calmly offer encouragement, knowingthat they will soon face the same end. At thetop of the picture, the heavens open up and agroup of angels prepares to greet the heroeswith the laurels of martyrdom.

The Burial of Count Orgaz■ FIGURE 18.9

Disappointed after his experience withPhilip, El Greco went to Toledo, where hespent the rest of his life. There the Church ofSt. Tomé hired him to paint the burial of aman who had died 200 years earlier. The hugepainting, entitled The Burial of Count Orgaz(Figure 18.9), took two years to complete; ElGreco considered it his greatest work.


■ FIGURE 18.8 El Greco’s elongated treatment of the human figuremay have been inspired by Tintoretto, and his use of light and dark con-trasts to heighten drama may have been learned from Titian. Point outspecific qualities in this work that may represent the influences ofTintoretto and Titian.

El Greco. The Martyrdom of St. Maurice and the Theban Legion. 1580. Oil on canvas. 4.4 � 3m (14�6� � 9�10�). The Escorial, near Madrid, Spain.

El Greco (1541–1614)

Highly emotional religious pictures byMannerists like Tintoretto were welcomed bythe Church during this troubled period. TheChurch was placing a renewed emphasis onthe spiritual in order to counter theReformation.

Art could aid this effort by working on theemotions of the people, reminding them that

The Count of Orgaz was a deeply religiousman who commanded his subjects to con-tribute money, cattle, wine, firewood, andchickens to St. Tomé each year. When the countdied, so it was said, St. Stephen and St.Augustine came down from heaven and placedthe count in his tomb with their own hands.

The villagers of Orgaz continued to paytheir annual tribute to St. Tomé for genera-tions. Eventually, however, they felt that theyhad done enough and stopped. Officials at St. Tomé protested, and a church trial washeld. After all the testimony was heard, it wasdecided that the villagers should continuemaking their payments. El Greco’s painting ofthe count’s funeral was meant to remind the

villagers of their eternal debt to St. Tomé. Inhis contract, El Greco was instructed to showwitnesses to the miracle, a priest saying Mass,and heaven opened in glory.

You will discover a great deal when youstudy a complicated painting like The Burialof Count Orgaz. As a starting point, notice theyoung boy in the lower left of the paintingwho seems to introduce you to the scene. His pointed finger directs your attention to the richly dressed figures of the two saints, St. Stephen and St. Augustine. Together, thetwo saints lower the body of the count into


THE USE OF AXIS AND CONTOURLINES

With the aid of axis and con-tour lines, El Greco takes you ona journey from the bottom of thepainting to the top.• Examine. A horizontal axis

line made up of the heads ofthe witnesses divides the painting into two parts,heaven and earth.

• Inspect. The two parts are united by another axis line that begins at the rightshoulder of St. Stephen. Tracing this line, you find that it passes down the arm of the saint andthrough the arched body ofthe count. It continues tocurve upward through thebody of St. Augustine to thewing of the angel and on tothe soul of the dead count.

• Identify. The contour lines of the cloudsat either side of the angel guide your eyeeven higher to the figure of Christ.

LOOKING Closely ➤

■ FIGURE 18.9 El Greco. The Burial of Count Orgaz. 1586. Oil on canvas.

4.9 � 3.7 m (16 � 12�). Church of St. Tomé, Toledo, Spain.

his grave. His lifeless pose and pale colorshow that the count is dead. The gaze of thispriest leads your eye to a winged angel, whocarries the soul of the dead count. The clouds

part, giving the angel a clear path to the figureof Christ, seated in judgment at the top of thepainting. Saints and angels have gatheredbefore Christ to ask that the count’s soul beallowed to join them in heaven.

El Greco may have painted his own self-portrait in this work (Figure 18.10). He maybe the central figure here, looking out directlyat the viewer. Details about El Greco’s lifeare sketchy. In addition to including his self-portrait in this work, some people think thatthe woman, shown as the Virgin, may havebeen his wife. That is uncertain, although itis quite likely that the boy in the picture ishis son. On a paper sticking out of the boy’spocket, El Greco has painted his son’sbirthdate.

El Greco and MannerismEl Greco carried Mannerist ideas as far as

they could go. His intense emotionalism andstrong sense of movement could not be imi-tated or developed further. Thus, the finalchapter in the development of the Manneriststyle was written in Spain. In Italy, the newBaroque style was already developing, and innorthern Europe, conflicts arose between LateGothic and Italian Renaissance styles.

406 Unit Six

■ FIGURE 18.10 El Greco. The Burial of Count Orgaz (detail).

Reviewing Art Facts1. Explain Why did Mannerist artists

seek imbalance and restlessness intheir work?

2. Recall Why did the Church welcomethe highly emotional religious picturescreated by Mannerist artists?

3. Describe List three ways Manneristartists distorted reality in their works.

4. Describe Select one of the Manneristpaintings in this chapter and listat least four events taking placesimultaneously.

Creating Digital Images The Mannerists created a style ofart that rebelled against the calmness of the Renaissanceworks. They deliberately represented the human figure inimpossible poses and almost grotesque proportions thatmirrored the confusion of the time.

Activity Pay careful attention to the distortion of the figuresin Mannerist works in the text. Using a digital camera, takeseveral images of groups of people around you at school orin your community. Create your own “Mannerist” paintingusing a computer image-manipulation program. Print yourwork and create a class display.

LESSON TWO REVIEW



407

LESSON THREE

Vocabulary■ parable

Artists to Meet■ Matthias Grünewald■ Albrecht Dürer■ Hieronymus Bosch■ Pieter Bruegel■ Hans Holbein


you will be able to:■ Identify the two painting styles

favored by northern Europeanartists in the sixteenth century.

■ Discuss the styles and works ofMatthias Grünewald, AlbrechtDürer, Hieronymus Bosch, PieterBruegel, and Hans Holbein.

uring the fifteenth century, most of the artists north of the Alpsremained indifferent to the advances made by the Italian

Renaissance. Since the time of Jan van Eyck, they had looked to Flandersand not to Italy for leadership. This changed at the start of the next cen-tury, however. Artists began to make independent journeys to Italy andother countries. Eventually, the lure of Italian art became so strong that atrip to Italy to study the great Renaissance masters was considered essen-tial for artists in training.

The Spread of the Renaissance StyleThe spread of the Renaissance style across western Europe was further

aided by powerful monarchs with a thirst for art. These monarchs invitedwell-known artists to come and work in their courts. As Italian artistsmoved throughout western Europe, and as other European artists visitedItaly, ideas about artistic styles were shared and revised.

Early in the sixteenth century, a conflict of styles developed betweenNorthern artists who remained faithful to the style of the Late Gothicperiod and those who favored adopting Italian Renaissance ideas asquickly as possible. This conflict continued until the Renaissance point ofview triumphed later in the century.

Matthias Grünewald (c. 1480–1528)

A comparison of the works of two great Northern painters of that time,Matthias Grünewald (muh-tee-uhs groon-eh-vahlt) and Albrecht Dürer(ahl-brekt dur-er), brings this conflict of styles into focus. Both theseGerman artists felt the influence of the Italian Renaissance. They understoodthe rules of perspective and could paint figures that looked solid and real.

Matthias Grünewald, however, continued to show a preference for thedreams and visions of Gothic art. He used Renaissance ideas only to makehis pictures of these dreams and visions more vivid and powerful.

The Small Crucifixion■ FIGURE 18.11

In his painting The Small Crucifixion (Figure 18.11, page 408), Grünewaldcreated a powerful version of this Christian subject. Like earlier Medievalartists his aim was to provide a visual sermon.

Grünewald’s sermon forcefully describes Christ’s agony and death. Itspares none of the brutal details that Italian artists preferred to avoid. Thepale yellow of Christ’s body is the color of a corpse. The cold, black skybehind the figures is a dark curtain against which the tragic scene is played,emphasizing the people in the foreground with its contrasting value and hue.

The Art of Northern Europe

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Sixteenth-CenturyEurope See more Time & Place events on the

Time Line, page H11 in your Art Handbook

C. 1500 1600

Attention is focused on thecentral figure of Christ. Theragged edge of his cloth garmentrepeats and emphasizes the sav-age marks of the wounds cover-ing his body. His fingers twistand turn in the final agony ofdeath. Like everything else inthe work—color, design, brush-work—this contributes to anexpression of intense pain andsorrow. The calm balance of theRenaissance has been rejected.Instead you see a representationof the Crucifixion that seeks toseize and hold your emotions.

■ FIGURE 18.11 This work depictsthe intense agony and sorrow of theCrucifixion. Identify specific detailsthat contribute to the emotionalimpact of this painting.

Matthias Grünewald. The Small Crucifixion.c. 1511–20. Oil on wood. 61.3 � 46 cm (241⁄8 � 181⁄8�). National Gallery of Art,Washington, D.C. Board of Trustees, Samuel H. Kress Collection.

SAILING SHIPS. Advances in shipbuildinggave explorers better vessels for travel todistant shores. The caraval, shown here,allowed for cargo storage and had room forweapons. This ship could navigate in shal-low waters to make landing easier.

STUDY OF ASTRONOMY. Three hundredyears before people actually traveled inspace, astronomers were seeking answersto mysteries of the solar system. JanVermeer painted this astronomer poringover his charts.

Writing. You are awriter of historical fiction. Create thefirst page of an adventure novel set inthe sixteenth century. Incorporate theobjects on this page into your descrip-tion of the setting and the thoughts ofthe main character.

Activity


Albrecht Dürer(1471–1528)

Almost every German artist at this time followed the samecourse as Grünewald. OnlyAlbrecht Dürer turned away fromthe Gothic style to embrace theRenaissance.

After a trip to Italy, Dürer madeup his mind to make the newRenaissance style his own. Hestudied perspective and the theoryof proportions in order to capturethe beauty and balance found inItalian painting. Then he appliedwhat he learned to his own art.

Knight, Death, and the Devil■ FIGURE 18.12

Dürer’s studies enabled him topick out the most interesting andimpressive features of the ItalianRenaissance style and combinethem with his own ideas. In hisengraving entitled Knight, Death,and the Devil (Figure 18.12), thehorse and rider exhibit the calm-ness and the solid, round form ofItalian painting.

Dürer’s Use of SymbolismThe figures representing death and the devil,

however, are reminders of the strange creaturesfound in Northern Gothic paintings. The braveChristian soldier is shown riding along the roadof faith toward the heavenly Jerusalem, seen atthe top of the work. The knight’s dog, the sym-bol of loyalty, gallantly follows its master. Theknight is plagued by a hideous horseman rep-resenting death, who threatens to cut him offbefore his journey is complete. Behind lurksthe devil, hoping the knight will lose hiscourage and decide to turn back. However, theknight rides bravely forward, never turningfrom the Christian path, no matter how fright-ening the dangers along the way.


■ FIGURE 18.12 Dürer selected certain features of the ItalianRenaissance style and combined themwith his own ideas to create his ownpersonal style. Point to features inthis work that show how Dürer wasinfluenced by the Italian Renaissance.

Albrecht Dürer. Knight, Death, and the Devil.1513. Engraving. 24.6 � 19 cm (95⁄8 � 71⁄2�).Staedelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt, Germany.

Hieronymus Bosch(1450–1516)

One of the most interesting artists of thelate fifteenth and early sixteenth centurieswas the Flemish painter Hieronymus Bosch(heer-ahn-ni-mus bosh). Bosch’s paintings,like those of the Italian Mannerists, mirroredthe growing fears and tensions of the peopleduring that uneasy period.

An Era of Religious ConflictMany felt that the increasing religious con-

flicts were a sign that the evil in the world hadreached new heights. It was only a matter oftime, they felt, before an angry God wouldpunish them all. This religious and moral cli-mate gave artists subject matter for theirworks of art.

Bosch’s Mysterious SymbolsBosch’s pictures were meant to be viewed

in two ways—as stories and as symbolic mes-sages. His stories clearly focused on the sub-ject of good and evil. The meanings of manyof his symbols have been forgotten over theyears. Many probably came from magicalbeliefs, astrology, and the different religiouscults that were popular in his day.

Even though his paintings are often fright-ening or difficult to understand, they are notwithout traces of humor. Bosch often picturedthe devil as a fool or a clown rather than asthe sinister Prince of Darkness.

Death and the Miser■ FIGURE 18.13

Bosch’s skills as a storyteller, as well as hissense of humor, are evident in his paintingDeath and the Miser (Figure 18.13). He usesthe picture to tell you that no matter how evila man has been during his life, he can besaved if he asks for forgiveness before dying.

An old miser is shown on his sickbed as afigure representing death enters the room andprepares to strike. Even at this final moment,the miser is torn between good and evil. Anangel points to a crucifix in the window and


urges the miser to place his trust in the Lord.At the same time, a devil tempts him with abag of money. The miser seems about to lookup at the crucifix (detail of Figure 18.13),although his hand reaches out for the moneyat the same time.

At the bottom of the picture is a scene froman earlier period in the miser’s life. Here, too,Bosch shows that the miser cannot decidebetween good and evil. The man fingers arosary in one hand, but adds to his hoard ofmoney with the other.

▲

DETAIL:Crucifix that the miser looks upon.


Pieter Bruegel (1525–1569)

Bosch’s unique art style did not endwith his death in 1516. Forty years later,a Flemish artist named Pieter Bruegel theElder (pee-ter broi-gl) turned away fromthe landscapes he had been painting tocreate pictures that owe a great deal toBosch’s influence.

The Parable of the Blind■ FIGURE 18.14

Bruegel’s work The Parable of theBlind (Figure 18.14, page 412) showsfive blind beggars walking in a line. The sixth—their leader—has stumbledand is falling over the bank of a ditch,and the others are destined to follow.Like Bosch’s work, Bruegel’s paintingcan be seen as a parable, a story thatcontains a symbolic message. It illus-trates this proverb: “And if the blind leadthe blind, both shall fall into a ditch.”

His concern for detail ties Bruegel more firmly to Jan van Eyck and otherFlemish painters than to any ItalianRenaissance artist (Figure 18.1,page 394). Also, Bruegel used symbolismmuch as the medieval artist did in illus-trating stories from the Bible. His blindmen are symbols painted with accuratedetails to give them a more lifelikeappearance.

■ FIGURE 18.13 This picture tells a storybut does not give it an ending—the man in the bed has to make an important deci-sion. Which figures help you understandthe miser’s dilemma? Why must the misermake his decision immediately rather thantaking time to think it over?

Hieronymus Bosch. Death and the Miser. c. 1485–90. Oil on panel. 93 � 31 cm (365⁄8 � 123⁄16�). National Galleryof Art, Washington, D.C. Board of Trustees, Samuel H.Kress Collection.


The ditch they are about to tumble into could representhell. It would represent the only possible end for those whoallow themselves to be led down the path of wickedness.

1

The faces of the figuresshow expressions thatrange from confusion (theman at the far left) to fear(the figures at the right).

4Bruegel demonstrates akeen sense for detail. AFrench physician onceidentified the symptomsof five different eye dis-eases on the faces of thesebeggars.

3Bruegel warns that anyonecan be misled; even theblind man wearing ashowy cross as proof of hispiety is being led astray.

2

ruegel’s beggars follow a road leading to eternal suffering rather than theroad leading to salvation. In their blindness they stumble past the distant church,cleverly framed by trees and the outstretched staff of one of the beggars.

Symbolism in Sixteenth-CenturyArt

■ FIGURE 18.14

Pieter Bruegel. The Parable of the Blind. 1568. Tempera on canvas. 86 � 152 cm(34 � 60�). Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples, Italy.

B

Hans Holbein (1497–1543)

Several years after the deaths of Grünewaldand Dürer, another German artist namedHans Holbein the Younger (hans hole-bine)left his native country to settle in England.Holbein hoped to escape from the strife of theReformation. Known for his lifelike portraits, hebecame the court painter for King Henry VIII.

Edward VI as a Child■ FIGURE 18.15

As a New Year’s gift in 1539, Holbein presented Henry with a portrait of his 14-month-old son, Edward. The birth of this son had been widelyacclaimed in England because theking finally had a male heir to thethrone.

Holbein painted the young Edwardin royal garments and placed a goldrattle in his hand (Figure 18.15).Even though the face and hands are childlike, Edward does not looklike a young child. The artist proba-bly wanted to impress Henry byshowing the child’s royal dignityrather than his infant charms.

The Latin verse below Edward’sportrait asks him to follow the path of virtue and to be a good ruler.Unhappily, he had little opportunityto do either. Never healthy or strong,Edward died of tuberculosis when he was 16.

Anne of Cleves■ FIGURE 18.16

The year after the painting ofyoung Edward VI was completed,Henry VIII asked Holbein to paint amost unusual portrait (Figure 18.16,page 414). The king, who was lookingfor a new bride, had heard that Anne,the young daughter of the Duke ofCleves in Germany, was available. Hedecided to send a delegation to lookher over. Included in this delegationwas Holbein, who was to paint a

portrait of Anne. Taking the artist aside, Henryconfided, “I put more trust in your brush thanin all the reports of my advisers.”

Sir Thomas Cromwell, one of the king’smost powerful ministers, was anxious to see amarriage between Anne and Henry for politi-cal reasons. Cromwell instructed Holbein thathe must, without fail, bring back a most beau-tiful portrait of Lady Anne.

When Holbein met Anne in her castle in Germany, he found that she was good-natured, patient, and honest; unfortunately,


■ FIGURE 18.15 Holbein painted this portrait as a gift for the child’s father,King Henry VIII. Identify the childlike features and the adult qualities in this portrait of the young prince.

Hans Holbein, the Younger. Edward VI as a Child. c. 1538. Oil on panel. 56.8 � 44 cm (223⁄8 � 173⁄8�).National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Board of Trustees, Andrew W. Mellon Collection.

she was also dull, lifeless, and plain. Thispresented a problem for the artist. If he paintedAnne to look beautiful, he would pleaseCromwell but risk the anger of the king. If hepainted her plain, he would offend bothCromwell and the woman who mightbecome queen.

Apparently Holbein decided to let his brushmake the decision for him; he completed theportrait in less than one week. Returning toEngland, he showed the painting to Henry,who took one look at it and signed the marriagecontract. Arrangements were soon under wayfor a marriage ceremony that would dazzle allof Europe.

When the king finally met Anne, he wasstunned and enraged that the person did notmatch the portrait. Still, he was forced to goahead with the wedding to ensure that Anne’sfather would remain England’s ally. The mar-riage took place on January 6, 1540, and waslegally dissolved on July 7 of the same year.

Surprisingly, Holbein suffered no ill effectsfor his part in the arrangements, althoughHenry chose his next two wives after closepersonal inspection. Holbein remained inHenry’s good graces and had begun paintinga portrait of the king when he fell victim tothe plague. Holbein died in London in thefall of 1543.

414 Unit Six

■ FIGURE 18.16 The different textures in this painting contributeto the elegant and lifelike appearance of the subject. Who is thesubject of this painting? How did this portrait change her life?

Hans Holbein. Anne of Cleves. 1539. Tempera and oil on parchment. 65 � 48 cm (255⁄8 � 187⁄8�). The Louvre, Paris, France.

Reviewing Art Facts1. Recall Which German artist showed a

preference for the dreams and visionsfavored by Gothic art?

2. Recall Which German artist turnedaway from the Gothic style toembrace the ideas of the ItalianRenaissance?

3. Explain How were the paintings ofHieronymus Bosch similar to those ofthe Italian Mannerists?

4. Describe For what kind of paintingwas Hans Holbein best known?

Interpreting Meanings The Flemish painter HieronymusBosch produced paintings that mirrored the tense anduncertain times in which he lived. Bosch was a storytelleras well as an artist. Much of the meaning of the symbols inhis work has been lost, but we can still see that the subjectof good and evil was a strong part of his work.

Activity Imagine that you are a writer who has been cho-sen to interpret Hieronymus Bosch’s strange work Deathand the Miser (Figure18.13). Try to determine the meaningsof the symbols and images in the work. Record your inter-pretation in story form in your Visual Arts Journal.

LESSON THREE REVIEW



Materials• A length of colored yarn, about 10 inches long• White drawing paper, 9 � 12 inches• White glue• Pencil• Tempera or acrylic paint• Brushes, mixing tray, and paint cloth• Water container

Complete a highly imaginative tempera painting ofa bizarre creature. Begin by manipulating a length ofcolored yarn on a sheet of paper. Use a variety of hues,intensities, and values obtained by mixing the threeprimary colors and white and black.

InspirationDid you notice the strange creatures lurking in the

works of Dürer and Bosch (Figure 18.12, page 409 andFigure 18.13, page 411)? Which of these creatures didyou find especially bizarre? Can you find earlier worksillustrated in this book that may have influenced thetwo artists in creating these unusual creatures?

Process1. Begin by experimenting with a length of yarn, drop-

ping and manipulating it on a sheet of paper. Use yourimagination to see this yarn line as the starting pointfor a drawing of a bizarre creature. The creature mighthave human or animal characteristics, or it couldcombine characteristics of both.

2. When you have a starting point for your drawing,glue the yarn in place. Use a pencil to continue thisline at both ends to create your creature.

3. Paint your picture. Limit yourself to the three pri-mary colors, but do not use any of these colorsdirectly from the jar or tube. Instead, mix them toobtain a variety of hues and intensities. Add whiteand black to create a range of different values. Donot paint over the yarn line. Allow it to stand outclearly as the starting point in your picture.

Describe Does your painting feature a bizarre, highlyimaginative creature? Point out and name the mostunusual features of this creature.

Analyze Is the yarn line used to start your pictureclearly visible? Does your painting include a variety ofhues, intensities, and values?

Interpret How is the creature you created unusual?

What feelings does it evoke in students viewing yourpicture for the first time? Were these the feelings youhoped to evoke?

Judge Evaluate your picture in terms of its designqualities. Is it successful? Then evaluate it in terms of itsexpressive qualities. What was the most difficult partof this studio experience?

415

Examining Your Work

Painting of a Bizarre Creature

■ FIGURE 18.17 Student Work

For more studio lessons and student artworks, visit art.glencoe.com.


A high-tech plan may keep the city’s art treasures above water.

Venice, Italy, is a living museum. Its canals are lined with churches,palaces, and buildings designed by Renaissance architects including

Jacopo Sansovina and Andrea Palladio. The Doge’s Palace, home to Venice’srulers, was virtually rebuilt in the Renaissance style during the sixteenth century. More art treasures arefound within the walls of thesebuildings. The Scuola Grande di SanRocco, for example, holds 54 paint-ings by Tintoretto. Works by Titianand Paolo Veronese are housed inthe Gallerie dell’Accademica.

Its art-filled buildings and narrowstone-paved streets have long madeVenice one of the world’s mostbeloved places. Ten million peoplevisit the island-city each year tovisit the art of the past.

Unfortunately, one of the thingsthat makes Venice so special—itsweb of waterways—threatens itssurvival. Venice is sinking. It hasdropped more than five inches since 1900.

Meanwhile, global climate changes have raised the sea level by more than four inches this cen-tury. For Venice, the combination of sinkingground and rising seas has been disastrous.

As the city sinks and the sea rises, the flood damage becomes worse. Saltwater seeps into bricks,weakening buildings and harming historic sites.

To save the city and its art treasures, officials arebuilding huge underwater floodgates. The gateswould block water from entering the lagoon thatseparates Venice from the Adriatic Sea. Not every-one is happy with this plan, called Project Moses.Critics of the project say the floodgates could harm the delicate ecology of the lagoon. However,both sides agree on this: Venice and its incredibleartworks must be preserved.

416 Chapter 18 Art of Sixteenth-Century Europe

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Venice’s main attraction, the Piazza San Marco, often gets flooded.When thathappens, people must use temporary bridges to cross this famous plaza.

TIME to Connect

Using your school’s media center or the Internet,find out why Venice is sinking. Describe eachproblem Venice faces and possible solutions.

• Read more about Project Moses in yourschool’s media center or online. Explain howthe floodgates are intended to solve the problem of flooding.

• Learn about critics of the project. Divide apaper into two columns. Label one column Pro and the other Con. On the Pro side,explain why many people think Project Moseswill benefit Venice. On the Con side, explainwhy critics think the project will be harmful tothe ecology of the region. Describe an alternative solution to saving Venice.

Standardized Test PracticeStandardized Test Practice

Read the paragraph below, and then answer the questions.

18 REVIEW

Reviewing the FactsLesson One1. How did Giorgione use the landscape in his

paintings?2. What is a painterly technique?3. For what subject matter was Titian most famous?Lesson Two4. List five unsettling or ambiguous aspects of

Parmigianino’s painting The Madonna with theLong Neck (Figure 18.6, page 402).

5. What qualities in Tintoretto’s Presentation of theVirgin (Figure 18.7, page 403) identify it as aMannerist work?

Lesson Three6. What was Matthias Grünewald’s goal in creating

The Small Crucifixion (Figure 18.11, page 408)?7. What does the dog at the bottom of Dürer’s

engraving Knight, Death, and the Devil(Figure 18.12, page 409) symbolize?

8. In what two ways were Hieronymus Bosch’s andPieter Bruegel’s paintings meant to be viewed?

Thinking Critically1. ANALYZE. Identify two works in this chapter in

which the artists understate the main subjects inthe works. Explain, in each case, how understat-ing the subject seems to draw attention to it.

2. COMPARE AND CONTRAST. Compare Parmigia-nino’s Madonna with the Long Neck (page 402)and to Raphael’s Alba Madonna (Figure 16.24,page 373). Explain how current events played arole in each artist’s interpretation.

Practice line and shading techniques. Aska classmate to be your model. This studentshould pretend to be frozen in the middle ofan action and may use a prop. Ask the modelto hold the pose for about 30 seconds. Useloose, free lines that build up the shape ofthe model. The lines should be sketchedquickly in order to capture movement. Fill inthe outlined shape with shading to create asense of depth. Digitize the rough sketchand manipulate with a paint program.

As court painter to King Henry VIII ofEngland, Hans Holbein was called upon topaint festival sets and works exalting the king.Not all of the tasks the artist was summonedto do were happy ones. The painting inFigure 18.15, for example, was begun at theking’s command several days after the deathof his wife and the child’s mother, JaneSeymour. Seymour had died soon after givingbirth. The tragedy of her loss was one Holbeinfelt personally. He had painted Seymour onseveral occasions and had developed a

fondness for the woman he described as “thekindest of gentle souls.” Holbein lived to seethe young Prince Edward ascend to thethrone. Sadly, he also witnessed the death ofthe prince at age 15.

1. The overall tone of the paragraph is bestdescribed as

upbeat.

angry.

2. The author’s point of view toward Holbeinmight best be described as

caustic.

condescending.

Chapter 18 Review 417

compassionate.

contemptuous.

sorrowful.

emotional.

art of sixteenth-century europe · 2014-04-03 · john calvin promotes reformation ... titian...

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