art education reform and new technologies || national databases and developing technologies

National Art Education Association

National Databases and Developing TechnologiesAuthor(s): Brian AllisonSource: Art Education, Vol. 49, No. 6, Art Education Reform and New Technologies (Nov.,1996), pp. 42-48Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193622 .

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ATIONAL DA ow can information necessary to support and shape art education be identified? How can all art educators have equal

access to such information? Information relevant to art education is both diverse and dispersed. The majority of teachers have neither the means nor the time to keep abreast of it. Therefore, establishing some means of collating that information and providing coherent routes into it will be both educationally and economically valuable.

It could be argued that all information, because it is a product of someone's experience, is valuable and, indeed, it may well be. Experience ranges from day-to-day events to the products of lifetimes, from the trite and trivial to the esoteric and profound but, of course, only some of the information derived from experience can be classed as professional information. Professional information is information which is encoded in a form which renders it accessible to others, most notably in written form, but also in other forms, such as visually or aurally.

INTERNATIONAL CONTEXTS OF ART EDUCATION

There is no doubt that art education, along with so many other endeavours

affecting the day-to-day life styles and activities of people, is becoming increasingly international. Although art educators in the United States still have a predominant concern for national affairs, an awareness of events and developments in other countries should affect and influence understandings of the nature of United States art and art education. This broadened focus is very recent. Ideas about cultural diversity and multiculturalism are relatively new in the United States even though, paradoxically, the United States has always been culturally diverse.

Although they may have an interest in international affairs, art educators in different countries not only have different needs but also work within different frameworks and have access to different kinds and levels of resources. One indicator of this variation was shown in the International Bibliography on Art Education and Creativity (1986), which listed indigenously authored texts considered by national experts to be influential on art educational practices in over 30 countries, as well as the periodicals and journals which constitute professional reading material for art teachers in those countries. The bibliography is enormously illuminating. Without

dwelling on the detail, it is evident that there are vast differences between countries in terms of priorities and emphases in art education, reflecting individual cultures, opportunities, facilities, environments, finances, and so on. Given these differences, questions have to be raised about what can be learned from ideas and practices in countries other than one's own and why it might be important to be able to access this kind of information. At one level, of course, such information is of particular value to those concerned specifically with comparative education, but, more importantly, it is an invaluable resource for art educators at all levels who wish to expand their perspectives. Although the International Bibliography is one of few international data sources directly applicable to the field of art education, there are others generated at national level which, collectively, represent a world-wide resource for art education. There is, at present, no means available for bringing together information about these national data sources. There is no doubt that such a resource could be of immense value to all art educators.

PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES IN ART EDUCATION

The literature of a field is one of the most important attributes for its

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identification as a "professional" field. Defining the literature of a field is, of course, not a simple matter and the field of art education is particularly difficult, not least because it embraces a diverse range of subject disciplines. The literature of art education is both national and international, covering all forms of writing and reporting in the United States and other countries, including research reports and theses, theoretical expositions, books, journal articles, conference reports, curriculum developments and descriptions of personal experiences. Although all forms of literature are important, the focus in this paper is on literature relating to research because, quite apart from the many other values it may have, it may be assumed that research is a major means by which knowledge and understanding in the field is both clarified and advanced. Attitudes towards research vary considerably between countries as does the importance attached to it and the extent to which it would be appropriate to describe it as forming a "research culture." In the United Kingdom, which has a fairly good track record of research, there has been an increase in the recognition of the nature, values, and roles of research. Such recognition is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the development of a "research culture" which, in my view, is essential to the development of our field. By the "field," I mean all aspects of art and design including, for example, that in industry, galleries, museums, and private practice as well as in art education.

A research culture is one in which all participants recognise and accept a common responsibility for the development of research in the field, including identification of directions and goals, sharing research

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methodologies and strategies, and collaboration and cooperation both in and between institutions in one's own and other countries. Most of all, development of the necessary research culture will depend upon adoption of a professional attitude to research.

Two aspects characterise a professional attitude to research. A professional attitude to research is demonstrated when any research project is developed in overt recognition of the context of, and builds upon, previous research. Despite the fact that many researchers in art and design believe their work is original and unique, or-more accurately, do not question that it could be otherwise- very few, if any, research projects actually are either original or unique in any real sense. This is only to be expected and this observation is not intended to devalue what has been done in any way. Familiarity with previous research, not only in terms of the particular and related topics but also in terms of the wide range of relevant methods and strategies, is a necessary pre-condition to any form of research. Indeed, it is not only poor research but also a waste of valuable time to pursue questions which have already been answered or to devise strategies or instruments when tried and tested ones are already available. There are no medalsfor re-inventing the wheel. Of course, the foregoing is essentially dependent upon information being available about what research has been completed as, otherwise, trying to find out what research has been done is a very real problem. I refer here to the ways information about research of different kinds is made available to the field, including research databases, journals carrying articles about research and research reports and theses. An invaluable

source of information to support art educators and researchers in the United States can be found in Sacca and Singer's Visual Arts Reference and Research Guide (1983).

The second aspect of the professional research attitude is acceptance of responsibility to report the outcomes of any research to the field-as can be appreciated, the first aspect is dependent upon the second. There are a number of reasons why reporting to the field is important, not least being that it renders the project open to critical appraisal by others in the field. Such critical appraisal is splendidly demonstrated in the University of Iowa Working Papers in Art Education produced by the late Marilyn Zuermuehlin. Critical appraisal is not only essential to the further development of the researcher's own understanding but also makes an important contribution to the development of others', including the appraisers', research understanding. Accepting serious critical appraisal as a normal part of the research endeavour is essential to development of a research culture. It is self-evident that in order to make information about research accessible to others, appropriate means must be available.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION: DATABASES

No matter how important it is to refer to earlier research, experience shows that it is not easy to find out what research in art education has been completed. By far the largest proportion of research projects are carried out in higher educational institutions and, of these, many are submitted as part of the requirements for higher degrees. In a few countries,

projects submitted in the field of art education for research degrees are included among thousands of studies completed in all subject fields recorded in listings published annually. Some of the best known lists are the Index to Theses (UK); Dissertation Abstracts International (United States), which includes data from over 400 institutions in the United States, Canada and Europe; Masters Abstracts International: A Catalog of Selected Theses on Microfilm (United States); Master's Theses in Education (United States); and Canadian Theses (Canada), which includes both master's and doctoral theses. These databases are enormous. Searching them for entries specifically relevant to art education, even using computer technology, is a laborious task. Even so, they only present a partial picture of completed research in the whole area of art and design and related fields.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION: RESEARCH JOURNALS

Another source is research journals, a considerable number of which include articles relevant to art and design. Important as these journals are within the literature of the field, they provide only a limited, selected sample of research activity. In the first place, only a small proportion of completed research is ever written up as articles and, of those that are, few are published, often long after the research has been completed. This is partly because of the logistics of publishing. Even in the United States, which is responsible for probably the world's largest volume of research, publishing space is insufficent. Furthermore, research reports published as articles in journals are often little more than extended abstracts or only partial

NOVEMBER 1996 / ART EDUCATION



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representations of the whole study. Reliance on journal articles to represent a research culture or as indications of research directions would be unjustified. Searching through the numerous journals which publish material directly in or relating to art education, even when using an articles- listing facility such as the splendid ERIC system, is, again, an enormous task. The development of the specialist art education database, ERIC ART, has made a valuable contribution to the field, but it has to be recognised that it is not exclusive to articles reporting research, nor exhaustive due to its dependency upon author submission or commission.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION: RESEARCH REPORTS

The most important sources of information about completed research are the research reports themselves, the largest proportion of which are in the form of theses or dissertations. Surprisingly, there have been few attempts to collate information on actual research projects specifically in art education. The only subject-specific listing of completed research in art education in the United States, for example, was by Lanier in 1962 although his list was restricted solely to doctoral dissertations.

NATIONAL RESEARCH DATABASES

The development of national databases for research in art education not only has enormous value for researchers and would-be researchers, as well as teachers and others involved in education within each country, but also places nationally focused research into the international arena. However,

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Tebby. Prof Susan nya Hill, Beck and Marsh: Development of two sculptural landscaped courtyards

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Public Arts, Wakefteld; Building Design Partnerships, Preston; AMEC Project WATER Shaw, P (Ed). (1991). Percent forArt:A Review. London: Arts CounclVArtlc Publishing pp5/1552. LANDSCAPING 62/63. Jones, S (Ed). (1992). Art in Public. Newcastle Artlc Publishing. Tseby, S. (1992) AESTHETICS

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|4i^^~is^^860.48W1 Model of North Courtyard. Quarry House,|4860.3 Investigative Aerial Drawing lor 3rd ENVIRONMENTAL Leeds. No 11. 1991 phase, sliced slate hills, 1992

4860.2 Model of South Courtyard, Quarry N0 NI Hotse. Leeds. No 12. 1991

'~t: ,, - ? The aim of the project was to provide external sculptural landscaped environments for up to 3000

employees within two courtyards There was one restriction: the 'loor' of the courtyards was the 'ceilig' of a two storey carpark. Thus weight and its distribution was an ever-present challenge that contributed signifiicantly to the overall scheme design. Each courtyard measured 42 x 36 metres.

In order to integrate the sculptural landscaping aesthetically within its architectural context - eight floors high on all sides - a number of key factors were identified as being conducive to the process: 1. study of the sun path pattern throughout the year (e.g. to maximise growth potential for/of planting, etc.) 2. use of similar materials where possible and appropriate (e.g. cumbrian slate, yorkstone, etc.) 3. endorsement of certain architectural frameworks (e.g use of the building grid as continuing structural device in hard and soft landscaping - paths, posts, hedges etc.)

Top: UK ARIAD. A section of Susan Tebby's Research Project entry. Above: UK ARIAD. Model of South Courtyard.

Illustration in Susan Tebby's Research Project entry.

as a database necessarily includes all completed research to date, doubtless it is easier to establish databases in

some countries than others. The development of an art education research database for North America, for example, would be an endeavour of some magnitude not only because of the number of studies completed

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annually but also because of the scale and volume of research already carried out. One of the purposes of this paper is to contribute to the debate about such a development. A North American database is technically feasible but would require a great deal of collaboration and cooperation. Some of the matters involved might be identified by considering the development of the national databases for the United Kingdom and Australia.

THE UNITED KINGDOM RESEARCH DATABASES.

Various databases of research in art education have been produced in the United Kingdom and developments in technology have affected both their structure and form. The first United Kingdom database, the Index of British Studies in Art Education (Allison, 1974), consisted of data on 274 projects completed in the United Kingdom up to that time. It was small enough to be assembled on a card index system. The next database was not published until 1986. By this time, the number of projects completed had risen to almost 1000 and the new database, the Index of British Studies in Art and Design Education (Allison, 1986), although published as hard copy, could not have been assembled without the aid of computer technology. The next database, the Allison Research Index of Art and Design (ARIAD), was developed in collaboration with the major national bodies for art and design, and published in 1992 in hard copy and on computer disc using Macintosh Hypercard (Allison, 1992). It included over 2000 studies in all the disciplines of art and design as well as in art education, in professional

UK ARIAD. Illustration in Susan Tebby Research

Project entry. Part of investigative aerial drawing.

practice as well as in academia. This database, which comprised data on research projects, research institutions, and research resources, capitalised on the powerful search and retrieval facilities offered by computer programs.

A significant step forward has been presentation of the ARIAD on CD ROM. The second edition of the Allison Research Index ofArt and Design was published in January 1996 on CD ROM, accessible to both Macintosh and PC Windows and builds on the earlier databases. It contains data on well over 3000 research projects. Whereas the earlier indexes consisted entirely of text, the use of CD ROM enabled the inclusion of images, which is important because many research projects in art and design are more meaningful when illustrated. The inclusion of images represents a major breakthrough in the storage and retrieval of information

about research in art and design. The resources database is also considerably expanded and includes selected entries from Sacca and Singer (1983) referred to earlier.

The ARIAD is held by all the major art and design institutions in the United Kingdom and has become an important part of the national art and design research culture. Not only is it seen as an essential resource for researchers and research students, it is also a barometer of research activity at institutional and national levels. As a showcase for United Kingdom research, it is of considerable value to art educators in other countries. Consideration is being given to the possibility of making the ARIAD accessible online through the Internet and extending it to include research carried out in other European countries.

NOVEMBER 2001 / ART EDUCATION



THE AUSTRALIAN RESEARCH DATABASE

A similar database has been developed in Australia in conjunction with colleagues in the University of Melbourne. An important feature of the Australian national database is its breadth. The Allison Research Index of the Arts and Design-Australia (Allison, Hammond & Reade, 1995) includes information on research projects in music, dance, and literature as well as in visual art education. Although the development of the Australian ARIAD benefited from the experience of the European database, similar problems were encountered at all stages. It is worth emphasising that the process of creating the database is not only an indication of the extent to which a research culture is being formed but also that participation in the endeavour, in itself, contributes to that formation. The Australian database will eventually include research carried out across the vast geographic area of the Pacific rim.

A NORTH AMERICAN RESEARCH DATABASE

There are enormous advantages in bringing information about completed research together in one subject- specific database. The United Kingdom and Australian ARIADs have shown the feasibility of such an endeavour and can be seen as a testing ground for many of the technical and other problems which have to be addressed. With the potential expansion of the United Kingdom and Australian ARIAD's to include research across the whole of Europe and the Pacific rim, the development of a North American database would enable research carried out in most of the world to be

placed into an interactively related environment. Such an endeavour would require a great deal of cooperation and collaboration but the effort would be well rewarded. It would not only provide a most substantial resource to enrich progress in art education but might do much to enhance the status of art education within the broader educational community.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Although the databases referred to

in this paper have a particular functional potency and value for art educators in specific regions of the world, they are also directly relevant to the wider international constituency of art education. Some issues in art education needing world-wide attention, although often locally applicable, have common underpinnings. In addressing these issues, the adoption of a "professional attitude" implies the need to build upon the substantial volume of work which has already been done and to learn from others' experience, both in terms of the identification and analysis of topics and the methods used in the enquiries.

Databases as described in this paper are only one, albeit an important one, of a number of resources which have been designed to offer support to art educators at this critical time in our history. The experience and success of the ARIADs in the United Kingdom and Australia have shown the technical feasibility of developing national databases, and they could serve as useful models for developing a similar database in North America. The development of such a database would need the collaboration and cooperation of all in the field to achieve its potential as a major resource, not only for the

United States but for art educators in all countries in the world.

Brian Allison is Emeritus Professor of Education, De Monfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom. His e-mail address is: [email protected]. uk.

REFERENCES Allison, B. (1974). Index of British studies in

art education. Leicester, United Kingdom: Leicester Polytechnic.

Allison, B. (1986). Index of British studies in art and design education. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Gower Press.

Allison, B. (Ed). (1987). International bibliography: Art education and creativity. Bulletin of the International Bureau of Education. Special Theme: Art Education and Creativity. Nos 244/245, 3rd/4th Quarters 1987. UNESCO.

Allison, B. (1992). Allison research index of art and design. Leicester, United Kingdom: Leicester Expertise Ltd.

Allison, B. (1996). Allison research index of art and design. (2nd ed.). Leicester, United Kingdom: ARIAD Associates.

Allison, B., Hammond, G., & Reade, G. (1995). Allison research index of the arts and design-Australia. Leicester, United Kingdom: ARIAD Associates.

Canadian theses/Theses canadiennes. (1995). (Microfiche). Ottawa, Canada: National Library of Canada. Annual.

Dissertation abstracts international. (1996). (CD-ROM). Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International. Monthly.

Index to theses acceptedfor higher degrees in the universities of Great Britain and Ireland. (CD-ROM). London: Aslib. Annual.

Lanier, V. (1962). Doctoral research in art education. Los Angeles: University of Southern California.

Masters abstracts international. A catalog of selected masters theses on microfilm. (1996). (Microfilm, CD-ROM). Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International. Bi-monthly.

Master's Theses in Education. (1995). Cedar Falls, IA: Master's Theses Directories. Annual.

Sacca, E., & Singer, L. (1983). Visual arts reference and research guide. Montreal: Prospecto Press.

Zuermuehlin, M. (1994). Workingpapers in art education. Ames, IA: University of Iowa.




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