- arnold schwarzenegger - aalborg universitet · - arnold schwarzenegger green development and...
TRANSCRIPT
Tim RukjærAdam Due
“We simply must do everything we can in our power to slow down global warming before it is too late. We can save our
planet and also boost our economy at the same time”
- Arnold Schwarzenegger
Green Development and Sustainable Behaviour in Modern TimeConsumer Society Corporation
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
1
TableofContents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................3
Introduction..............................................................................................................................................4
ProblemStatement.................................................................................................................................4
PhilosophyofScience............................................................................................................................4OntologyandEpistemology............................................................................................................................5
MethodologyDecisions.........................................................................................................................7
Delimitation...........................................................................................................................................10
Theory.....................................................................................................................................................12ConsumerSection............................................................................................................................................12WhoistheGreenConsumer?......................................................................................................................................13Needs,Desire,IdentityandConsumption.............................................................................................................18Needs..................................................................................................................................................................................................18Desire..................................................................................................................................................................................................19OrdinaryandInconspicuousConsumption.......................................................................................................................19IdentityandConsumption.........................................................................................................................................................20
MotivationalChallenges................................................................................................................................................20PrimaryMotives.............................................................................................................................................................................23SelectiveMotives...........................................................................................................................................................................26InformationalComplexityandPersonalResources.......................................................................................................27IndividualandSocialMorality.................................................................................................................................................28
BehaviouralChange........................................................................................................................................................31PersuasionTheory........................................................................................................................................................................32LearningandEducation..............................................................................................................................................................33Labelling............................................................................................................................................................................................34
Sub-conclusion.................................................................................................................................................35SocietySection..................................................................................................................................................36FoodandCorporateSustainability..........................................................................................................................36AGrowingDemandforFoodandtheSustainableChallenge.......................................................................38EnergyanditsLinktoFoodProduction................................................................................................................40PurchasingDecisionsandAttitudeonSustainableFoodProducts...........................................................40PressurefromPublicInstitutionsandTendenciesinOtherIndustries..................................................42FirstMoverIndustries–TheWindofChange..................................................................................................................46ParisAgreement.............................................................................................................................................................................49
Howfarhavewecome?Isitallfornothing?.......................................................................................................50Sub-conclusion.................................................................................................................................................51TheCorporatePointofView........................................................................................................................51CompaniesandSustainability....................................................................................................................................52CommitmenttoSustainability...................................................................................................................................54GreenMarketing...............................................................................................................................................................54
Sub-conclusion.................................................................................................................................................55
Analysis...................................................................................................................................................56Nestlé...................................................................................................................................................................56NestléCompanyPresentation....................................................................................................................................57SustainableDevelopmentGoals................................................................................................................................59Forindividualsandfamilies.....................................................................................................................................................60
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
2
ForthePlanet..................................................................................................................................................................................61ForourCommunities...................................................................................................................................................................62
CommunicationofNestléSustainabilityCommitments.................................................................................64Instagram..........................................................................................................................................................................................65Facebook...........................................................................................................................................................................................65Youtube..............................................................................................................................................................................................66
Sub-conclusion.................................................................................................................................................66Toyota..................................................................................................................................................................67History..................................................................................................................................................................................67ToyotaEnvironmentalChallenge2050..................................................................................................................68Communication.................................................................................................................................................................74
Sub-conclusion.................................................................................................................................................75
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................76
Discussion...............................................................................................................................................78
Appendices.............................................................................................................................................89
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
3
Abstract
Inmoderntimes,weseeagrowingfocusonsustainability,andconsumersaswellas
corporationsandnationsthatstartquestioningthewayweliveourlivesandthewaywe
treatourplanet.Asaconsequenceoftheindustrializationandglobalisation,commodities
areaffectingthewayweliveourliveslikeneverbefore.Thisstudyseekstoilluminatethe
greenconsumerandthecharacteristicsofthispersona.Byinvestigatingtheoryandtestingit
onreal-lifecasesanunderstandingofthisgrowingphenomenonisreached.Theresearchers
ofthispaperseektodescribetendenciesandillustrateexperiencefromrealcompanies
throughthetermsoftheoryandanacademicassessment.Byworkingindepthand
understandhowandwhytheconsumeracts,feelsandthinks,asolidfoundationforthe
forwardanalysisiscleared.Societyandeverythingthatsurroundsthegreenconsumeris
naturallyimportanttounderstandaswell,andthereforehaveelementshereofbeen
analysed,inordertocreateamoreholisticframeworktoworkfrom.Finallythecorporate
pointofviewisinvestigatedinrelationtothegreenmovementonthemarket.Totestthe
knowledgethathavebeenbuiltaroundthegreenconsumer,forwardlythiswillbeputtothe
testinreallifecases.Thisiswheretheanalysiscomesintoplace,andhereresemblance
betweenfoundedtheoryandpracticalcasesisclarified.Totheextentofthispaperascopeof
theCriticalRealismhasembossedtheresearch.Knowingthatweneverwillbeabletoframe
thecompletetruthwithinthisparadigm,wehaveattemptedtodescribetherealitythrough
atransitiveapproach.Tothefindingsofthispaper,indicationsarethatsustainable
developmentandactivitiesareusefulincommercialcoherences.Thismaybeexplained
throughstrategicconsiderationsthatthispaperdoesnotprovideinvestigate.Thoughitis
importanttomentionthatdespitethegrowingfocusandpressurefrompublicinstitutions,
somecompaniesmaychoosetoapplyitsubtleintheirmarketingactivities.Thispaper
furthermoreconcludesthattosegmentproductstothegreenconsumer,itisimportantto
understandthemanyanglesandperspectivestherearetothistopic.Thegreenconsumeris
influencedalotbyneedsanddesire,andcanbecharacterizedbythreetypes:TheAntihero,
TheEnvironmentalHeroandTheAnarchist.Theyallresponddifferenttosustainable
productsandcommunication.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
4
Introduction
Itisfairtosaythattheconceptsofgreendevelopmentandsustainablebehaviouraregaining
moreandmorevisibilityandinfluenceinthewesternsocietyoftoday.Especiallyour
consumptionpatternsandbehavioursareverychallengedbynewenvironmentallyfriendly
discoursesandsociety’spressureonconsumerstodotherightthingandconsume
responsible.Butinfactthesetopicshavequiteafewmorefacetsthanjustto“consume
responsible”.Theprocessesofprocurementofproductshavebecomeincreasinglymore
complexasaconsequenceoftheindustrializationandglobalizationandcommoditiesfrom
allaroundtheworldareavailabletousatourdemand.Atthesametimecapitalismhas
influencedglobalcommerceinaprofit-orienteddirection(Jackson2005),whichhasleadto
excessiveconsumption,finallyleadingtooverproductiontomeetdemands.
Thispaperseekstoinvestigatetheunderlyingdimensionsregardingsustainable
consumptionanddevelopment,withanaimofgainingsomeinsightsandunderstandingon
threekeydimensions;theconsumer,thesocietyandthecorporateworldaswellasofthe
topicingeneral.Ontheonehanditisimportantenlightenthisareatocreateevenmore
attentiontowardssustainableconsumptionpatternsandresponsiblebehaviour,tobetter
serveourcommonworld,butitisatthesametimepossibletousethisgreenthinking
strategicallyinthecommercialworldandherebymaking“beingresponsible”profitable?
Thesethoughtsleadustothefollowingproblemstatement.
ProblemStatement
Whatisimportanttounderstandintoday’smarketregardingsustainable/green
consumptionandhowcanthisbeusefulincommercialcompanies?
PhilosophyofScience
Itcanbearguedthatphilosophyisconcernedwiththeessentialideasabouthowtheworld
isconstituted.Withthisinmind,philosophyofscienceistheessenceofscientificresearch,
whichprovidesideasandperceptionsabouthowtoapproachandaccessaresearchand
therebytogainknowledgeaboutaspecificareaorprinciple(Bryman2008).Thischapter
willthereforeoutlinehowweviewtheworldandrealityinthisprojectandhowweaimto
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
5
createknowledge.Wewillapproachthismatterthroughexplainingourstandpointonthe
followingthreefundamentals;ontology,epistemologyandmethodology.
OntologyandEpistemology
Ontologycanbesaidtobethefirstcircleofunderstanding,whichisconcernedabouthow
theresearchercomprehendandunderstandsreality.Basically,theworldcanbeunderstood
fromtwomainperspectives;positivismandinterpretivism(BrymanandBhaskar2008).
Thefundamentalpositionofpositivismcanbeclassifiedasobjectivism,wherethe
researcherandactorsareexternaltoreality,andthereforehavenopossiblewayof
influencingneithertheworldnorthetruth.
Thestandpointofinterpretivismisbasedupontheunderstanding,thateveryhumanbeing
equallythroughinteractionsandinterpretationsareconstructingrealities.Hence,notruth
orconclusionsaboutrealitycanbemade,sinceweareallconstructingittogetherbytheway
weact,speakandinteractwitheachother.Bearingthisinmind,allindividualscreatetheir
ownsocialreality,whichisdifferentfromindividualtoindividual.Thissocialrealityisalso
everychangingandcontinuouslyunderconstructionasindividualsinteractwitheachother
(Kuada2012).
Weasresearchersareanchoredincriticalrealism,whichisexpressedthroughthisthesis.
Weareoftheconvictionthattheworldrestsonafoundationthatispartlyindependentof
human’sacknowledgements.Herebystatingthatwedonothavedirectadmissiontothe
worldwewanttoinvestigate.
Wearelikewiseofthepersuasionthatthereisarealityoutthere,whichisindependentof
humanknowledgehereof.Ontologicallyseen,thereactuallyexistsarealworld,unaffected
byhumanacts.Thisrealityisinvolvingofconsistingcausalcoherences,arrangementsand
structures.
Individualsarenotablereachaccesstothisreality.Thisisexplainedbythatitis
independentofhumanexistenceandacknowledgementhereof.Allepistemologicallyworkis
sociallyconstructed,humansbetween(BrymanandBhaskar2008).Distinguishingbetween
transitiveandintransitiveobjectsofknowledge(Bhaskar,Collier,andNorrie1998).The
intransitiveobjectsofknowledgeisdescribedasbeingobjectsthatalwayswillexist“out
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
6
there”,evenifweashumansdonotacknowledgeorrealizetheexistencehereof.Transitive
objectsofknowledgecanbedescribedashumanattemptstounderstandandexplainthese
intransitiveobjects.Thisisdonebyusingmodels,theoryandhypothesis–theseare
consideredasbeingsocialconstructions,createdbyhumanactions,activitiesand
communication(Bhaskar,Collier,andNorrie1998).Thoughitisimportanttostressthat
thesetransitiveobjectsofknowledgecannotbereplacedwithrealityandtherebyremain
sociallyconstructedmodels,andstructuresinourattempttoclarifyreality,well-knowing
thattheseattemptswillnotreachthelevelofrealtruth(Bhaskar,Collier,andNorrie1998).
Bytheabove-mentionedinductiontoourcriticaluniverse,ourfocusistoobserve,explain
andunderstandToyotaandNestlé’ssuccesswithinstrategicimplementationofsustainable
andgreenmarketingandhowothercompanies,tofollowthetrendswithinsustainable
consumption,canapplyknowledgehereofwithadvantage.Itisimportanttostress,thatthe
analysisandinterpretationsofthisresearchisbasedonsocialcontractedknowledge,
therebyrestingonafoundationofeventsandexperiencesofsocialtransitiveconstructive
nature.
Twocompanieshavebeenchoseninthisresearch,toillustratethetendenciesand
inclinationsbycompanieswhoprioritisegreendevelopmentandmarketing.BothNestléand
Toyotaareconsideredtoexperiencesuccesswithinsustainableinitiativesandbyanalysing
theirgoals,methodsandresults,experiencecanbeusedfurtherinour“areaoffocus”:
sustainability.Itisourintentiontoinvestigatethesetwocompaniesstrategicinitiatives
withinsustainability,astheytakeplaceinthenaturalsociallife,toapproachapointof
explanationtotheintransitiveaspectsofreality.Weasresearchersarefullyawarethat
withinthisparadigmwedonotpossessadirectaccesstothesemechanisms,deeper
structuresandcausallaws.
Focusforthisresearch,isthefoundationofknowledgethatwewanttoestablishby
deployingrelevanttheoryandtendencieswithinsustainable-consumption,development,
tendenciesandhowthisisaffectedbydifferentelementslikethesustainableconsumer,
society’srole,thecorporatepointofviewandthepressurefrompublicinstitutions.
Moreoverourgoalistodemonstratehowcompaniescantakeadvantageofthesustainable
developmentweexperienceinmoderntimes.Theresultwillhopefullyprovideabreeding
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
7
groundforfurtherinvestigation,toofwhatandhowcompaniescanutilizecorporate
sustainabilitymorestrategicallyintheirreality.
Wewillthroughtheresearchletusinspireandgainknowledgethroughtheoretical
foundations,cognizantofthefactthatthesedoesnotdefinethecompleteandfinaltruthand
issocialconstructed,therebyaninterpretationandanattempttounderstand.
MethodologyDecisions
Inordertoconductresearch,differentmethodscanbeappliedtocreatearelationshipand
associationbetweentheoryandresearch.Thesecanbecharacterizedas;deductive,
inductiveandabductivemethods(Kuada2012).
Deductiveresearchmethodstakeitsstandpointintheory.Theoriesareusedinordertotest
ahypothesisgainedorcreatedfromthesetheories.Thehypothesisistestedagainst
observedand/orcollecteddata.Herethetheorycaneitherbeconfirmedorrejected,based
upontheresultsfromtheobservationand/ortestcollectedfromdata.Inductivemethods
startswithobservations(BrymanandBhaskar2008).Theaimistoobservepatterns,
similaritiesanddesignswiththeaimofdevelopingorusingatheorytounderstandthese
observedpatterns.Theintentionofinductivemethodsismoreflexibleandexamining,and
aimtounderstandandinterpretratherthanexplainaphenomenon.Abductiveresearchcan
bearguedtobeakindofcombinationofboththeabovementionedresearchmethods.Itcan
besaidtobeahybrid.Thefundamentalideaistoshiftbetweentheoryanddatacollected
throughouttheresearch(BrymanandBhaskar2008).
Wehavechosentoapplytheabductivemethodforthepurposeofthisproject.Thisis
groundedbyourassessmenttothewayweapplytheorythroughouttheresearch.Westart
offwiththeoreticalassumptionsandapplicationsthatsubsequentlyarelinkedtosecondary
data,whereuponthisagainwillbediscussedintermsofthetheoreticalnatureofthe
research.Wetherebyshiftbetweentheoryandcollecteddatathroughouttheproject.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
8
Fromacriticalrealismpointofview,weareoftheconvictionthatwecannotreachafinal
anddefinitivetruth,althoughweaimtodosothroughoutourresearch(Bhaskar,Collier,and
Norrie1998).Bydoingthis,wecreateafoundationofknowledge,whichconstitutesasour
platform,wherewecancreate,shapeandsculpturewhatweseeascontemporaryandclose
reflectionofreality(Bhaskar,Collier,andNorrie1998).Thisisreachedthroughtheories,
whichwehaveappliedasthefirstpartofthepaper.Throughoutthepaperwewillconduct
researchandtrytounderstandandexplaincontextsandcoherencesfromthechosentheory.
Althoughweacknowledgethatwecannot“squeeze”thisinboxes.Thisiswherecritical
realismhasderivedfrompositivism,tothemoreconstructionisticparadigm,where
everythingissocialconstructed.
Inthisresearchwehavenotchosentostartfrom“scratch”.Thisexpressesitselffromthe
waythatwebuildourresearchuponothersfindings,withinthefieldofsustainabilityand
consumption.Bydoingso,weaddvaluableknowledgeandclarificationtothefieldof
research,therebycontributingtothescientificcommunity.Byusingexitingcasesandtheory
ofotherresearchersasfoundationandweconstructknowledgebyapplyingthistothecases
ofToyotaandNestlé.Whileduringsowewillgetaclearindicationofhowthepracticalcases
correspondwiththeorywithinthefield.Bothcompanieshavebeenselectedduetotheyare
consideredleadingwithinsustainabledevelopment–withintheirrespectiveindustries
(moreofthislater).Intermsoftheproblemformulation,weseektoillustratehow
companiescanusethesustainabledevelopmentanddemandinvantage.Theresearchersof
thispaperacknowledgesthatageneralcompletetruth,orforthatmatter“bestpractice”,
cannotbetransferredtoothercorporaterealities.Totheextensionofthisweseekto
analyzeandconcludeontendencies,patternsandtrytoidentifysomeunderlyingstructures,
byanalyzingourtheoreticalframeworkwiththetwocompanycases.Thisisvaluableinsight,
forfutureuse,andservestopassontheoreticalprovenexperienceforthoseofinterest.
Astodatacollection,chainsearchhavebeentheprimarymethodofemployment.Through
theinitialphaseofthedatacollection,wheretheresearchersgainknowledgeandinsightto
understandandlearnfromwhichchallengesandaspectsthetopicofsustainabilityconsists
of,chainsearchhaveaddedsubstantialvalue.Whenreadingdifferenttheoriesandscientific
articlesnewempiricexperiencehavepresenteditself.Byconstantlysubmergingand
deepeninginthesetrailsofknowledgetheresearchersofthispaperhaveobtainedabroad
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
9
acquaintanceofsustainabilityandconsumption.Apositiveankleonthis,istheconstantnew
informationpresentedbythismethod.Asaresearcheryouwillleaddeepintotheverycore
ofthetopic.Apossiblenegativesidetothiswayofobtainingknowledge,isthatyoubase
everythingonthechoicesofothers.Thisisreflectedthroughoutthewholeresearch,even
withacriticalstancetowardsempiricalprocurement.Likewiseitiseasytobeseducedby
otherswork,henceitisimportanttothink“outofthebox”andcomplementwithother
empiricaldata.Thiscanfurthermoremeanthatthefinalresultcanbelessscientific
balanced,ornuanced.
Wehave,mostly,utilizedsecondarydataintheanalysis.Secondarydataisoftenwellwithin
reach,whichmakesitrelativelysimpletoacquire–comparedtoprimarydata.Inthecases
ofToyotaandNestlégreatvolumesofsecondhanddataisprocessed,butasresearcherswe
acknowledgethatNestléandToyotahaveapoliticalagendainappearingaspositiveas
possibletoconsumers,investorsandotherofinterest.Thismeansthatwehaveprocessed
dataofthischaracterwithaskepticallyandcriticallyapproach.Likewise,theonlysecondary
datausebyus,ischaracterizedasdeskresearch–thismeansthatthedatausedinthis
projectbasicallyisavailabletoanyonewantingtheinformation.
Twopersonshaveparticipatedinthisresearch.Thisnaturallycreatesamorebroad
assessmentintermsofthedatacollectionandsparringpractice.Furthermoreitbenefitsthe
projectbyunderstandingofwhatknowledgeactualisandmultiplepeoplearepositivefor
thediversityofopinionsandideas.
Inadditiontothis,itcanbeaddedthatweunderstandtheworldin“boxes”.Whenweopen
“Sustainability”,tennewboxesopensup,whicheachnowconsistsofadditional10new
boxes.Weexperiencesustainabilityandconsumptionasabroadareaofinterest,both
consistingofmanydifferentsubtopics.Wehavehighlightedtheonesofbiggestinfluencein
theelaborationofwhatweunderstandbysustainabilityinthedelimitationsection.Wesee
theseasfundamentalfortheunderstandingoftheproblemfieldandtheproblem
formulation.
Inordertoanswerourproblemformulation,thefirstpartofthepaperseekstoinvestigate
the“sustainableconsumer”.Todothis,theresearchersofthispaperhaveidentifiedsome
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
10
keyelementswithinthefieldthatwefindnecessaryinthediscourseofthetopic.A
comprehensivereviewoftheoryonthe“GreenConsumer”isprocessed.Herewewantto
understandhowthistypeofconsumerisclassifiedandwhatpossibilitiesandchallenges
theycomewith.ByexaminingIdentity,MotivationalChallengesandBehaviouralChangewe
willcreateasolidtheoreticalfoundationforfurtherdiscourseandanalysis.Tocreateamore
holisticapproachtothetopic,tendenciesanddevelopmentonacorporate,nationaland
internationallevelwillcomplementthesectionregardingtheGreenConsumer.This
theoreticalframeworknowfunctionasadynamicplatformandastransitiveknowledge
objects.Asmentionedinthelastsection,wewillneverbeabletounderstandthecomplete
truth,butwecanattempttoframeapartofitbythehelpofthesetransitiveknowledge
objects.
Inourabductiveprocesswenowwanttoseehowtheorycorrespondswiththetwocases,
NestléandToyota.Regardlessofthefindings,wewillinoursearch,trytofindthecoherence
betweenhowwethinktheworldworks(ourtheory),andwhatwelearnfromthedata
collectedalongtheway.Thegoalistolearnfromtwocompaniesrecognisedfromtheir
sustainabledevelopment,inasearchforwhatothercorporationscanlearn.The
interdependentrelationshipbetweentheoryanddatacollectiontakesitsplaceasthecentral
methodologicalpractise.
Weasresearchersacknowledgeourpartintherealitywewanttoinvestigate.Wearenot
capableofunderstandingtherealityoutthere,withouttakingpartinit,orprocessitwithout
influencingit.Everythingweknowanddiscussissomethingthatwehavedescribedand
conceptualized.Bytryingtoinvestigatetherealitywearetakingpartinwhatwesee.
Delimitation
Asofthedefinitionandaccountingforwhatisunderstoodassustainabilityanelaboration
onthesubjectseemsappropriate.Tothenatureofthisproblemformulationitisimportant
toclarifywhatisunderstoodby“sustainability”.
Sustainabilityisabuzzwordinpresenttimes,andtheuseoftheworddoesnotseemtohave
limits,althoughtheessenceofthetermis“thatwhichcanbemaintainedovertime”
(Heinberg2018).Throughoutdifferentliteratureanddictionaries,complementary
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
11
definitionscanbefound.Itcoversmanyareasandcanfluxinitsmeaning,dependingonthe
appliance.Whileillustratingthemeaningofsustainabilitytheresearchersofthispaper
acknowledgesandrealizesthatthereisnosuchthingas“eternalsustainability”.
Astronomerspredictsthatinseveralbillionyears,thesunwillsubmitenoughheattomake
theoceansoftheearthboil(Heinberg2018).RichardHeinberg(widelyknownasoneofthe
pioneersregardingresearchingandcommunicatingtheneedoftransitiontorenewable
energy),usethetermsustainabilityasaframeofreferencetoillustratecivilisationsand
societiesthatareabletomaintainthemselves,rangingfromhundredstothousandsofyears.
Thiswillbereflectedbythewaytheycarrythemselvessocially,andhowtheymanageto
preservetheenvironment(Heinberg2018).Asmentionedabove,therearemultiple
definitionsofwhatsustainabilitycovers.Mostdefinitionscentresaroundthesamecore,but
throughtheirformulationshaveslightlyvariousmeanings.OxfordDictionariesprovidestwo
versionsdescribingitas“Theabilitytobemaintainedatacertainrateorlevel”and
“Avoidanceofdepletion,ofnaturalresourcesinordermaintainanecologicalbalance”(Oxford
Dictionaries2018).
Manysub-conceptsemanatefromsustainabilityandwhileinvestigatingsustainability,new
wordsappearthatcanhelpframethemanyfacetsofsustainability.Renewable,inrelationto
energy,isincreasinglyusedinthediscourseregardingenergyconsumptionandproduction.
Conductingbusinesswithsustainabilityasfocalpointmayalsoimplytakingasocial
responsibility.Securingcommunitiesandinvolvedparties,bothupstreamanddownstream
inthesupplychain,helpsustainingbusinessandsocietiesinthefutureaswell(Kramer
2018).Ecologicalconsiderationscanalsobethepointofreferencewhendiscussing
sustainabilityaswellasresourcemanagementincludingtacklingwaterspillage,waste
disposal/renewal,correctuseofsoiletc.Thesefacetsofcorporatesustainabilityillustrates
thatsustainabilitycanbeappliedtomanyareas,businessmodelsandproducts.
Theuseofthetermsustainabilityhasincreasedcritiquelately,duetoitswideandopen
definition.Companieswithlackofdeeperunderstanding,andcarelesspeopleutilizethe
termtodescribewhatisallegedlysustainable.Insufficientdocumentationorassumptions
haveaffectedthetermofsustainabilitynegativeandsomeenvironmentalistshavedirectly
advisedagainsttheuseoftheterm,centraltothispaper(Heinberg2018).
Justasdifferentpartieshavedefinedsustainability,sustainabledevelopmenthaslikewise
beencoined.TheUnitedNationshavedefinedsustainabledevelopmentas“developmentthat
meetstheneedsofthepresent,withoutcompromisingtheabilityofthefuturegenerationsto
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
12
meetownneeds”(WorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,1987)(United
Nations2018).
Regardlessoftheefforttryingtopreserveournature,societyandplanet,asweknowit,
changewillalwaysbeinevitable.Theenvironmentthatwefindourselvesinisconstantly
changing–withorwithoutourinfluence.Thismeansthat,totheextentofour
understandingofsustainability,thetermiscentredonpreservingtheworldasweknowit.
Corporatesustainabilityisthereforeconductingbusinessinanon-harmfulandpreserving
matter,toelementsofintereste.gsocietiesandenvironment.Thoughitisprobablysafeto
assumethatnocorporationisfullysustainableandleavesnomarkontheplanetandthe
environment,theresearchersofthispaperacknowledgesthattherecanbedifferentdegrees
ofcorporatesustainability.Thereforethetermwillbeprocessedinrelationtothis
forwardedinthepaper.
Asapartofthetheoreticalsection,studiesfromStatista.comhavebeenapplied.The
researchprovidedisdatabasedonquestionnairesregardinggreenconsumerismand
thoughtsongreenproductsandattributeshereof.Thestatisticsiscarriedouton1000
respondents.Thisisnotcomprehensiveenoughtoconcludeon,buttotheextentofthis
papertheyonlyfunctionassupporttootherempiricfindings.
Inthesectionwithfocusonnationaltendencies,withinsustainabledevelopmentconditions
regardingtransport(Tesla)andenergyproductioniscoined.Thismaynotseemdirectly
relevanttotheproblemformulation,buttheresearchersofthispaperisconvincedthatit
contributetoamoreholisticunderstandingofthegreentendencies.Itisnotjustofinterest
totheprivatesector,butissomethingnationsalsoareaffectedby.
Theory
Thefollowingsectionwilltakethereaderthroughthispaper’stheoreticalfoundations,
dealingwiththreekeydimensionsregardingsustainableconsumptionanddevelopment.
ConsumerSection
Thisfirstsectionofthetheorysectionwillshedlightonimportantelementsregardingthe
greenconsumer.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
13
WhoistheGreenConsumer?
Greenconsumerismisatopicalphenomenoninourmoderncontemporaryconsumer
culture.Itisgenerallyrecognizedthattherearesubstantialbarrierstothepropagationof
moregreen-orientedconsumptionpatterns.Thesebarriersareusuallyattributedtoa
motivationalandpracticalcomplexityofgreenconsumptionresultingindifferent
consumershavingdifferentconceptionsofgreenorientedconsumerbehaviour(Moisander
2007).Despiteofthefact,thisformofconsumerismoftenattractspolicymakersand
marketersyetitisacontestedconceptallowingforawiderangeoftranslationsineveryday
practices.Thefollowingsectionseekstoinvestigatewhatcoverstheterm“greenconsumer”
and“greenconsumerism”,whatmotivatesthemandwhatchallengestheseconceptsare
facinginthemoderncontemporarywesternmarketeconomies.
Tonarrowdowntheverywideconceptofgreenconsumers,aresearchamongyoung
Finnishconsumerswillbeutilized.Theresearchisbuiltupon551essayson
“environmentallyfriendlyconsumption”writtenbyFinnish16-19yearolduppersecondary
schoolstudents(Wang,Lo,andFang2009).Alloftheessayshaveundergoneaqualitative
analysisoncommonandgeneralattitudes,pointsandissueshavebeenbundledupand
finallypairedtogethertothreesuperiorgreenconsumertypes.TheFinnishsocietyisargued
afairlyaffluentEuropeansocietywithafairlyhighdegreeofeducationandenvironmental
awareness.TheFinnishsocietyistherefore,regardingthismatter,considered
representativeformoderncontemporarywesternmarket.
Itisparticularinterestingtoexaminethedevelopmentofconsumeridentitiesamongyoung
peoplewhodrawontheirculturalheritageandonotherdiscourses,inclusivegreen
discourses,tocreatetheirowndiscursivepractices.TheresearchbyChih-ChienWangetal.
managetoconceptualizethese551essaysintothreesubcategoriesortypesofconsumers
regardingsustainableconsumption:theAntihero,theEnvironmentalHeroandthe
Anarchist(Wang,Lo,andFang2009).Althoughthesethreetypesconstructdifferentgreen
consumerpositionstheyalldisplaycentraldiscursivepracticesofgreenconsumerism.Of
courseitisnotpossibletostrictlyplaceallconsumerstoanyofthesethreetypesandthe
boardersbetweenthemmustbeviewedalittleblurry,buttheymakeagoodnotionofhow
consumersencountersgreenconsumerism.
TheAntiheroopposesecologicalandenvironmentalfriendlyconsumptionbecausethistype
doesnotbelieveintheindividualtohaveanypowertomakeanydifference.Thistype
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
14
believethattheworldisbeingdestroyedtoacertainextentwhetherornothe/sheengagein
environmentallyfriendlyactivitiesorconsumption.Asatypeitcanbestatedthatthe
Antiheroputshimself/herselfbeforethesocietyingeneralwhichtheresearchemphasizes
throughthepointthattheantiherowillhavenotroubleconsumingproductsthatis
manufacturedbychildren,cosmeticstestedonanimals,excessiveuseofprivatecarsinstead
ofpublictransportation,aslongastheindividualfeels/thinksthathe/sheisgaining
somethingpersonally–e.g.finequalityclothesorcosmeticstoaminimumcostorno
inconvenientwaitingforthebus.Itisarguedthatthistypeofindividualsarefamiliarwith
thegreenconsumerdiscourseeventhoughtheychoosenottopromoteit(Wang,Lo,and
Fang2009).Theseyoungpeoplehavebeenbornintoaworldthatononehanddirects
peopletoconsumemoreandontheotherhandaddressesenvironmentalproblemsand
promotesbehaviourthatreducesthese.“Green”rhetoricissomethingfamiliartoyoung
peopletoday,eveniftheymaynotbeconvincedgreenconsumers(AutioandHeinonen
2004).Thisrevealsatensionbetweengreenconsumerismasaconceptandtheimplicit
messagesofpromotingcheapandconvenientconsumerism,whichleadsbacktothepointof
theAntiheroseekingconvenientsolutionstoissuesinhis/herownlife.TheAntihero
disassociateshimself/herselffromtheideaofindividualresponsibilitybystatingthatthe
actionsofonepersonaremeaningless,whichmeansthatonepersoncannotbesaviourof
theworldandthereforeoneshoulddoasonepleases(Wang,Lo,andFang2009).This
notionofindividualresponsibility,isactuallyquiteaparadox:someindividuals,asthe
Antiheroforexample,usethisnotionasahindranceforexecutinggreenconsumerism,while
othersbelieveinthattheindividualbecomesaforcebyunitingwithothers,suchasthe
EnvironmentalHero.(Wang,Lo,andFang2009)
TheEnvironmentalHeroacknowledgetheimportanceofmainstreamgreenpracticesas
forexamplechoosingenvironmentallyfriendlyproductsorpractisingrecycling.Tomany
youngpeoplegreenpracticesaremerelyday-to-daychoicesthanradicalism,growingupin
societywithrecyclingpointsandthelike.Theyarefamiliarwithenvironmentallyfriendly
labellingsuchasEco-label,NordicSwan-label,organicfood-labelsandthelike,andbelieve
inthem(AutioandWilska2005).Autiomoreoverargues,thatgreenconsumerpracticesare
reflectedinmainstreamgreenideasamongyoungpeople.Tothesepeople,theeveryday
heroismconsistofhouseholdwastemanagement,asrecyclingandsortingandfavouring
sustainable,natural,organicetc.products.TheEnvironmentalHerodoesnotherebyview
greenconsumerpracticesaslimitationstoconsumptionbutmoreasalogicalpartof
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
15
householdmanagement–therightchoices.TheEnvironmentalHeromaynottakeinto
accounttheeffectthegivenproducthasontheenvironmentintheentirelifecycleofthe
product,buthe/sheisconsciousaboutwhatimpactseveralofthestagesproductlifecycle
mighthave.Thisisademandingtaskasitmightbedifficulttotheconsumertoassessthe
impactofaproduct,buttheEnvironmentalHeroviewsscienceasaresourceratherthana
causeforscepticismastheAntiherodoes(AutioandHeinonen2004).
Wangetal.referstoadifferentkindoftensionthantheonepresenttotheAntihero.Whenit
comestoyoungpeople,themainobstacleisarguedtobethepremiumpricessustainable
andenvironmentallyfriendlyproductsoftencomewith.Besideofbeingwillingtomake
economicsacrificestothebenefitofcommittingtogreenconsumerethos,itisalsoargued
thatresponsiblechoicesrequireawarenessandskills.Theenvironmentallyfriendlinessis
herebybecomingthebehaviouralnormforconsciousandeducatedpeople.Thisenablesthe
tensionbetweenthisbehaviouralnormandtheindividual’spersonalinterests(Wang,Lo,
andFang2009).Ifthisshouldnotbeobstaclesenough,theEnvironmentalHeroalsobattles
with(notdifferenttothetwoothertypes,butmaybemoreimportanthere)thesupplyand
rangeofsustainableproducts/activitiescanbelimiteddependentonwhereandhowthe
individualliveshes/herslife.Locallygrownvegetablesishardertoobtainincoldregions
throughthewinter,usingpublictransportationcanbeharderifnotlivinginacityetc.Does
thefactthatyouaregrowingyouownvegetablesmakeyouagreenerconsumer,ifitisatthe
expenseoflivinginthecountrysideandneedacareverytimeyouneedtoleavehome?Are
youagreenconsumerbybuyingorganicbananasinDenmark,eventhoughtheyaregrown
ontheothersideoftheplanet?TheEnvironmentalHerodoesnottrytobeaperfectgreen
consumerormakingradicalinitiativesintheeverydaylife,buttriestoliveanormallifeand
takingtherightdecisionsasoftenaspossibleregardingsustainableconsumption.He/she
hasimplementedenvironmentallyfriendlyactivitiesasamainstreampartoftheday-to-day
life.
TheAnarchist.TheresearchrevealsthattheyoungFinnishconsumersareawareoftheshit
stormsagainst,forexample,Nike,IKEAandH&Maccusingthecompaniesofusingchild
labour.TheAntiherowouldfavourthesecompaniestoobtainself-glorificationorself-
exaltationtoaminimumpersonalsacrifice,wheretheEnvironmentalHerowillpractise
moreresponsibilitythroughsupportingsustainable/ethical/organicmanufacturing.This
doesnotmeanthattheEnvironmentalHerowilldeselectabove-mentionedcompanies,but
willratherencounterthemwithacriticalattitudeandmaybedeselecttheabsolutely
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
16
cheapestproductsfrome.g.Bangladesh.Incomparisonwiththesetwotypes,theAnarchist
representthetraditionalandradicalgreendiscourse(Moisander2007).Thisrebellioustype
canbeviewedasadistinctoppositiontotheanti-greendiscourseandthemainstream
environmentalheroism.TheAnarchistknows,asdiscussedregardingtheenvironmental
hero,thatfindingreliableinformationregardingsustainabilityandethicisdifficult,butalso
believethattherearehardlyanytrulyenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts,regarding
productsfromcommercialmanufacturing.TheAntiheroisverypoliticalmotivatedand
viewsmultinationalcompaniesasimmoral,outsourcingtheirproductionstolessdeveloped
countriesandtakingadvantagesofthosewhoareworstoff(Wang,Lo,andFang2009).To
theAntihero,veganism,vegetarianismandfreeganism(dumpsterdiving–searching
dumpstersbelongingtoretailersfordumpedgoods)canbecomeameanofcivicactivism,
protestingthesurplusproductioninthefoodproductionsectorandtheoverspendingof
resourcesinthemeatproductionindustryincomparisontoplant-basedfoodproduction.
Theseviewsarenotsolelyideasandchoicesbutareoftenlinkedtopoliticalmotivated
behaviour(Wang,Lo,andFang2009).
ThisresearchshowsthattheyoungFinnishpeople’sunderstandingofgreenconsumptionis
activelyconstructedbutyetbasedontheirexistingculturalresources.Theattitudesfrom
thethreetypesarereflectedincurrentcontextanddrawsoneducationalmaterialand
topicalsocialproblemsaswellaspopularcultureandmedia.
TheAntiherocomparestheavocationsforgreenconsumerismwithbothtraditionalvalue
propositions(the“whatisgoodandcheapforme”-mindset)andscience,regardingthe
minimalinfluencetheindividualconsumerhasontheoverallsustainableimpact.Incontrast
tothis,theAnarchistnegatesthesocialvalueofconsumption.Thistypedrawscounter-
discoursesthatarguetheinconsistencyofacapitalisticconsumersocietywith
environmentalandsocialinterests.TheEnvironmentalHerorepresentsathirdwayof
thinkingthereality,byconstructingacontinuumbetweengreenconsumerism,scientific
progressinthesocietyandchoosingthe“right”kindofproductsandconsumerbehaviours,
intermsofalongtermproject,oftheindividualmoralresponsibility.Furthermoreitcanbe
statedthattheEnvironmentalHerodoesnotdenythatgreenconsumerpracticesare
incompatiblewithenjoyableconsumerethos.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
17
Acommonfeatureofthethreetypestherecanbediscernedadominanceofthe
individualisticmoraldiscourse(Moisander2001)whichisarguedtobethemainformof
agencywhetherornotitisviewedaseffective.
Thethreetypesshowwhatkindsofpositionsareavailableformostconsumerstoday.The
threedifferentpositions–TheEnvironmentalHero,theAntiheroandtheAnarchistexistin
relationtooneanother.TheEnvironmentalHerorepresentsawholeheartedlyembracement
ofthedominantdiscourseinwhichaconsumerisawellinformed,morallyexemplaryand
rationalsocialconsumer(Moisander2001).TheAntihero’spositionisratherasimplified
assumptionofthedominantdiscourseandfatalismanddissociationwilloftenbewaysof
dealingwiththetensionsofthemoderndayconsumption.Asbydefinition,theAnarchist
placeshim/herselfoutsidethedominantdiscourse.ItcanbearguedthattheAnarchist
wantstogobeyondtheroleasaresponsibleconsumerandbeyondthemainstreamnorm
providedbythesocietyandthemedia–recyclingwasteisnotenough.
TheEnvironmentalHero’srolecanbeviewedaschallengingduetothefactthatthe
consciousnessabout-andcontextofbeingsocialandenvironmentalresponsiblelimitsthe
availablechoices.TheAnarchistendsupputtinghim/herselfinamarginalizedposition
relativetothemainstreamconsumerethosbyrejectingthenotionofconsumptionisaway
ofgaininghappinessandsocialsuccess.ThedenialoftheAntiheroiscompletelytheother
wayaround.He/shewelcomesallthepleasuresofmaterialconsumerculturebutdeniesany
relevanceofenvironmentalconsequencesbyleaningtowardsthebeforementionedfatalism
-theworldisbeingdestroyedregardlessofthesingleindividual’sactions(Wang,Lo,and
Fang2009).
Itisfairtostatethatfromthethreetypes,theresearchhighlights,thatthegreenconsumer
lifestyleisnotveryattractive,norfashionable,unlesstheindividualgainssomethingfrom
thedenialofthebenefitsofthemodernconsumerculture.Thereisalotofmoralpay-offbut
ingeneralthisresearchconcludesthatthesethreetypesquicklywillbeaffectedby
inconvenienceandbiggerstrainontheprivateeconomy,andthisisonlyiftheconsumer
actuallyrecognizeswhatchoicesareinfacttherightonesregardingresponsible
consumption.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
18
Needs,Desire,IdentityandConsumption
Withaneyetothethreetypesofgreenconsumersitisobvioustoinvestigatetheconnection
betweenconsumptionandidentitytogetabetterunderstandingofthegreenconsumer.
Needs
Consumptionisnecessarilytieduptocoversomekindofneed.Classificationsofhuman
needstendtodistinguishbetweensocial/psychologicalneeds,asself-esteem,belongingness
etc.,andmaterialneeds,asprotectionandsubsistence(Maslow1982).Moreoverthese
needscanbedistinguishedbetweenneedsthemselvesandsatisfiers,butnotallsatisfiersare
equallysuccessfulinmeetingandfulfiltheunderlyingneed.Forexampleisfoodagreat
satisfiertotheneedofsubsistence,butnotallfoodsareverygoodatmeetingtheneedfor
subsistenceduetopoornutritionalvalueandsomefoodsareevenbadforusinanything
elsethansmallamounts.Thispointprovidesthebasisforsomecritiquesofthemodern
consumptionsociety.Socialcriticshasfordecadesmaintainedthatcommercialinterests
thathavecreatedsetsofunnaturalneedsthatonlyservetogenerateincomeandatthesame
timealienatestheconsumersfromtheirownnaturalneedsandintheprocessindirectly
engaginginruthlessexploitationsofnaturalresourcesandourenvironment(Jackson2005).
Accordingtothiscritiquetheconsumer’slifeisflawedbothecologicallyandpsychologically
andservesneitherourownbestinterestnortheprotectionoftheenvironment(Paul1983).
Culturaltheoristsandsociologiststendtostatescepticismtowardsthewholediscourseof
needs(Jackson2005)(Paul1983)butnonetheless“needs”retainsanobviousresonance
withthediscourseofsustainabledevelopment.
Consumerexpenditurehasmorethandoubledsincethe1980sbutresearchshowsthat
therehasbarelybeenreportedanyincreaseinlifesatisfactioninthesameperiod(Kasser
2002).Sobythis,ifoursocialandpsychologicalneedsarereallyinfactillservedbythe
moderncommodities,itshouldbepossibletolivebetterbyconsuminglessandbythis
reduceourimpactontheenvironment.Butwhenconsumerismfailstosatisfyus,andfailsto
increaselifesatisfaction,whydowecontinuetoconsume?Themarketingofcommercial
marketerscouldbeoneanswer,butotherdimensionsasdesireandidentityarealso
powerfulresponsestosamequestion.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
19
Desire
Oneratherpersuasiveresponsetothequestionstatedaboveisthatmanyofourtastesand
preferencesareinformedbydesire,whichhasaverydifferentkindofcharacterthanneeds
(Jackson2005).Desireisassociatedwithemotionalorsexualdrivesratherthantherational
efforttomatchaproductorservicewithourspecificpersonalrequirement.Accordingtoan
ethnographicresearch(Belk,Ger,andAskegaard2003)theoldcommonwisdomthatsex
sells,isnotbyanymeansanartificialstrategymadeupbymarketers.Itexploitsaveryreal
andwidespreadassociationofmaterialcommoditieswithsexualandsocialstatus.Bythisit
canbestatedthatconsumerbehaviourisconditioned,partialatleast,bysocialandsexual
competition,whichcanbelinkedtoevolutionaryandbiologicalpsychology(Belk,Ger,and
Askegaard2003).Weconsumemoreandmoreduetothefactthatoursexualandsocial
competitorsareengagedinthesamerace.
However,evolutionaryandbiologicalpsychologydoesnotoffertheroleofcompetitiveness
andself-interestedbehaviouruniqueness.Itprovidesaccountforcooperativeandmoral
behavioursaswell(Jackson2005).Thistheorysuggeststhatindividualchoicesbetween
cooperativeandcompetitivebehaviourdependsonthesocialclimate.
Finally,thatconsumptionisconditionedbysocialandsexualcompetitionssuggestsa
biologicalbasisforconsumption,whichmaysuggestthatchangingofbehaviouralhabits
regardingconsumptionmaybeachallengingtask(Jackson2005).
OrdinaryandInconspicuousConsumption
Anotherviewregardingourconsumptionbehavioursuggestthattheconspicuousandstatus
seekingaspectsofourconsumptionhasbeenoveremphasised.Thisviewarguesthat
ordinaryconsumptionisnotorientedtowardsindividualdisplaybutisratherabout
convenience,habitandindividualresponsetosocialnorms(Shove2003).Theconceptof
inconspicuousconsumptionisimportantinunderstandingbehaviour,inparticularbecause
ithasaclearresonancewithourday-to-dayexperienceofconsuming.Apartfrom
compulsiveandaddictiveshopperswedonotpersespendourday-to-daylifeengaged
consciouslyinconsumption–infact,muchofoureverydayconsumptionisalmostinvisible,
eventoourselves(Jackson2005).Inparticularitcanbestatedthatmanyoftheregular
paymentsthatleavesourbankaccountsasrent,insurancepayment,utilitybillsetc.have
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
20
verylittletodowithstatusassociatedconsumption,eventhoughitmighttakeafairshareof
ournetincome.Whenchangingelectricityorgassupplierveryfewpeoplemightbe
motivatedtodoso,inanattempttoimprovetheirsocialstanding.Ofcoursetherewouldbe
quitealittlepointinengaginginthisstrategybecauseaswellasbeinginconspicuoustous,
choiceslikethisareasgoodasinvisibletooursocialandsexualcompetitorsatlarge.
IdentityandConsumption
Eventhoughwefacesometensionsbetweenconspicuousandinconspicuousconsumption
thereisawideagreementonconsumptionislinkedtobothpersonalandcollectiveidentity
(GabrielandLang2006).Theideaofmaterialgoodsplayaroleintheconceptof‘self’hasa
longstoryandcanforexamplebetracedtoAmericanphilosopherWilliamJames’statement:
“Aman’sSelfisthesumtotalofallthathecancallhis,notonlyhisbodyandhispsychicpowers,
buthisclothes,hisfriends,hiswifeandchildren,hisancestors,hisreputationandworks,his
landsandyachtandbankaccount…”(William1890)
Theinsightsthatcommoditiesareimportantintheprocessofcreatingidentitieshave
becomebasisforaveryspecificviewinconsumersociety.Accordingtothisviewthe
individualisengagedinacontinualprocessofconstructingandreconstructingpersonal
identity(Jackson2005).
Despitethis,therearedifferentpositionsamongscholarsregardingthelinkbetween
identityandconsumptionbeingagoodorbadthing(Jackson2005)thelinkbetweenthese
twoisoneofthemostprominentandmaybethemostimportantelementinmodern
understandingofconsumerbehaviour.Inearliertimeswewerewhatwedidorwhomwe
knew,butinmodernsocietywearewhatweconsume.
MotivationalChallenges
Thissectionseekstoprovidesomeinsightsintothechallengestheresponsibleconsumer
mayfaceinthemarket.Ascoinedintheearliersection,theconsumermayhavethe
motivationtodevotehim/herselftoaresponsibleandgreenconsumerstylebutmayalso
facechallengestoseethroughwhatisactuallytherightchoicesandwhatbarriersto
overcometoactualexecuteagreenconsumerlifestyle.Besideofthis,itseekstoillustrate
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
21
thelimitationsofframingenvironmentalpolicymeasuresintermsofmorallyresponsible
decision-makingandindividualmotivation.
Theenvironmentallyfriendlyconsumptionmaybecharacterizedasaverycomplexformof
consumerism,bothintellectuallyandmorally.Inmuchexistingresearch,green
consumerismhasbeenstudiedasamotivationaltendencyoftheindividualconsumerand
eventhoughthereisnofinaldefinitionforthetermmotivation,itusuallyreferstooris
understoodasthereasonforbehaviour(Moisander2000).Motivationcanbeviewedas
havingtwoimportantfeatures:thestrengthortheintensityofthemotivationandthe
directionwhichtogetherdetermineswhatbehaviourtheindividualwillchoosefromallthe
possiblebehavioursatthegivenmomentandwhy.Itisarguedthatconsumermotivation
oftenispurposive,thatpeopletriestosatisfyacertainneedortosolvesomekindof
problem.Neverthelesstheconcept“consumermotivation”isalsooftenacceptedasthe
associatedmotivescanbebothobviousandhidden(Moisander2007).Bythistheconsumer
mayormaynotknowofthereasonorbeingawareoftheirmotivesoftheirbehaviourin
givensituations.
Motivescanbedistinguishedbyprimarymotivesandselectivemotives.Aprimarymotive
willrefertothepurposebehindtheconsumer’sdecisionstoengageornotengageinan
entiresetofbehaviour,forexampletoengageinecologicalresponsibleconsumerbehaviour.
Selectivemotivesaremorelinkedtothepurposesbehindtheconsumer’sdecisionsasto
exactlywhatparticularbehavioursoractivitieshe/shewantstoengage–recycling,buying
environmentallyfriendlyproductsetc.(Wilkie1990)(Moisander2007)Regardingthethree
typesofconsumersfromlastsection,theEnvironmentalHerowouldengageinresponsible
consumption(primarymotive)whichshouldexpressitselfine.g.wastesortingand
procurementofsustainableproducts(selectivemotive).TheAntiherocouldaswellengage
inresponsibleconsumptionasaprimarymotive,buttheselectivemotivewouldbemore
radicalasforexampleboycottingmultinationalcompaniesoranymotordriven
transportationformotherthanpublictransportation.TheAnarchistwouldhaveasa
primarymotivetoobtainself-glorificationandconveniencethroughconsumptionthat
wouldallowthesetwothingswithoutsacrificingotheraspects.Theselectivemotivecould
herebybechoosingthefastfashionofH&M.Inadditiontomotivation,consumersbehaviour
isusuallytobedeterminedbytheirabilitytoperformthegivenbehaviouraswell
(Moisander2007).Theabilitycanbeviewedasafunctionofthepersonalresourcesthatare
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
22
neededtoperformthebehaviour,whichcouldbepersonalincome,time,intellectorthelike.
Opportunity,orpossibility,toperformagivenbehaviourisalsoanimportantcomponent
regardingability,andthiscanbeseenasexternalfactorsofwhichtheindividualareinno
control(Thøgersen1994)(Moisander2007).Behaviouralcontrolisusuallytakento
influenceboththestrengthanddirectionofthemotivationtoengageinagivenbehaviouras
well.Inotherwordsthismeansthatpeoplearenotalwaysmotivatedtoexecutebehaviour
inwhichtheylackthenecessaryopportunities/possibilitiesandresources,howeveraswe
knowfromourpersonallife:astrongmotivationtendstoenhanceone’sabilityofexecuting
certainbehaviour(Moisander2000).Ifanindividualreallywantssomething,thechancesof
findingthemoneyortime,forexample,arerising.Allthesedifferentdimensionsof
motivationsareillustratedhereunderinfigure1.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
23
PrimaryMotives
Aclassicdefinitiontotheterm“environmentallyconcernedconsumer”,postedbyKarl
HenionandThomasKinnearin1976(HenionandKinnear1976)describesthesepeople’s
behaviourasexhibitingandreflectingarelativeconsistentandconsciousconcernforthe
environmentalconsequenceslinkedtoconsumption,useanddisposalofproductsand
services.Buteventhoughthereisawideacceptanceofthisdefinition(Moisander2007),
theremaybeconsiderabledisagreementinpractice.Thesearedisagreementsamong
consumersandenvironmentalactivistsalikeuponhowthisconcernforconsumptionversus
theenvironmentalconsequencesareorshouldbesignifiedinconsumerbehaviour.In
continuationofthis,theobjectivesforthepracticesandactionsthegreenorientedconsumer
engageswhenselectingandusingproductsandservicesaremanifoldandanagreement
uponanappropriateconsumptionstrategyishardlyobtainable(AutioandWilska2005).
FollowingcriteriaofgreenorresponsibleproductswerepostedbyElkingtonetal.in1990
(Elkington,Hailes,andMakower1990),andstillseemssoundandrelevanttothisday.
Figure1DimensionsofMotivation
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
24
Environmentallyresponsibleproductsandservices(list1):
1. Arenotdangeroustothehealthofpeopleoranimals.
2. Donotcausedamagetotheenvironmentduringmanufacture,use,ordisposal.
3. Donotconsumeadisproportionateamountofenergyandotherresourcesduring
manufacture,use,ordisposal.
4. Donotcauseunnecessarywasteduetoeitherexcessivepackagingortoashortlife
span.
5. Donotinvolveunnecessaryuseoforcrueltytoanimals.
6. Donotusematerialsderivedfromthreatenedspeciesorenvironments.
Eventhoughthesecriteriaseemsreasonablefromtheperspectiveofaconsumertheydo
remainalmostimpossibletofollowinpractice.Totheconsumeritisquitedifficultto
evaluatewhetherornotgivenproductsorservicesaredangeroustotheenvironmentor
causinganydamage.Moreoveritcanbearguedthat“unnecessarywaste”,“crueltyto
animals”or“disproportionateamountofenergy”maybesubjectedtosubjectivityandmay
notbeobjectivelydefinedunlessregulationsareestablishedfromcentralplace.Moreand
morecertificationsandlabelsareavailableonthemarket,guidingtheconsumersinthis
jungle,butnotallproductcategoriesarecovered,neitherarealldamagingparameters
covered(Moisander2001).Inanycaseevaluationsofthesequalitiesinvolvedifficultvalue
judgementsandthesecanmoreovervaryamongdifferentinterestgroupsandtheir
motivations.
Atlast,theremaybesomedisagreementonwhataretherelevantareasofenvironmental
concern,duetothefacttherearequiteafew,andwhatelementsshouldbegivenpriorityin
theconsumers’responsibleconsumptionstrategy.Theareasofenvironmentalconcernsare
manyandarerangingfromurbanwasteproblems,populationissuestoconservationof
naturalresources,whichemphasizesthepointthatdifferentinterestgroupshavedifferent
viewsuponwhatarethemostimportantareawhenitcomestoenvironmentallyfriendly
consumption.FollowingarealistsuggestedbyVictorB.Scheffer,arespectedAmerican
environmentalistandbiologist.ThelistisbackedwithmoderndatafromtheUNandFPIF.
Issuesconsumersneedtoconsider(list2):
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
25
1. Concernforcropland,rangelandandforestabuse.
2. Preservationofland(wilderness)foritscontainedvaluesinrecreation,research,
educationandamenity.
3. Concernforglobalwarming,hereundercarbonfootprint.
4. Concernforfreshwaterpollution.
5. Preservingtheworldoceans.
6. Conservationofnaturalmineralresources.
7. Conservationofenergyresources.
8. Protectionofendangeredspecies.
9. Concernforpoisonousandtoxicwaste.
10. Concernoftherateofincreaseofpopulation.(Scheffer1991)(Hunter2015)(United
Nations2017)
Whatiseasytoconcludehereisthatprotectingtheseareasofnaturalenvironmentrequires
morallyresponsibleconsumptionpracticesbutalsoverystrictroutinesconcerning
householdmanagementincludingthesmallchoresandroutineseveryday.Thelistofcriteria
ofbeingenvironmentallyresponsibleproductsandservicesandtheissuesconsumersneed
toconsidercanbecloselylinkedtogether.Forexample:Palmoilhasbecomeverypopularin
thefood-manufacturingsectorduetoitsgoodpropertiesandverylowcost.Theproblem
withthisisthatpalmoilproductionissaidtohavebeenresponsibleforabout8%ofthe
totaldeforestationbetween1990and2008,whichalsohaveanegativeimpactonthe
biodiversity(BBC2018).Thereasonforthisshallbefoundinthepopulationinthe
developingcountrieswherepalmoilcomesfromburnforesttomakeroomforthepalm
plantations–eventhoughitisillegal.
Sobychoosingpalmoilitcanbestatedthattheconsumerconsumesaproductthatis
dangerous(indirectly)toanimals(point1onlist1)andcausesdamagetotheenvironment
duringmanufacturing(point2onlist1)whichactivatesconcernforcropland,rangelandand
forestabuse(point1onlist2),contradictspreservationofland(point2onlist2).Moreover
over-fishing,excessiveuseofenergyinpasteurizationprocessingoffood,pesticidesin
agriculture,excessivewasteandpackaginginproductioncanbeseenasmajortangible
issuestheconsumerneedstoconsiderandcontradictstheprinciplesofenvironmentally
responsibleproductsfromlist1.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
26
Insum,thebasicareasofenvironmentalconcernaremanyandalsohereverylittle
agreementrulesuponwhatqualifiesforenvironmentallyfriendlybehaviourwithrespectto
thegeneralgoalofenvironmentalprotection(Moisander2007).Onceagainitcanbestated
thatgreenconsumerismismotivatedbyagreatmanyofenvironmentalconcerns,which
sometimesinvolvesparadoxalandincompatiblemeansandends;usingsustainablepower
sourcesaregenerallyviewedasrespondingpositivetotheconcernofglobalwarmingand
decreasingourcarbonfootprint.Hydropowerplantsarenoexception,butoftenthey
simultaneouslyhavenegativeeffectsonlocalriverenvironmentscausingdamagetothe
localenvironment(UnionofConcernedScientists2015).Sowhatismostimportant?Isuch
casethegreenconsumerneedstomakeadifficultvaluejudgement.Somekindofacceptable
levelsofnegativeimpacthavetobeestablishedandtheyneedtosetprioritiesbothwith
regardtothenumerousareasofenvironmentalconcernaswellastheirpersonal
responsibleconsumptionstrategy.
SelectiveMotives
Nowthatithasbeendeterminedthatthererulesdivergentobjectivesforgreen
consumerismwhenitcomestotheprimarymotives,itisfairtosaythattherearemyriad
waysofactinggreenthroughtheselectivemotives.Theconsumer’sprimarymotivefor
greenconsumerismcanbeexpressedthroughnumerousdifferentselectivebehaviours.This
broadvariationofselectivemotivesfurtheraddstotheperplexityofgreenconsumerism,
whichresultsfromthefactthatthisbehaviourconstitutesabehaviouralcategory
(Moisander2007).Behaviouralcategoriesare“inferredconceptsthatinvolveawiderange
ofsinglebehavioursassumedtobeinstancesofthatgeneralbehaviouralcategory”(Ajzen
andFishbein1980).Forexamplecanenergysavingbehaviourbeinferredfrombehaviours
asbuyingenergysavinglightbulbs,takingshorterwarmshowers,usingpublic
transportationetc..People’sconceptionsofsustainableandresponsibleconsumptionmay
varyintermsofwhataretherelevantbehaviouralelementsinvolved(whatbehavioursare
consideredrelevantregardingresponsibleconsumption)andintermsofwhatarethe
weightofthegivenbehaviour.
Fewresponsiblemindedconsumersdecidetodoeverythinginaresponsiblemanner–
more,probablythemajorityofgreenconsumers,doonlywhattheythinkistheirfairshare
ofthethingsthattheyknow(Thøgersen1994).Despiteofthisfactandthatpeopledonot
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
27
necessaryengageinsomeormanysustainablerelevantbehaviours,theyknowof,ona
regularbasis,themaystillconsiderthemselvesasresponsibleconsumers(Moisander2007).
Moreover,setsofbehaviourthatconsumersincludeintheirconsumptionpatternsmayvary
intermsoftheextenttowhicheachrelevantbehaviourisperformed.Thismeansthatsome
consumersmaybeunwillingtosacrificebycommittingtoforexamplepublictransportation
ororganicgroceries,buttheyengageinotherresponsiblebehaviourstotrytocompensate
fortheirenvironmentallyharmfulbehaviour(Thøgersen1994)(Moisander2007).
InformationalComplexityandPersonalResources
Ifaconsumershouldbeabletoactouttheirprimarymotivesforresponsibleandsound
consumption,theconsumershouldengageinrationalconsiderationsandanalysisof
informationregardingenvironmentallyfriendlyconsumption,tobeabletoinfactcarryout
behaviourtosupportthisprimarymotive.Theconsumerneedstobeabletoidentifythe
relevanteffectsoftheirconsumptionactivitiesbutalsounderstandthepotentialcomplex
trade-offsandinterrelationsbetweenthesesideeffects–asforexampleregardingthehydro
powerplantexampleearlier.Firstofall,itisnotamatterofcausethatallconsumers
understandtherealcausesofforexamplethegreenhouseeffect.Moisanderarguesthat
someoftheseactivitiesrequirespecialistknowledgetoseethroughthetrade-offs.Secondly,
responsibleconsumptionrequiressomepracticalskillsandtaskknowledge.Theconsumer
needtogetinformedonhowtodisposeforexampleusedelectronicsoroldpaintandbeable
toexecuteonthisknowledge.Thesefactorsmakeupthepersonalresourcesofthe
consumer,whichcanhaveanegativeimpactontheabilityandherebyonthegeneral
motivationaswell,forexampleowingtothedisagreementsamongenvironmentalistsand
researchersuponappropriatestrategiesforsustainableandresponsibleconsumption.
Consequently,evenwhenaconsumeriswillingtousepersonalresources(money,time,
effort)totaketherightdecisionsregardingtheenvironment,thecomplexityon
environmentalinformationcanmakeitdifficultforthemtoactontheenvironmental
concerns.Actually,theuseofunsubstantiatedenvironmentalargumentsandallegationsin
greenmarketingofthepast,havebeenfoundtohavecausedalotofscepticismamonggreen
consumersconcerningenvironmentalbenefitsorfriendliness(OECDEnvironment
Directorate2001).Thecomplexityofthisinformationalsoofferstheconsumerahandy
excusefordenyingtheirpersonalresponsibilitiesinsituationswithdemanding
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
28
consumptionchoices.Thiselementofthemotivationalcomplexityregardingresponsible
consumption,candemotivategreenconsumptionbutandatthesametimebeameanof
justifyingunsounddecisionsorbehaviourbyreferringtothecomplexnatureofgreen
information(Moisander2007).
IndividualandSocialMorality
Sofarthegreenconsumerismandresponsibleconsumptionhasbeendealtwithasa
dimensionoftheindividual’spersonalconvictionandideaofwhatdoes/doesnotbenefitthe
worldand/ortheindividual.Butasapro-socialformofconsumerbehaviourgreen
consumerismcanbecharacterizedasbeingaquitecomplexethicalissue.Itbecomesa
questionthatinvolvesethicaljudgementsoverwhatshouldbedoneconcerning
consumptionandenvironmentalprotection(AutioandWilska2005).Bythisitbecomesa
questionofbothindividualandsocialmorality,whichaddsadditionaldimensionstothe
complexityofgreenconsumerism,whichbothdirectlyandindirectlyaffectstheprimaryand
selectivemotives(seefigure2).
Figure2DimensionsofMotivationII
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
29
Firstitcanbestatedthatgreenconsumerismmayinvolvetoughmotivationalconflicts;the
environmentallyconcernedconsumptionisfundamentallymotivatedbytwodifferenttypes
ofconsumptionmotives:theindividualmotivesoftheconsumerandthecollective
environmentalprotection-relatedmotivesofthesociety(Moisander2007).Bytakenboth
individualconsumptionmotivesandcollectiveconsumptiongoalsintoconsideration,itwill
oftenresultinasocialdilemma.Insuchsituations“…thesocialpayofftoeachindividual
consumerfordefectingbehaviour,ishigherthanthepayoffforcooperativebehaviour,
regardlessofwhatothersocietymembersdo,yet,allindividualsinsocietyreceivealower
payoffifalldefectratherthancooperate”(Dawes1980).Inpracticethismeansthatclean
air,freshwaterandothernaturalresourcesforexample,isacollectivegoodthatisgenerally
availableforfreetoallconsumers(exceptionscanoccur),butthisisonlythecaseif
consumersarewillingtocooperateandcontributetotheproductionofenvironmental
qualityratherthanengaginginenvironmentallydestructivebehaviour–themore
consumersthatcontributetoenvironmentalqualitythebetteritis.
Ontheotherside,inanindividualchoicesituation,aconsumercanbetemptedtodefect,as
Dawesdescribesit,andtakeafreeridebyengaginginenvironmentallydestructive
behaviour,forthebenefitofself-exaltation,andleavetheresponsibilityofproducing
environmentalqualitytoothers.JustasdescribedregardingtheAntiherotypification.This
resultsinanotherparadoxinwhichcooperatingintheproductionofenvironmentalquality
maximizesthelong-termcollectiveprizeanddefectionmaximizestheindividualprizeofthe
consumers,providedbythosewhocooperate.Bythis,beingwillingtoengageincollective
responsiblemotivesandbehaviour,theconsumerneedstocooperateandcontributetothe
productionofenvironmentalquality,butsincethecontributionofthesingleindividualis
verylimitedinoverallterms,theshorttermbenefitsofdefectingarequitetempting
(Moisander2007).
Second,thegreenconsumerisminvolvessomemoralproblemsaswell.Tobeabletobe
participantinethicalenvironmentaldebate,thegreenconsumerwouldneedtohave
accurateunderstandingofethicalissuesandcontroversiesinvolvedindifferent
environmentalquarrelsandpolitics.Thiscouldbeunderstandingwhatethicaltheoriesthat
underlieswhichvalues,becausecontroversiesassociatedwithgreenconsumerismarenot
justconflictsofself-interestnorpolitics;theyarecontroversiesinvolvingconflicting
theoriesofsocialjustice(linkedtocollectivemotives)andindividualrights(linkedto
individualmotives)(Moisander2007).Thereforitcanbestatedthatideallythegreen
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
30
consumershouldbeabletouncoverthelimitationsofeverydayethicalthinkingconcerning
theenvironmentandinparticularbeabletouncoverthevalueintereststhatareinconflict
inprevalentenvironmentaldebates.Apracticalexample:Themeatproductionindustryhas
foralongtimebeenseverelycriticizedforthedisproportionateamountofenergyandother
resourcesusedduringmanufacturing.FromthisdebatetheDanishcompanyNaturli’Foods
launchedplantbasedsubstitutetogroundbeefcalled“Naturli’Hakket”.Theproductis
suitableforbothvegetariansandvegansbutshouldaswellembracethosewhoappreciate
thepropertiesofthewell-knownmeatproduct.Bythistheconsumermaythinkthatthis
alternativewouldbeasuitablemeatreplacementforthegreenandresponsibleconsumer
butthetruthmaybeabitmorecomplextoundercoverfortheregularconsumertryingto
benefitcollectiveobjectives.TheNaturli’Hakketismadefrom58%dehydratedsoyprotein
isolate(Naturli’Foods2018),whichisaproductofthesoybean.Thelargestglobalsourceof
thesoybeanisArgentina,butthecountryhassufferedacatastrophicharvestthisyear
leavingamassivegapintheglobalsoybeansourcing.Brazilisanotherlargeproducerof
soybeans,butastheexamplewiththedeforestationtothebenefitofpalmoilplantation,
BrazilarefacingmajorchallengesregardingillegalsoybeancultivationintheAmazonas.The
Argentiniangapinthemarketwillnecessarilyleadtoincreasedglobaldemandonsoybeans,
whichmayleadtofurtherdeforestationoftherainforest(Willesen2018).Bythis,the
consumerwhoarechoosingthemeat-freealternativeasancollectivebeneficialobjective
mightendingupperformingdestructivebehavioureventhoughtheoppositewasthe
objective.
Byallthesemotivationalcomplexitiesitwouldseemthatthegreenconsumerismisamuch
tooheavyresponsibilitytotheindividualasaprivatelifestyleprojectanditwouldseem
importanttoacknowledgethatitisacomplexethicalissue.Campaignshasfromtimetotime
urgedconsumerstotakeresponsibilityandturndowntheirthermostatsandswitchingoff
electronicapplianceswiththepointofsignificantlyreducingtheirgreenhousegas
emissions,forexampletheYouControlClimateChangeCampaign(EuropeanCommission
2007).Eventhoughthereisnodoubtthatthisisagoodanddesirablegoaltoachieve,the
householdsoftheEUwereonlyaccountablefor25,4%ofthetotalenergyconsumptionin
theEUin2017(Eurostat2017).Asseeninfigure3transportationandindustryare
accountingfor58,4%ofthetotalenergyconsumptionandthecriticalgreenconsumermight
thinkofwhatresponsibilitiesthesesectorsaretaking.Theideaof“controllingclimate
changes”bysittingincoldhomesmayseemunfairwhentheseclimatechangesaremostly
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
31
generatedandcontrolledelsewhereinthe
society,especiallywhensomeofthelargest
sinnersoftransnationalcompaniesare
commonlyknownofaggressivelylobbying
againsttheKyotoprotocol,climatescience
andrenewableenergyforexample
(CushmanJR1997)(Delmas2016)
(Williams2016).
Fromapoliticalperspectiveitseems
mistakentoframeconsumerssolelyas
powerfulmarketactorswhousethe
purchasingpowertobringaboutchanges,
whengreenconsumerismhasbecomeascomplexasexplainedinprecedingexplanation.
Sustainabledevelopmentisultimatelyapoliticalandmoralquestionwhereinformation
playsamajorrole.Thecompletetruthaboutwhotheresponsiblegreenconsumermightnot
beavailabletoanyoneeverduetovastnumberofmotivationsofgreenconsumerism,the
backgroundoftheconsumers,focusareas,ideologiesandpersonalitytypes.Theprevious
hasmerelygiveninsightsinhowcomplextheworldistothegreenconsumerandwhat
themeshe/sheareforcedtoengageandevaluateeverysingleday.
BehaviouralChange
Behaviouralchangesarebecomingahottopicforsustainabledevelopmentpolicyandin
particularregardingsustainableconsumption.Butchangingbehaviouralhabitsmightnotbe
aneasytaskwhenliteraturesuggestsabiologicalbasisforconsumptionasearlierargued.
Moreover,astheexplorationinprecedingsectionshasmadecleartheresponsibleconsumer
facesenormouslycomplextasksregardingtheirconsumption.Theconsumerchoicesare
influencedbymoral,normative,emotional,socialandcompetitivefactors,forceofhabitas
wellasrationalandirrationalintentions.Inmanycasespeopleappeartobelockedintothe
habitorbehaviouralpatternthatseemtoberesistanttochangeandasmentionedseveral
timesbefore,someofthesechangesmustbemotivatedorfacilitatedcentrally.Thelong
pedigreeofpersuasiontheory(datesbacktoAristoles’Ethos,LogosandPathos)hassome
beneficiallessonsforconventionalpublicsectorinformationcampaigns(Jackson2005)but
Figure3TotalEnergyConsumptionintheEU,Eurostat2017
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
32
italsoprovidessomeusefulpointerstothedesignofeffectivemodernlearningcampaigns.
Moreoversociallearningbecharacterizedasakeyareaofinterestforthosethinkingabout
behaviouralchange(Jackson2005).
PersuasionTheory
Ifagovernmentpolicyoranorganisationaimstochangeeitherattitudesorbehaviourina
moregreendirection,theratherextensiveliteratureonpersuasioncouldbeaplacetolook.
AmorerecenttakeofAristoles’modelwassuggestedasworkoftheHovland-Yale
CommunicationandPersuasion(HYCP)group,whichframedsuccessfulpersuasioninthree
keyelements:
o Thecredibilityofthespeaker(source)
o Thepersuasivenessofthearguments(message)
o Theresponsivenessoftheaudience(recipients)(Hovland,Janis,andKelley1953)
Eventhoughthisseemsreasonableenough,itisnowrecognizedthatthisratherlinear
modelhassomelimitations.Mostsignificant,theHYCPmodelassumesthatattitudechange
occursthroughtheunderstandingandcomprehensionofthepersuasiveinformation
(Jackson2005).Forexample:Anindividualisexposedtoaparticularmessage–suchasan
argumentregardingpro-environmentalbehaviourasforexampleareducingofenergy
consumption.Asaresultoftheexposuretothisargumenttheindividualchangesattitude
towardsconsumptionandultimatelytotheindividual’sownenergyconsumingbehaviour.
Eventhoughitsoundsreasonable,empiricalevidencefailstosupportit.Infact,empirical
evidenceindicatesthatlearningmightoccurwithoutanychangeinattitudesandthat
attitude/behaviouralchangecanoccurwithoutassimilationofthepersuasionmessage
(PettyandCacioppo1981).Moreovercognitiveresponsetheoryplacesagreateremphasis
onindividualsasbeingactiveparticipantsinthepersuasionprocess.Itsuggestthatpeople’s
cognitiveresponse,whichdependsoninvolvementandhistoryandcontextoftheindividual,
isquiteaccountableforchangeofattitudes,ratherthanroutinemessagelearning(Jackson
2005).
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
33
LearningandEducation
Ascoinedseveraltimesearlierinformationisonethemainkeypointsregardingsustainable
consumptionandthusinformationandeducationarenotlessrelevantinempowering
consumerstolookoutforthetheirinterestsintheenvironmentthanweknowitfromhealth
andsafetyrelatedissues.Buttheenvironmentalissuesseemsmoresensitivetomedia
coveragethanothersocialissuesinthewesternpartoftheworld,whichmaybebecausethe
consequencesarenotexperienceddirectlybymostindividualshere(Thøgersen2005).The
sensitivityandimportanceofmediacoveragemayshowatleastacoupleofimportant
points:Itshowswhenpeoplesettheirpriorities;theyareinfluencedbyhowtheissuesare
prioritizedintheircommunity(orasreflectedinmediapriorities).Giventhecomplexand
complicatednatureoftheseenvironmentalissues,itisquitesensibleandthereforetheright,
relevantandknowledgeablereferentiscrucialtosupporttheindividual’sprioritizing
(Thøgersen2005).Secondly,thesensitivitytomediacoveragemoreovershowsthatitis
possibletoinfluenceconsumerstowardsenvironmentalissuesbythemeansofmass
communication(Harland,Paul,Staats,Henk,Wilke,A.,M.1999).Despiteofthisfact,
educationonsustainabilityshouldnotbelimitedtomassmediacampaignsbecausethe
issueisalreadyapartofmosteducationallevelstoday,inmanypartsoftheworld,andit
shouldonlybeincreasedinthefuture(Thøgersen2005).Thøgersenargues,thattheresult
oftheseactivitiesregardingknowledge,attitudeandbehaviourarequitemixed,butin
generalpositive.Andevenifitispositiveornot,theinformationstreamhasanimpactwhen
thinkingoftheresearchofthethreetypesofresponsibleconsumers.Theseyoungpeoplein
Finlandallshowknowledgeandattitudetowardsthesubjectregardlessoftheinfluence
comesfromschool,homeormassmedia.Therearehardlyanyonewhoquestionsthat
teachingsustainabilityandenvironmentalresponsibilityinformaleducationisimportant,
bothforthesakeofcreatingabasicawarenessonthetopicandtopromote‘responsible’
mannersaswell.Butthepositiveconsequencesarenotonlylimitedtothelongrun,butare
foundtohaveratherinstanteffectonthecurrentconsumptionpatternsduetochildrenand
schoolinfluencingparents(Vaughanetal.2010).
Inadditiontoactivitiesintheformaleducationsystems,governmentalorganizationsand
NGO’soffersmoreinformalenvironmentaleducationactivities,butbesidescampaignsin
massmedias,theseactivitiestendstobelesseffectivethanthosewithintheformalsystem.
Theinformalinitiativesareusuallyvoluntaryandtheyherebyattractpeoplewhoisalready
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
34
concernedaboutorengagedinresponsibleconsumption,ratherthanthebroadmassesthat
theformalsystemengages(Thøgersen2005).
Labelling
Asmentionedearlier,labelsanddeclarationsarewidelyusedandservethepurposeof
informingtheconsumersaboutimportantproductqualitiesthatarenotimmediately
perceptible.Theusageistodaysowidelyacceptedthattheconsumersgloballyfaceover460
ecolabelsacross199countriesand25industries(“EcolabelIndex”2018).Labellinghasbeen
proventobeaneffectivetoolregardinginformationandpushingthedevelopmentinthe
rightdirection.Forexample,6-7yearsafterimplementingtheEUmandatoryenergy
labellingforhomeappliances,itwasnecessarytoextendtheclassificationwithadditional
categories(seefigure4)becausemorethan90%oftheproductssoldinsomemarketsand
productcategoriesallwerelabelledwithanA(“EnergyEfficientProducts-European
Commission”2018).
Figure4EUmandatoryenergylabelingbeforeandafter
However,itisarguedthatanumberofpreconditionsneedtobefulfilledtohavethe
intendedeffect,includingsufficientamountsoftime(Dietz,Stern,andThøgersen2002).For
thesuccessofalabelitisapreconditionthatproducersofqualifiedproductsusethelabels,
whichtheyonlytendtodoifitismandatorybylaworjudgedsomehowprofitable
(Thøgersen2005).Aslongasonlyfewandmarginalproducersuseagivenvoluntarylabel
biggercompaniesormarketleadersmayconcludethatthecostsofimplementingandusing
itmaynotbeworthit.Infact,theDanishConsumerAngency’stestlaboratoryrevealedone
oftheleadingdetergentbrandsinDenmark,Ariel,fulfilledthecriteriafortheNordicSwan
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
35
labelin2001,butonlyin2008thelabelwasimplementedontheproductline(From
2001)(ArvidNordquist2018).
Anotherpreconditionisthatconsumerstrustthelabel(Torjusenetal.2004),whichthird-
partyschemesoftenmeetbetterthanproducers’ownlabelling.StateortrustedNGO
controlledschemesforinstances,isarguedtobeanimportantprerequisiteforthegrowthof
anorganicfoodmarketinEurope(Torjusenetal.2004).
Athirdpreconditionisthatconsumersnecessarilymayhavesufficientknowledgeaboutthe
givenlabeltoformanappropriateattitudetowardsit.Veryoftenlabelsarenotveryself-
explanatoryintheirnatureandnewenvironmentallyfriendlylabelsareimplementedin
environments(forexampleproductsintheFMCG-segment)thatisalreadyfloatedwith
labels,banners,logosetc.Uncertaintyaboutwhatlabelsmeanswhat,whatisjustgraphical
content,andwhoissueswhatmayreducethetrustamongconsumers(Thøgersen2005).It
canherebybestatedthatinordertogainthefavouroftheconsumersandcreateattention
andtrust,alabellingschememustbebackedbyactivitiesthatinformandeducatethe
relevantpopulationaboutthequalitiesofthelabeltoppedwithpotentialcommercial
benefitsandjusttherightamountofpatience.
Sub-conclusion
Acompletetruthregardingwhothe‘greenconsumer’ismayneverbecompletelyraiseddue
totheverycomplexnatureoftheissuesconcerningthesubject.Thethreepersonalitytypes
regardingsustainableandresponsibleconsumptionraiseawarenessofwhatmajor
discoursesthemodernconsumerfaces.Ourcreationofidentityandevolutionaryqualified
instinctsandurges,playsahugeroleinourconsumptionpattern,eventhoughourlargest
impactsontheenvironmentcomesfrominconspicuousconsumption.Anaccountforour
primaryandselectivemotivesregardingourmotives,leadstoanunderstandingonwhywe
doaswedo.Whatisveryinterestingisthatnotonlytheindividual’sdirectresources,as
financialstate,iscriticalintermsofexecutingenvironmentallysoundbehaviour–maybe
moreimportantistheindividualsintellectandskillsetonthesubject,duetothewidespread
informationalcomplexitiesontheissues.
Individualandsocialmoralityisimportantdimensionsonthissubjectaswell.TheAntihero
isonlyabletoenjoyenvironmentallyqualityandindividualmotivesbecausethe
EnvironmentalHeroesandtheAnarchistsarecommittingtosocialmoralitythrough
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
36
collectivemotives.Eventhoughitmaybeisbecomingmoreandmorefashionabletopractice
soundgreenbehaviour,itoftenstillcomeswithapriceofasacrificetotheindividual.A
privatesacrificethathasbeenemphasizedalotinsociety,eventhoughthemajorimpacts
happeninothersectors.
Shiftingconsumptionpatternstowardsmoresustainablebehavioursisrelyingonasolid
understandingonwhatmotivatesconsumers,butalsoonhowchangesinbehaviouroccurs
andhowitcanbeinfluenced.Theoryonpersuasionhassomebasiclessonforconventional
publicsectorinformationcampaigns,butthiscomplexsubjectmightneedmoretochange
behaviouramongconsumers.Effectiveeducationingeneral,andtheuseoflabelling
schemes,arearguedasvaluablestrategictoolswhenpromotingenvironmentally
responsibleandsustainableconsumers.
SocietySection
Thissectionseekstocomplementthetheorysectionregardingthegreenconsumer,by
sheddinglightontendenciesanddevelopmentinthesocietyingeneral.
FoodandCorporateSustainability
Food,andspecificallytheprocessingofit,isapopulartopictoday.Wefindourselvesina
noteworthysituation,wheretheindustryproducesexcessiveamountsoffood,which
sometimesendsupbeingthrownaway.Eitherduetooverproduction,pickycostumers,the
foodturningbadorsimplybeingdamaged.Thisishappeningalongsidewithstarvationin
otherpartsoftheworld.Theclimateoftheearthischangingwithrecordbreakingspeed,
andoneofthebiggestsinnersseemstobetheemissionofgreenhousegasses,andespecially
Co2(CarbonDioxide)(USEPA2018).Inmoderntimes,climateandgeographicalplacement
doesnotseemtoinfluencetheavailability,andaccessibility,ofanykindoffood.Wehave
obtainedknowledgethroughscienceandexperiments,andarenowcapableofcontrolling
cultivatedland,andbreedingofanimals.Butthedevelopmentofnewtechnologies,that
helpsusoptimizenature’sownprocesses,comesataprice.Transportationoffoodis
consideredasamajorsinner,inrelationtothegrowingproblemofgreenhousegas
emissions(USEPA2018).Inordertocombatthischallenge,focushastosomeextentshifted
tobuyinglocallyproducedfood.Theselectionoflocalfoodis,often,notasexitingandexotic
tothemodernconsumer,andwhetherhe,orshe,willcomplywiththisisanextensionof
theircharacteristics,asseenwiththeAnarchistortheAntihero(Wang,Lo,andFang2009).
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
37
Butthereismore.Asinvestigationofthefoodindustrycontinues,moreandmorechallenges
seemtoarise.Thetruthseemsthatmankindhasshapedtheindustrialisationoffoodand
beveragesarounda“rotten”capitalisticcore.Blindedbyprofitandscalingofoperations,the
earth,whicheverythingoriginatesfrom,hasbeenforgotten.Thefoodsystemoftodayis
enormouslycomplexandseemsbyfirstglareimpossibletoturnaroundtoamore
sustainablefuture.Todaythefoodindustryaccountsformorethan24%ofthetotalglobal
Co2emission(USEPA2018).
Althoughthenumbersoundsunrealistic,somehaveactuallymanagedtoputfocuson
utilizingtheresourcesoftheplanetinamoreeffectiveandsustainableway.
Duringthelate1900thefirstpublicscepticsrose,andfirstmoversstarteddoubtingtheway
foodwasproducedinrelationtosustainability.Thesustainablefocusonfoodproductionis
traceablebacktothelate1980’s,asforpopularliterature(RaffenspergerandMyers2004).
Focusincreasedduringthe1990’sandin2007theformerVicePresidentoftheUnited
States,AlbertArnoldGore,Jr.(Algore)wentviralasaproductofhispresentation,onthe
climatechangesfacinghumanity,andtheearththatwecallourhome(Nygaard2018).In
2007,adocumentarybythename“AnInconvenientTruth”wonanOscarinthecategory
“BestDocumentary”.ItframedAlGore´sfamouspresentationsandwarnsaboutthe
imminentclimatecrisis.TheemissionofCo2andotherpollutinggassesasaproductof
moderntimesandagrowingdemandforfood,consumergoods,transportation,electricity,
heatinhomesetc.SomeindustriesleaveabiggerCo2footprintthanothers,andfoodfinds
itsplaceinthetop,alongsidewitharease.g.transportation(burningoffossilfuels),
productionofclothes,CHP(CombinedHeatandPowerplant)(USEPA2018).Sustainability
asatopiccomesinmanyfacets,asarguedinthedelimitation,andisnotonlyrelevantin
relationtocarbonfootprint.Thechallengesofsustainabilityvaryalotdependingonthe
companyandindustry.Withinthefoodindustry,sustainabilityisacomprehensiveterm.
SecuringthelowestpossibleemissionofCo2andotherdamaginggassesisjustoneofthem.
Securingtheearthsnaturalresources,suchaswater,issomethingthatalsodrawsagrowing
focus.Theuseofpesticidesandotherenvironmentallydamagingchemicalsislikewiseabig
problemallovertheworld(Jakuboski2018).Ithelpsincreasingtheyieldoffarmingwhichis
good,butitpollutestheenvironmentthatweashumanslivein.Itdisruptsecosystemsand
killsanimalswiththefatalpollution.Luckily,duringthelastcoupleofdecades,governments
andenvironmentalorganisationshaverestrictedtheuseofenvironmentallydamaging
chemicals.Butthereisstillalongwaytogo.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
38
Besidesthis,thesocialaspectofsustainabilityalsodemandsitsplaceinthetalkabout
securingasustainabilityfuture.Thisiswherecompaniesworkwiththeirethicandmoral
questionsontopicslikechildlabour,helpinglocalcommunities(bothwheretheproducts
arebeingsold,butalsodownstreaminthesupply-chain).Bythistheysecurewages,and
futuregenerationslivelihood.NumerousofNGO’sworkwiththisarea,anditisparticularly
prevalentinthethirdworldcountries.
Asitseems,therearemanyaspectsofsustainabilityanditcanbeargued,whichpostpone
thebiggestthreattotheworldandlife,asweknowittoday.
AGrowingDemandforFoodandtheSustainableChallenge
Thetotalworldpopulationtodaycountsapproximately7,6billionpeople.Theglobal
populationisincreasingdramatically,andhasdoubledin40yearsfrom1959(3billion)to
1999(6billion)(WorldMeters2018).Thissetsgreatdemandstothewayweproducefood,
bothintermsofnutritionalvalue,sustainabilityandvolume.Unfortunatelyourpresentfood
systemisnotbasedonsustainability.AccordingtotheprognosesfromWorldMeters(an
independentandnongovernmentalorganization),totalworldpopulationisprojectedto
reach8billionin2023,9billionin2037and10billionpeopleintheyearof2055
(WorldMeters2018).
Anticipatingthatourglobalfoodproductionis100%sustainable,wewouldonlyfacethe
issuesregardingscalingoperationsandsecuringthenutritionalvaluesastofuturefood
production.Theglobalsupplyoffoodhastoundergomajorchangesinordertomeetthe
futuredemandwhileconvertingtosustainableprocesses.
AccordingtoUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),theglobalemissionof
Co2andothergassesisdistributedbetweenthefollowingindustries(seefigure5):
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
39
Figure5EPA-Globalestimatedspreadingofgreenhousegasemissions(USEPA2018).
Justaboutaquarteroftheworldsemissionisduetoagricultureandfoodproduction.Thisis
acalculatedestimatesinceitwouldbeimpossibletomeasureinpractice.Basedonthis,it
nowseemsevenmorecriticalthattheactorsandinfluencers(foodproducersand
consumers)takeactionassoonaspossible.
Furthermore,itseemsinterestingtoelaboratewhichcountriesproducethemostfood.By
lookingintowhichcountriesaccountsforthebiggestpartoffoodproduction,itwillbeclear
whereresourcesareallocatedthebest,inordertosecureamoresustainablefuture.FAO
(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedStates)hasreleasedareportshowing
whichcountriesproduceselectedcommodities.AccordingtoFAO,thethreecountrieswith
thebiggestproductionofmostpopulardrinksareillustratedinfigure6.
PRODUCT FIRST SECOND THIRD
MILK India UnitedStates China
TEA China India Kenya
COFFEE Brazil Vietnam Indonesia
WINE Spain Italy France
BEER China UnitedStates Brazil
Figure6:Tableillustratingwhichcountriesaccountsforthelargestproductionofmostpopulardrinks(FAO2018)
ElectricityandHeatProduc4on
25%
AgricultureandFoodProduc4on
24%Industry21%
Transporta4on14%
OtherEnergy10%
Buildings6%
GlobalEmission
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
40
Bydivingfurtherintothenumberstryingtouncoveramoredetailedpictureofwherethe
largestpartofemissionsistobefound,countrieslikeChina,UnitedStatesandIndiaappears
again.FAOstatesthatapproximately4%oftheglobalemissionofCo2comesfromfood
productions(Friedrich,Ge,andAndrew2018;FAO2018).
EnergyanditsLinktoFoodProduction
Turningthepresentfoodproductionintoasustainableone,usingrenewableenergyand
othercleversolutions,isabigmouthful.Energyavailabilityalsotakesabigplaceinthe
productionoffood.Withoutfossilfuelwewouldnotbeabletocapitalizeonheavy
machinery,transport,producingchemicalsandstoringfood(FAO2018).Tothinkitisonly
theproductionoffood,whichisenergyconsuming,wouldbenaive.Awell-debatedtopicfor
ourtimeistoeatlocallyproducedfood.Thereisabigenergyconsumptiontiedtothe
transportationoffood.Fossilfuelsarebeingusedaspetrolforbigvessels,trucksandplanes
asexoticfoodsarebeingtransportedaroundtheglobe,followingthetrailofdemand.Food
producedine.g.SpainandsoldinDenmarkforinstance,willhaveabigcarbonfootprint.Not
onlydoesthetransportationemitsgreenhousegasses,thecoolingandstoringoffoodalso
haveanimpactontheenvironment(FAO2018).
PurchasingDecisionsandAttitudeonSustainableFoodProducts
Anonlinesurveyamong1.002Americansbetween18-80yearsshowedthatsustainable
choicesamongconsumershavecomeheretostay(SeeappendixA).Thestudywas
conductedduringmarch2017andtheresultsshow,thatthegreenwayofthinkingiswidely
usedamongthepopulation(Statista2017b).17,5%oftherespondentsprefersproductsthat
havesomesortofsustainableattributesandfinditveryimportant.33,5%ofthe
respondentsfindsit“somewhatimportant”.Togetherthesetwopostsaccountsfor51%of
thetotalresearchpopulation.Thisindicatesanoverallpositiverecruitmentofthe
sustainablethinking.Worthnoticingisalsothat6,5%oftherespondentsdonotknow
enoughtoformanopinionwhichisveryinterestingregardingtotheearliernotionofthe
importanceofeducatingandinformingtheconsumers.Finallyonly7,5%saysits“notatall
important”(Statista2017b).Furthermoreitshouldbementionedthatthesurveywas
conductedonline.Thismeansthatpeoplewithoutaccesstoacomputer,mobileorInternet
notarepartofthestatistics.1002respondentsdonotprovideacompletepictureofthe
attitude,althoughitgivesagoodindication.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
41
Anotheronlinesurvey(multipleanswering)alsoindicatesthatweintermsofknowledge
andeducationhavecomealongway(AppendixB).In2014,1003respondentsfromUnited
Statesoftheage18+tookpartinasurvey.Thisstatisticdescribedtheimportanceof
companyactiontoAmericanconsumersinpromotingsustainablefoodproductsin2014
(Statista2017b).81%requestedthattheywouldlikemoreenvironmental-friendlyoptions
madeavailablewhenshopping.Thisindicatesthatthepopulationisconsciousaboutthe
sustainableissuethattheearth’spopulationisfacingbutismaybenotalwaysconscious
aboutwhattherightchoicesinfactare.74%oftherespondentsexpressedthattheywould
wishcompanieswouldexplainhowthefoodpurchasedecisionsimpacttheenvironment
(Statista2017b).
Asdescribedearlier,attitudesandopinionsformedbysocialnormsandotherinfluencers
haveabigimpactonthewaywethinkofsustainability.Inasurveyfrom2016(Statista
2018b),resultsshowedthatabigpartofthepopulation’sopinion,toeco-friendlygoodsand
serviceswaspositive.33%oftherespondentsthoughtofitascommonsensetoconsume
eco-friendlyproducts.19%oftheparticipantsfeelproudconsumingtheecologicalproducts
(SeeappendixC)(Statista2018b).
LookingintothenumberofFairtradecertifiedproductsintheUnitedStatesfrom1998to
2016,weseeadramaticincrease(seeappendixD).Thisisacrossnearlyallfoodcategories,
andthedevelopmentisexpectedtocontinue.Itseemsthatconsumersarehungryfor
sustainabilityandthatthepurchasepowerissolid.Since1988over750millionproducts
withtheFairtradecertificationhavebecomeavailableonshelves(Statista2018a).Fairtrade
isacertificationthatsecurestradeondifferentcommoditiesandtakesresponsibility
regardingsocialsustainability.Itdoesnottakeenergyconsumption,correctuseofsoiland
reductionofpollutionintoconsideration,butisstillagoodindicatorofincreasing
consciousnessamongconsumers.
Thefoursurveysmentionedabove,illustratesthattherearesustainableconsumerswitha
demandforsustainableproductsintheUnitedStates.AccordingtostatisticsfromStatista,
thetotalMarketValueofsustainablelabelledpackagedfood,softdrinksandhotdrinkswill
raisefrom793,8billiondollarsin2015to872,7billiondollarsin2020.Asignificantincrease
of9,9%duringafive-yearperiod(Euromonitor2018).
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
42
PressurefromPublicInstitutionsandTendenciesinOtherIndustries
Theknowledgeofcriticalclimatechangeisnothingnewtothisworld.Everydaysmallsteps
aremade,anditisnotjustcompaniesintheprivatesectorthatneedstorethinkprocesses.
Nations,regionsandcitiesarestartingtoreconsiderandquestionpresentsolutions.Cities
convertpublicbussesfrompetroltoelectricity,solarpowerorhydrogen.Somefirst-mover
nationshaveintroduceddemandstohowCHP-stationsproduceheat,andbythatconverting
toamorerenewableandsustainableenergyproduction.Bytheseinitiatives,governments
arepushingdevelopmentandenergyconversiontowardsagreenerfuture.UNalso
implicateinthechangeofhowweliveourmodernlives.In2015theheadsofstateand
governmentandhighrepresentativesmetatUnitedNationsHeadquartersinNewYork.
Overatwo-dayperiod,representativesfromthe193sovereignstates,clarified17specified
goalstobereachedbythetimeof2030:
1. Nopoverty
2. Zerohunger
3. Goodhealthandwellbeing
4. Qualityeducation
5. Genderequality
6. Cleanwaterandsanitation
7. Affordableandcleanenergy
8. Decentworkandeconomicgrowth
9. Industry,innovationand
infrastructure
10. Reducedinequalities
11. Sustainablecitiesandcommunities
12. Responsibleconsumptionand
production
13. Climatechange
14. Lifebelowwater
15. Lifeonland
16. Peace,justiceandstrong
institutions
17. Partnershipsforthegoals(UN
2018)
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
43
Thesharedchallengebetweennationsistotranslatetheseconcretegoalsintodigestible
andusableframeworks,thatcanbeusedbyprivateandpublicactorstocomeupwith
innovativesolutions.UnitedNationsSecretary-GeneralAntónioGuterresisstressingthe
importanceofcollaborationbetweenthepublicandprivatesector.Hestatesthattheworld
hastheknowledge,wealthandcapacitytotransformandbuildapeacefulandbeneficial
futureforeveryinhabitantontheplanet,forbothecosystemsandhumans.UNisabig
organisationofwhichmanyassociatewithheavypolicyandbureaucraticdecisionprocesses
(UN2018).Togivetheprivatesector,andtherebycorporationsahelpinghand,TheTen
PrinciplesofUNGlobalCompacthavebeenestablished.Bythehelpoftheseconcrete
principles,businessnowhasguidelinesthathelpthemstriveformoreethicaland
sustainablecorrectway,tomanagetheirbusiness.The17Sustainabilitygoals,fortheworld,
havebeentranslatedtotenprinciplesforbusinessestofollow,whicharecharacterizedby
thesethreethemes:
o HumanRights
o Labour
o Environment
AccordingtoUN,businessesshouldundertakeinitiativestopromotegreaterenvironmental
responsibility(UnitedNations2018a).Byconvertingtocleanerandmoreefficient
processes,companiescanincreaseresourceproductivity.Additionally,thereisarising
demandforsustainablebusinessesbetweenemployeesandconsumers.Bytheseprinciples
Figure7UnitedNationsSustainabilityGoals(SDG)(UN2018)
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
44
AntónioGueterresandtherestofUNhopestoadvocateandguideindustryandbusinessina
sustainabledirection.Companiesshouldincreaseself-regulationandre-evaluatecodeof
conductintermsofmanagingtheirbusinessandtheenvironment(UnitedNationsGlobal
Compact2017).
SincetheUNboardintroducestheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsin2015,theglobal
businesscommunityhavemadegreat,andimportantprogressinordertomeetthe
ambitioussustainabilitygoals.Aroundtheworld,companieshavecommittedtoTheTen
PrinciplesoftheUNGlobalCompactatCEO-level,andhavebeenabletoapproachthe
SustainableDevelopmentGoals.Greatprogresshavealreadybeencovered,accordingtoCEO
&ExecutiveDirectoratUnitedNationsGlobalCompactLiseKingo(UnitedNationsGlobal
Compact2017).AccordingtoareportthatUnitedNationsGlobalCompacthasconducted
amongitsmembers,steadyprogressishappening.Thenumberofcompaniesthatshow
interestandcommitmenttoanenvironmentalchange,andamoresustainablewayto
conductbusiness,isincreasing.
TheGlobalCompactinitiativenowcounts9.413(UnitedNationsGlobalCompact2017)
companiesaffiliated.Theyaredistributedin163differentcountries,coveringallcontinents.
66millionpeopleareemployedataGlobalCompactcompany.28%oftheFortune500
companiesparticipateinthisinitiative.Ofthe9.413affiliatedcompaniesthefourbiggest
sectorsare3.137withinIndustrialGoods&Services,785withinTechnology,685within
Construction&Materialsand551withinFood&Beverage(UnitedNationsGlobalCompact
2017).75%ofcompaniesclaimthattheytakeactiontomeettheambitiousSustainable
DevelopmentGoals.Furtherinvestigationshowsthatinvolvementatboardlevelhas
increasedsignificantlyinthepasttwoyears.AlsoCEOcommitmentishigh,whicharecritical
toasuccessfulstrategicapproachtowardssustainability(UnitedNationsGlobalCompact
2017).
NotalloftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsarerelatedtotheenvironment.Participants
whoengageintheenvironmentalprinciples,prioritizesdifferentgoals.Thespecificgoal,
ClimateActionismetwiththebiggestengagement,accordingtoGlobalCompact’sreport.
37%oftheparticipantsareworkingwithimprovingtheimpactontheenvironmentand
haveactivitiestargetingclimatechange.50%oftheconsulted,believethattheireffortshave
asignificantimpactontheissues(UnitedNationsGlobalCompact2017).Whetheritis
effortswithinreducingwaterspillage,improvinglifeonland,improvinglifebelowwaterno
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
45
otherareaaregettingthesameattention.Furthermore,participantsreportlikewise,that
ClimateActionistheareawheremostbelieveintheimpactoftheiractions.
Adaptingtothegoals,andconvertingbusinessprocesses,proceduresandattitudeto
conductingamoresustainablewayofbusinesscomeswithdifferentchallenges.According
totheGlobalCompactreport,smallandlargebusinessesfacesdifferentchallenges.Among
thesmallbusinesses,lackoffinancialresourcesseemstobethebiggestissue.Itisnot
uncommonforcompanieshavebigexpensesconnectedtosustainableinvestments.These
investmentshopefullypayoffovertime,buttothecompanyitisnecessarytohavethe
liquiditytowithstandthetransitionperiod.Forlargercompaniesthisproblemisnotasbig.
Asforlargecompanies,extendingstrategythroughouttheirsupplychainisabigger
problem.Largecompanieshavenaturallymoresuppliersandstrategicpartnersthatthey
dependon.Ensuringthattheyfollowguidelines,intermsofasustainablecodeofconduct,
canbehard.Lackoftransparencyisnotuncommon,andcanslowtheprocessofchoosing
andevaluatingsuppliersandstrategicpartner.Themajorityofthemdonotinclude
sustainability.Ofalltheissueswearefacingonthisplanetandourglobalsociety,the
committeeofUNmanagedtoallocatefivebulletsspecificforthetopicofsustainability.To
theresearchersofthispaper,thisisindicatingthatsustainabilityisahighpriority.
EmphasizingsustainabilityontheUNgoals’agendaobviouslydoesnotsolvetheissues
themselves.Eachbullethasitsownsubsidiaryobjectivesthataimtosplittheselargegoals
Figure8Differentchallengestosmallandlargecompanies(UnitedNationsGlobalCompact2017)
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
46
inminorandmoredigestiblesubgoals.Thishelpscompanies,andotheractors,totakeup
thechallengeandbecomeapartofthechange.Byhelpfromtheprivatesectorand
governancesaroundtheworld,goalscanbereached,butitrequiressometoleadtheway.
FirstMoverIndustries–TheWindofChange
Alongwiththefoodindustry,electricityandheatproductionandtransportationarealso
contributingsignificantlytoemissionofgreenhousegasses.AccordingtoEPA(UnitedStates
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency)24%oftheglobalgreenhousegasemissionderivesfrom
foodproduction,25%fromelectricityandheatproductionand14%fromtransportation,
butlatelywehaveseenachange.Firstmoversofrenewableenergyandsustainable
solutionspopupwithinmoreandmoreindustriesandnations.Convertingtheproductionof
energyandheat,inaCHP-station(Combinedheatandpowerstation)demandsgreat
investments.Denmarkisoneontheleadingcountrieswithinrenewableenergy.By2020the
goalistohavea100%supplyofrenewableenergyintheenergyandtransportsector
(DanishWindIndustryAssociation2018).Somecountriesareblessedwithanabundanceof
naturalresourcessuchasoil,metals,goldordiamonds.Denmarkhasthewind.Plentyofit.
This,andotherfactors,hascultivatedDenmarkasafirst-moverwithinthewindindustry,
andtodayhundredsofcompaniescoveringeveryaspectofthesupply-chaininDenmark.All
kindsofcompaniescanbefoundrangingfromturbineproducers,developersofoffshore
windfarmstoincrediblevesselshandlingoffshoreinstallations,transport,maintenanceand
service(DanishWindIndustryAssociation2018).Alongtheprivatesectoranduniversities,
extensiveresearchanddevelopmentprogramsarebeingcarriedout.Thetargetisto
developnewandmoreefficienttechnology.Inordertoconvertthelargestpossibleamount
ofwindenergytoelectricityaclosecollaborationisneeded.
AtmultipleharboursinDenmarkportsarecustomizedforhandlingandassemblingoffshore
windturbines.Around75%ofDenmark’swindcapacitycomesfromonshoreinstallations,
and25%isfromoffshore(Neslen2018).
AreportfromTheDanishEnergyAgency,reportsthatthebestperforminginvestmentin
newenergyplants(newCHP-stations,onshorewindturbines,offshorewindturbinesand
naturalgasses)isonshorewindparks.Theonlychallengehereisthattheyoften(tosome
extent)botherresidentsintheareawheretheyareputup.Thechallengewithoffshorewind
parksisthattheydemandasignificantbiggerstart-upandmaintenancebudget.Eitherway,
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
47
windenergyisaccordingtoTheDanishEnergyAgency,thecheapestsolutionbothinterms
ofinitialinvestmentsfromthesupplier’spointofview,butalsofromtheend-user(Neslen
2018).
ButasgreenasDenmarkmayseem,notallareas,intermsofsustainabilityiscultivated
fairly.Tesla(Americanproducerofelectriccars)launchedtheirnewmodelSandentered
theDanishmarketinthefallof2013.Until2015allTeslamodels,andotherelectriccars
havebeenexemptfrompayingduty(Turula2018).ThewordspreadfastandtheDanish
governmentdecidedtoimposeadutyonelectriccarsequivalenttotraditionalcars,running
onfossilfuels.Criticsarguedthatthiswouldslowtheprogressofconvertingthecarsofthe
Danishroadsfromfossilfuelstomorerenewableenergy.Byaphaseofsevenyears,theduty
willgraduallygetchargedonelectricvehicles–incontrasttoNorway.Norwayisthe
PromisedLandforelectriccars.ThegovernmentofNorwayhassetanambitiousgoal–to
outphasepetrolpoweredcarsby2025.ToreachthisgoaltheNorwegiangovernmenthas
launchedastringofinitiativestopromotetheuseofelectriccars.Firstandforemost,there
arenopurchase/importtaxeswhenpurchasinganelectricvehicle.Ownersofe.g.aTesla
alsoexemptfromthe25%VATcomparedtoothercarsrunningonfossilfuels.Ownersof
electriccarspayalowannualroadtax,andarealsoexemptedforchargesontollroadsand
ferries.IfyoudriveanelectricpoweredvehicleinNorwayyoucanalsoenjoythebenefitof
freemunicipalparkingandaccesstobuslanes(Turula2018).Notsurprisinglytherealso
existattractivemodelsforacquisitionofanelectriccompanycar,andlikewiseonleasing.
WiththismodelNorwayhavebecomegloballyknowasthefirst-moverwithingreen
transportation.Theattractiveregulationsregardingelectricvehiclesnowmeansthat
Norwayhasmorethan10%oftheglobalelectriccarfleet(Turula2018).
Allovertheworldnewinitiativesandsolutionsappeartohelpsolvethesustainable
challengesweface.Butasthetwoexamplesillustrate,bigactorslikegovernmentsand
companiesneedtotakeaction–otherwisewewillmissthewindowofopportunity.Norway
hastakenabigleapforward,andisabiginspirationtotherestoftheworld.Denmarkcan
learnalotfromNorwayintermsonconvertingthecarontheroadstomorerenewable
alternatives.
Thequestionnowseemsifthereisaconnectionbetweentheseexamples(Norwaywith
electriccars,andDenmarkwithwindenergy),andtheemissionofgreenhousegasses.
AccordingtoFAO(UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency)andtheirestimateson
greenhousegasemissions,electricityandheatproductionaccountsfor25%,and
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
48
transportationaccountsfor14%oftheglobalemissions.Thiscorrespondswellwiththe
DanishandNorwegiangovernmentsattemptstoreduceCo2withincriticalareas,and
therebybecomingmoresustainable.Furthermore,thetwoexamplesaregreatindicatorsofa
globaltrend,whichisnotonlyhappeningwithinoneindustry.
Asgreattheseexamplesmightsound,therearebadexamplestobefoundaswell.According
toareportbytheBritishThinkTankInfluenceMap,politicallobbyismagainstsustainability
isnotuncommon.Someoftheworldsbiggestbrandsandmostpowerfulcompanies,spends
enormousresourcestryingtomanipulatelegislationintheirfavour(InfluenceMap2017).
Thismaynotcomeasasurprise,buttheresultsareinterestinginthelightofsome
corporation’sstanceonclimatepolicy,leveloflobbyingactivityandoveralleconomicclout.
Thisreportisidentifying50ofthe250biggest,nonstate-owned,industrialcompaniesthat
havethebiggestinfluentialontheclimatepolicytoday.Theother200ismoreorless
passive.Whilepeopleallovertheworldisworkingagainstclimatechanges,35ofthebiggest
companiesareactivelylobbyingagainstpro-climatepolicies.Mostofthemareheavy
industrycompaniesthathavesomesortofstrongconnectiontofossilfuels,transportation
orenergyproduction(e.g.CHPstations)(InfluenceMap2017).Majorcompaniesthat
increasinglysupportthealignmentoftheParisClimatepolicyarealsofeatured.Hereglobal
brandslikeApple,Unilever,IKEA,NestléandTeslaistobefound.Butthenervewithinthis
reportisthecompaniesthatopposetotherenewableandmoresustainableclimatepolicies.
Asmentionedalready,companiesthatoperatewithinthefossilfuelvaluechain(e.g.
ExxonMobil,Chevron,Shell)andothersdeceleratethesustainabledevelopmentandfuture.
Withinthesementioned35companiesofgreatpoliticalinfluencearefourpowerfulvehicle
manufacturersincludingFord,BMW,FiatChryslerandDaimler.Theresearchersbehindthe
reportclaimstohaveclearevidencethattheseactorsarelobbyingtodelayorreduce
efficiencyandCo2emissionsstandardsandproceduresbothinEuropeandNorthAmerica
(InfluenceMap2017).LookingatBMWforinstance,thisisratherparadoxical.BMWbrands
itselfasasustainableindustryleaderasacarmanufacturerwithinitsclass.Sustainabilityis,
accordingtoBMW,afocalpoint.TheallegedlyworkwithbecomingCo2neutral,reducing
wasteandbecominggreenerinrelationtogasemissionsfromtheircars(BMWGroup
2016a;BMW2016;BMWGroup2016b).Stilltheyallegedlylobbyagainstamoresustainable
policy.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
49
ParisAgreement
In2015193nationscametogethertoactonthecriticalclimatechange.Amajormeeting
washeldinParis,andtheeventhasbeendescribedashistorical.Neverbeforehavethat
manynations,incollaboration,developedambitiousgoalsontheclimateissue.Theagenda
wasclear;tocutdowngreenhousegasemissions,andtherebytryingtosavetheearthfor
futuregenerations(UnitedNations2018b).In1997theKyotoProtocolsetatargetfora
handfulofdevelopedcountriestocutdownonemissions.AsUnitedStatespulledoutand
othercountriesfailedtoreachthegoals,TheKyotoProtocolbecameafailure.
TheParisAgreementiscentredonfollowingkeyelements:
o Agoaltokeeptheglobalaveragetemperaturebelow2.0C(3.6F),andlongtermlower
to1.5C.
o Alimitationandreductionofgreenhousegassesemittedbyhumans.Thegoalisto
reducegreenhousegassestoalevelwheretrees,soilandoceanscannaturally
absorb.Estimatedatsomepointbetween2050and2100.
o Reviewingeachcountriescontributionbyemissionreduceeveryfiveyear.Bydoing
this,measurescanbemadeanditisfurthermorepossibletokeeppressureonthe
specificcountry,andsetnewgoals.
o Itisexpectedthatcountriesthatarewell-off,helpscountriesthatisnotaswealthy.
Thiscanbedonebyeconomicaid,cooperationandsharingofexperienceand
knowledge(UnitedNations2018b).
Thesekeyelementsissettohelpcountriescombattheclimatechangesthatfaceshumanity,
butthegoalswillnotbereachedwithoutheavyinvestments.Oneofthestickingpointsofthe
negotiationshasbeencentredaboutwaystofinancethisturnaround.Developingareaslike
AfricaandpartsofAsiahaverequestedfinancial,educationalandtechnologicalhelpto
phaseoutfossilfuels(UnitedNations2018b).TheParisagreementrequiresthewealthy
nationstoassistwithfinancialaidoftotal$100billionperyear.Richnationspledgestothis
agreementthatisbindingtoyear2020.In2020themonetaryaidissupposedtobere-
evaluatedwiththe$100billionactingasstartingpointforfurthernegotiations.Accordingto
theagreementcountriesmustkeepsupportingothercountriesthatarenotsowelloff.The
countries,whicharenotobligatedtohelp,areencouragedtojoinandhelponavoluntary
basis.Dr.IlanKelman(scientistwithinphysicalandenvironmentalconditionsatInstitutefir
Risk&DisasterReductionandInstituteforGlobalHealth)ofUCL(UniversityCollegeof
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
50
London)expresseshisworriestowardstheagreement.Hearguesthattheresources
allocatedwillnotcometobeefficient.AccordingtoanarticleonthetopicfromBBC,$100
billionislessthan8%ofthedeclaredworld-widemilitaryspending–eachyear(United
Nations2018b).TheacknowledgedParisAgreementisjustthebeginningofamoregreen
discourse.Manyinstitutions,e.g.UnitedNationsareleaningagainstthegoals,andusesitas
stepstonesintheirstrategicworktowardsamoresustainablefuture.
Howfarhavewecome?Isitallfornothing?
Itisahardquestiontoanswer.Acknowledgementoftheissueisabigpartofit,anditisfrom
hereonpossibletostartworkingwithsolvingthechallenge.Thesectionsaboveindicatethat
thereisarestructuringundergoing.Changeisinevitable,anditseemsthatactorson
differentlevelsandmarketshaveacknowledgedthat.Itispositivetoseehowbigbrandsare
adaptingtothenewandgreenermind-sets.AsMcKinsey&Companyexpress,itisimportant
to“live”thechangeandincorporatethegoalsandthegreenerthinkingintocorevalues
(BonininiandGörner2011).Supportfromconsumersandthedemandforgreenerproducts,
moresustainablesolutions,responsibilityandchangewillnaturallyaffecttheway
companiesconductbusiness.Companieshavesincethedawnoftime,livedbythedemandof
consumers.Ifthedemandforaproductchanges,orletssayevolve,sowillthecompanyand
themarket.Anticipatingthatallconsumersintheworldwantedtosolelybuysustainable
productsfromcompaniesthatworkedhardtoachieveagreenerandsustainableplanet,
sustainabilityingeneralwouldbemorecommon.Aseasyasitmightseemtoblamethebig
multinationalcorporations,consumersalsoneedtolookinwards.Nations,governments,
citiesandorganizationsalsoplayabigroleintheconversiontoamoresustainableworld.Is
seemscomplextoevaluatetheprogresssofar,andhowfarwehavecome.Whatcanbesaid
isthatopinionsandattitudetowardssustainabilityhavechanged.Moreandmorepeopleis
joiningthesustainablemovement.Sometogreaterextentthanothers.Regardlessofthe
degree,thetruechallengeistogetconsumerstoactontheirgoodintensions.Earlierthe
attitudesandintentionsamongconsumerstowardssustainabilityhavebeenelaborated.
Thisisratherinterestingintermsofdiscussinghowfarwehavecome.Again,the
acknowledgementoftheissues,accountsforabigpartoftheprogress.Educationand
spreadingofthewordpromotestheknowledge,justasscienceexplorenewperspectives
andcomeupwithnewwaysproducefoodmoresustainable.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
51
Sub-conclusion
AccordingtostatisticsfromUNandFAOweareconsumingmorethanever,andtheeffecton
ourplanetisnottobemistaken.Thenumberofinhabitantsonourplanetisgrowingwithan
impressiverate,andwiththeincreaseddemandforfoodandFMCGingeneral,theworld,as
weknowitfaceadifficultchallenge.Clearindicatorsonathreateningenvironmentalchange
havecircledthelastcoupleofdecades,onlytospreadthemessage.Consumersofwestern
originexpressclearpositiveattitudetowardsproductswithsustainableattributes.Bothin
termsofexitingproducts,newproductsandmoreinformation.Lookingintothedifferent
industriesandhowtheyaffectourenvironment,itisclearthatsomeindustriesarebigger
sinnersthanother.Especiallythefoodproduction,industryandtransportationsectorsare
responsibleforthebiggestimpact.Lookingfurtherintoindustriesitquicklybecomesclear
thatsomebrands,industriesandnationscanbecharacterisedasfirstmovers.Thisisvery
interesting,asitputsperspectiveonthesustainabledevelopmentinaholisticmatter.The
tendencieswithinsustainabilityarenotsomethingthatislimitedtoaspecialproduct
category,nationorcontinent.Itindicatesthatachangeoftheworldasweknowitis
undergoing,rightbeforeoureyes–eventhoughwemightnotnoticeitinourdailylife’s.A
paradigmisshifting.
Withpressureincreasingfrompublicinstitutions,likeUN,changeseemsinevitable.UNurge
changeamongnationsandencouragetheprivatesectortoaffiliatewiththecomprehensive
codeofconduct,UNCompact.
TheCorporatePointofView
Asdescribedearliertheaccelerateddemographic,technologicalandindustrialdevelopment
ofthelastcenturyhasintensifiedtheconsequencesbyhumanactivityontheenvironment.
Inthiscontexttheconceptofsustainabledevelopmentemergedandbecamewidelyknown
in1987throughthepublicationoftheOurCommonFuturedocument-aUNreportofthe
WorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment(Mebratu1998).Sustainable
developmentwasherebydefinedas“thedevelopmentthatisabletosatisfytheneedsof
currentgenerations,withoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstosatisfytheir
ownneeds”(Brundtland1987).Itisarguedthatthesustainabilityisviewedlyingonthree
mainpillars;theenvironment,theeconomyandthesocietywhereitcanbestatedthatthe
company’s/organization’ssocialresponsibilityisincludedinallthree(Elkington1994).In
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
52
regardofthisandthefactearlierstatedconcerningindustry’simpactontheenvironment
andresourceconsumption,companiesneedtobeapartofthesolution,whichmakesita
managerialresponsibility.
Marketingmightbeoneofthemostcrucialstrategicactivitiescompaniescanutilizeto
ensurerespectfortheenvironmentandsocialwellbeingcompatiblewiththebusiness
operations(SimãoandLisboa2017).Inthisregard,greenmarketingfocusesondeveloping
andmarketingsolutions/products/servicesthatontheonehandsatisfiescostumerneeds
andontheotherhandtakingenvironmentalsustainabilityintoaccount(Polonsky1994).
Companiescandirecttheireffortstowardsproducing“cleaner”products,yet,ifthese
productsareperceivedasoflowerquality(astheAnarchistthoughtsonorganicvegetables),
overpriced(alsoacommonattitudeasarguedseveraltimesearlier)orfailtodeliveronthe
mainbenefitsoftheproducts,theywillnotattractcustomersandratherresultonnegativity
towardsthegivencompany(Elkington1994).
CompaniesandSustainability
Itiswidelyacknowledgedthattheenvironment,companiesanddevelopmentareconnected
andinparticularsustainabilityrelatestobusinessmanagement(Elkington1994)(Polonsky
1994)(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-Padron2011).Fromasustainableperspectiveitis
desirablethatcompaniespromoteanefficientconsumptionandreplacementofmaterials
andresources.Morespecificallycompaniescanengageinactivitiesofresourceefficiency
andreplacement,manageresiduals,reuseandrecyclematerials,managewater,soilandair
pollution,greenprocessesandproductsthatrepresentlowerenvironmentalimpactand
promotegreenpracticesbothinternallyandexternally(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-
Padron2011).
Asmadeclearinthelastsectiongovernmentsexertafundamentalroleinspreadingand
promotingpreservationoftheenvironment,andservesthepurposeofdefining
environmentalnormsandregulatorymechanismsinsociety.Yet,theneedofenvironmental
protectivelegalisationsandregulationsaremostlyaccepteditraisesadilemma–economy
vs.ecology(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-Padron2011).Eventhoughallpeoplebasically
wantsaliveableplanet,awidespreadbeliefthatenvironmentalregulationmayprejudice
competitivenessrules,asarguedintheconsumersection.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
53
Othersclaimthatitisimportantthatmanagementsbuildanenvironmentalmanagement
strategytoachieveorganizationalgoalsasmoralobligationsofbeingsociallyresponsible
andreductioninoperationalcostsforexample(Polonsky1994).Infactitisarguedthat
implementingenvironmentalpracticesdonotonlyrepresentanadditionalcosttothe
company,butitmightprovidedesirablebenefitssuchas:
o Costreductionresultingfromlowerresourcesconsumption.
o Resourcesaving/profitgainduetomaterialrecycling.
o Detectionofnewrawmaterialsandmanufacturingprocesses.
o “Clean”manufacturingtechnologypatents’sales.
o Firmimageimprovementandsalesincrease,duetoofecologicalproducts
developmentandlaunch.
o Possibilityofenteringintheinternationalmarket,increasinglyrigidinregardsto
environmentalrestrictions.
o Greaterfacilityofobtainingforeignfinancingthroughinvestments.
o Greateracceptabilityofshareholderswhoprefertoinvestinenvironmentally
responsiblefirms(SimãoandLisboa2017)
Ontopofthesebenefitsitisalsoarguedthatenvironmentallyfriendlyinitiativesmay
influenceverypositiveonbrandimage,brandknowledgeandoverallcompanyreputation
(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-Padron2011)(Connelly,Ketchen,andSlater2011).This
maypartiallyreflectthechangesinthesocietyinregardofconsumer’sand
society’s/government’sexpectationstowardscompanies.Bythis,sincesometrendsamong
consumersandinsocietychangedattentionfromconsumptiontosustainableconsumption
itbecamerelevanttocompaniestotakethisseriously,asalternativelycompaniesassociated
toactionsagainstsustainabilitymightbenegativelyaffected(Connelly,Ketchen,andSlater
2011).Tosumup,itcanbestatedthatcompaniestendtoadoptsustainableand
environmentallyfriendlypracticestoobtainbusinessrelatedbenefitsorbecausetheyare
motivatedbyexternalforces,suchasgovernments.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
54
CommitmenttoSustainability
Companiesthatchoosetoengagesustainablepracticescanofcausechoosetobemoreor
lesscommittedandtheextendofcommitmentcanbedividedintothreestages(Chabowski,
Mena,andGonzalez-Padron2011).Thefirststageis“reaction”,andherecompaniesconsider
environmentalissuestherootsofunnecessarycosts,henceverylittlecommitment.These
companiestendtofocus“treatmentofsymptoms”aspollutioncontrolinsteadof“curing”
andremovethesourceofpollution.Secondstage,or“prevention”,companiestriestoavoid
environmentalbecausetheyrecognizethatregardingcosts,itispreferabletoalterprocesses
andavoidpollution,ratherthandealingwiththeeffectsanddamagesfromit.Thethirdand
finalstageis“proactiveness”.Hereenvironmentalmanagementisviewedasastrategic
opportunitytoenternewmarketsorstrengthenexistingones.Thistypeofcompanies
proactivelyengageindevelopmentofpreventiveandcorrectiveactionsappliedtotheentire
organisationandit’ssupplychaininaholisticmanner(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-
Padron2011)(GinsbergandBloom2004).
Theintegrationofenvironmentalfocusinthecompany’sfunctionalareasshowsa
company’sabilitytousetheseenvironmentalissuesasstrategicopportunities.Particularly
themarketingareaseemstohaveacentralroleinapplyingthisfocus.Thishigher
commitmentandinvolvementfromthecompanyasawholeemergeconstructssuchas
greenmarketing,whichwillbedealtwithinthefollowingsection.
GreenMarketing
Greenmarketingconsistsintheactivitiesconceivedtoproduceandfacilitatethe
commercializationofproductsorservicestosatisfyhumandesiresandneedsandyet
causingaminimumimpactontheenvironment(Polonsky1994).Itcanbeviewed,asa
holisticprocessresponsibleforidentifyingandsatisfyingconsumerandsocietyneedsin
bothlucrativeandsustainableways.Bythispointitmustbeacknowledgedthatthereexista
relationshipbetweenmoralityandgreenmarketing.
Asaconceptgreenmarketinghasevolvedovertimesinceconcernsonpollutioninthe
1970s(Elkington,Hailes,andMakower1990).Withtheincreasedglobalconcernof
environmentalqualitygreenmarketinghasacquiredmoreandmoreimportanceovertime.
Asaresultcompaniesthatareaimingtoexpandtheirmarketsorincreasetheirsalesvolume
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
55
couldbenefitfromthepositiveimageestablishedtroughgreenmarketing(Ginsbergand
Bloom2004).
Whendevelopingagreenmarketingstrategycompaniesshouldtakeintoaccounttwo
crucialaspects:creatingaproductthatsatisfiesconsumers’needstogetherwithcarryinga
minimalnegativeimpactontheenvironmentandtogenerateaperceptionofproductquality
andthecompany’scommitmenttotheenvironmentinthemindoftheconsumers
(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-Padron2011).Thissaid,companiesneedtodevelopboth
thefunctionalandtheemotionalbenefitsoftheproducttosatisfytheneedsoftheconscious
consumer.Thegreenmarketingstrategyinvolvesaproactivepostureasexplainedin
previoussection,whichalsooftenenablesalong-termorientation(deBakker2009).De
Bakkerherearguesthattheproactivenessaimstogaincompetitiveadvantagesby
positioningproductsinconsumers’minds.Buttoachievetheseadvantagesagreen
marketingstrategyhastodealwithsomeofthefundamentalelementsofmarketing
activitiessuchassegmentation,(green)productdevelopment,(green)positioning,pricing,
logisticscommunicationsandpartnershipsequivalenttothedesiredoverallgreenstrategy.
Asacrucialaspectofstrategicmanagementandmarketing,thestrategicmanagementofthe
brandplaysaveryimportantroleregardingsustainability–inthiscontextthecreationof
andmanagementofgreenbrandsisthekeyingreenmarketing(Chabowski,Mena,and
Gonzalez-Padron2011).
Sub-conclusion
Greenmarketinghasacquiredmoreandmoreimportanceovertime,andeventhoughitcan
beverybeneficialtoachieveagreenimageinthemindofconsumers,itisstillfundamental
tocompaniestodeliverasatisfactoryproduct/service.Beingabletodeliveraproductthat
satisfytheconsumer’sneedswithminimalnegativeimpactontheenvironmentisimportant
regardinggreenmarketing,butitisarguedlikewiseimportanttoestablishtheperceptionof
thecompany’sgreencommitmentaswell.Eventhoughthereareseveralargumentstowards
carryinggreenmarketingandusingitstatically,manycompaniesstilltendstoonlyadopt
sustainablepracticesthatisevenbeneficialtothecompanyorisforceduponthembylaw.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
56
Analysis
Thefollowingsectionseekstoinvestigateandanalysesomebest-in-practisecompanies
regardinggreenandsustainabledevelopmenttouncoverhowthesespecificcompanies
respondtothemovementsinsocietyandamongconsumers.Thetwocompanieschosenis
NestléandToyota.
Nestlé
Nestléinvestsincreasinglyinsustainability,andisconsideredtobeoneoftheleading
companieswithintheirindustry(Globescan2015).Nestleisratherinterestinginthelightof
thispapersproblemformulationduetothecompany’sincreasinginvestmentsin
sustainability,andbecauseitisconsideredtobeoneoftheleadingcompanieswithintheir
industry(Globescan2015).Totheextentoftheresearch,thispaperseektoillustratehow
companiescanbenefitfromthesustainabledevelopmentwesee.Nestléisarolemodelto
manyintheindustryoffoodandbeverages(Nestlé2017c)andthroughcontinuousactivities
andincreasinginvestmentsNestléisslowly,butsteadyconvertingtheirwayofbusiness.As
previouslyarguedfoodproductionisamongthehighestgreenhousegasemissionindustries
andagricultureremainsoneofthebiggestsinnersinthiscategory(USEPA2018).Nestlé’s
productiononconsumablegoodsrest,amongothers,onthefollowingcrops:
o Coffee
o Cacao
o Palmoil
o Pulpandpaper
o Soya
o Sugar
o Cerealsandgrains
o Hazelnuts(Nestlé2017d)
TheabovementioneditemsaretheonesthatNestlésourceinthelargestquantities,andat
thesametimethemostvitaltotheirbusinessmodel.Theseincentivesarealchallengefor
Nestlé,asdemandforsustainableproductsrise.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
57
TheanalysisofNestléhasbeendividedintothreepartsforthesakeofthereadertoensurea
betterunderstanding.FirstabriefintroductionofNestléGroupcontainingkeyfactsanda
timelinewillbepresented.Secondly,aninvestigationofhowthetheoryofthispaper
correspondswiththecaseofNestléGroupandtheirsustainableefforts.Finally,an
assessmentofifandhow,NestléGroupappliestheirsustainabilityeffortsintheir
communication.DuetothecomplexnatureofNestléGroup,itisimportantnottogeneralize.
OurgoalinthethirdsectionoftheNestléanalysisistoillustratetheroleofsustainability
andseeifitispossibletodemonstratehowNestléGroupbenefitsfromtheirsustainable
efforts,throughcommunicationchannels.
NestléCompanyPresentation
Nestléisaninternationallyknownfoodfabricant,andseller,whichmanypeoplemight
recognisewithinsweetsandbreakfastrelatedproducts.Thecompanyisfairlyinterestingin
thecaseofsustainabilityastheytakegreatresponsibilityregardingtheclimatechange,as
wellassocialresponsibility.Nestléisaverybigcorporation,andexactlythesizeofthe
enterpriseisalsointeresting.Thecompanyandtheirsustainablemethods,andactions,will
beelaboratedinthefollowingsection.NestléGroupismanagingawiderangeofbrandsand
isindirectcontactwithalllevelsofthesupplychain.
In2016Nestlécelebrated150thanniversary,andtouncoverthesuccessofthebrandwewill
travelbackintimewereitallbegan.Theyearis1866,andHenriNestléhavejustfounded
Anglo-SwissCondensedMilkCompany(Nestlé2017a).In1867Henridevelopsa
breakthroughwithininfantfood.Tocombathighmortalityratesbetweennew-borninfants,
whocannotbreastfeed,German-bornHenrilauncheshis“KinderMehl”.Thebreastmilk
substitutecombinedmilkfromacow,wheatflourandsugar(Nestlé2017a).
Asthecompanyexperiencessuccessinthestartofthe20thcentury,competitiongrewwith
acompanyduetoacompanywithanalmostidenticalname:Anglo-Swiss.Anglo-Swisswas
atthattimearivalandtherewasallegedlyfiercecompetitionbetweenthetwocompanies.
Especiallyonthemarketofcondensedmilkandinfantcereal(Nestlé2017a).Eventhough
bothcompaniesexpanded,andgrewheavily,bothintermsofproductrangesbutalso
openingnewmarkets,theydecidedtomerge.Togetherthetwocompaniesfoundedwhatwe
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
58
todayknowasNestléGroup(Nestlé2017a).DuringthepioneeringyearsofNestlé,society
onanationalandinternationallevelwaschangingatrecord-breakingspeed.Peoplemoved
tothecityduringtheindustrializationtofindworkandoneofthecharacteristicsofthis
periodwasthatcompaniesstartedtoimplementmachinesaspartoftheproduction,to
maximiseproductivity(Johansen2017;Nestlé2017a).Thiswasmadepossibleduetothe
propagationofelectricityandafastevolvingrailwaynetwork,connectinggrowingcitieson
anationalandinternationallevel.Thisspurredtradingofinternationalinconsumergoods.
In1904thecompanystartedsellingchocolate,whichtheytodayareinternationally
recognisedfor.Henriwasinthe1880sreadytosellcommercialmilkchocolate,butdueto
lackoffaithinthenewproduct,itwasnotreleaseduntil1904.
Throughouttherestofthe20thcenturyacomprehensivestringofbrandandproduct
launchestookplace.Amongthemarefamousproductsandbrandslike:
o 1938–Nescafé
o 1948–Nestea
o 1948–Nesquik
o 1986–Nespresso(Nestlé2018a)
Nestléhavealsoboughtuppromisingbrandse.g.Perrier(Frenchbrandofnaturalbottled
watercapturedatthesourceinVergèze,andknownfortheirgreenbottles)andVittel
(FrenchbrandthatbottlesmineralwaterfromthesourceinVittel,France)(Nestlé2017a;
Nestlé2018a).Furthermoretheyhavesignedgreatpartnershipswithotherbigcorporations
likeL’OréalandGeneralMills.Byengaginginjointventures,theyhavelaunchednumerous
productlinesbasedontheirsharedexpertise.Nestlé’sstorylineisrathercomplexbut
centresaroundproductsthataredigestive.Theproductrangecontainsbothnecessary
foods,likewater,butalsosweetsthatdonotappearasanecessity,butratherasatreat.In
totalNestlégroupmanages2000brands,rangingfromlocalfavouritestointernationalicons
(Nestlé2018a;Nestlé2017a).
ThemultinationalconsumergoodscompanyisheadquarteredinVevey,Switzerland.Nestlé
Groupemploysmorethan323.000peopleworldwideandispresentin189countries.Nestlé
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
59
Grouphadaturnoverofmorethan$89bnin2017(Sneider2017).Approximately$40bnof
thesalesisderivedfromtheAmericanregion.HereNestléoperate158factoriesand
employs33,6%oftheirworkforce.Europe,MiddleEastandNorthAfricaaccountsfor
roughly$26bnoftheglobalturnover.Thisareaemploys33,9%oftheglobalstaffin146
factories.Asia,Oceaniaandsub-SaharanAfricadeliversaturnoverof$23bn.32,6%of
employeesworkhere,and109factoriesareoperating(Sneider2017).
Accordingtothemselves,Nestlé’spurposeistocontributetoahealthierfutureandenhance
qualityoflifeamongtheirconsumers.Throughtheirproductrange,theywanttoinspire
peopletolivehealthierlives(Nestlé2018c).Byduringthistheyarguethattheycontribute
tosocietyandwhileensuringlongtimesustainabilityandsuccessofthebrand.
Nestlérealizesandacknowledgesissuesofsustainabilityandtakespartinsolvingthem.To
structureandorganizetheirsustainableeffortsNestléhavesetambitiousgoals(Nestlé
2018a).
SustainableDevelopmentGoals
Nestléisoftheconvictionthateverythingisinterconnected;fromtheindividualtothe
familyandfromthecommunitytotheplanet.AccordingtoNestléGroupthebusinessthrives
whentheplanetanditsinhabitantshavethebestpremises.Toensurethatthebusinessof
NestléGrouphavetheleastimpactonourenvironment,regardingtheclimateandsocial
aspect,inspirationhavebeendrawnfromtheSustainabilityGoals(UnitedNations)(Nestlé
2018c).NestléGrouphasdefinedsomeambitiousgoalstoreachby2030.Theytakegreat
responsibilityregardingproductionandprocurementalongtheirsupplychain,butalso
Figure9IllustrationofNestlé'sthreesustainabilitycommitments(Nestlé2018a)
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
60
climatechangerelatedissues.Threeoverarchingvisionsaredefiningtheirwork,and
guidingdecisionsastheyconvertthebusinesstowardsamoresustainableoneinthefuture.
OverallNestlé’seffortsareillustratedinfigure9,andissettobereachedby2030.
Forindividualsandfamilies
Goal:Help50millionchildrenlivehealthierlives(Nestlé2017b)
OneofthethreepillarsinNestlé’sCSVstrategyiscentredonchildren.Therearetwosidesto
thispoint.Firstofalltheywishtohelpyoutharoundtheworld,andovertimeprovidekids
thatarepoorandnotwelloffwithbetteropportunitiesandlivelihood.NestléGroupworks
directlywith700.000farmers,andaffectsapproximatelyfivemillionthroughouttheir
supplychain.Bycommittingtohelpsuppliers,andmakingitapartofthecompany’score
purposeandvalue,thecompanyaremuchmorelikelytocarrythroughwithactions.
NotonlydoNestléseektoraisestandardoflivingandopportunitiesdownstreaminthe
supplychain,NestléGroupisalsocommittedtomakekidshealthier.Byhelpingand
promotinghealthydietchoices,Nestléclaimstoenhancequalityoflifeamongkidsand
therebycontributingtoahealthierfuture.ThiscanbecharacterizedasNestléworkingwith
thesocialresponsibility.NestléforHealthierKidsistheinitiativethatgathersalltheefforts
tosupportcaregiversandparentsineducatingchildreninsustainableandhealthyfood
choices.ThiscorrespondsverywellwiththesectionPurchasingdecisionsandattitudeon
sustainablefoodproductsdescribedearlierinthepaper.Hereresearchshowsthatupto
51%ofrespondentsprefers,orfinditsomewhatimportant,thatproductshavesomesortof
sustainableattribute(Statista2018b;Statista2017b).
InextensionoftheaboveseemsrelevanttohighlightthetheoryregardingLearningand
Education.Displayinginformationandlabellingonproductsiscrucialinguidingand
informingconsumers.AsmentionintheLabellingsectionearlier,companiesonlytendto
uselabellingifitismandatorybylaworsomehowprofitable(Dietz,Stern,andThøgersen
2002).89,4%ofproductssoldbyNestléGrouphavetheGuidelineDailyAmount(GDA)
basedlabelsonfrontofpackincountriesthatallowit(Nestlé2017b).44.4%oftheproducts
intendedforchildrenhavetheGDAlabel,and97,3%ofallfoodsinNestléGroup’sproduct
portfoliohavetheNestléNutritionalCompass(Nestlé2017b).HereNestléusesthelabelsas
astrategictooltoinformandeducatetheconsumers.Activelypursuingtoeducate,inform
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
61
andadviseconsumers.Consumerswillnowbebetteroffintheirdecisionmakingprocess,
andtherebypositioned,tobuytherightproduct(herereferringtotheEnvironmentalHero
inthesectionregardingWhoistheGreenConsumer,asthispersonaacquirestheskillsand
awarenesstoapurchaseofthischaracter).Thisismoreofasocialresponsibilitynaturethan
environment,butperspectivescanclearlybehighlightedintermsofcooperatesustainable
development.
ForthePlanet
Goal:StriveforZEROenvironmentalimpactinouroperations(Nestlé2017b)
Thesecondfocusshedslightontheenvironment.Asaresponsetotheacceleratingclimate
change,Nestléhavelaunchedinitiativestryingtocombatgreenhousegasemissions.Justas
theirsocialorientedcommitmentscorrespondswelltotheSustainabilityGoalsbyUN.
Nestlé’swholebusinessmodelrestsonagriculture,andthereforeitisimportanttoacton
theclimatechange.Thiswaytheycan“bethechange”,thatconsumerswanttoseeamong
companies.Increasinginvestmentsinsustainableprojectshaveledtothat25,7%of
electricitynowareobtainedfromrenewablesources(Nestlé2018a;Nestlé2017b).Thishas
ledtoa33,2%reductioninemissionsofgreenhousegasses.Anambitioustargethavebeen
setwhilestrivingtowardszeroenvironmentalimpactinoperations.Nestléisamemberof
therenewableenergyunion,RE100.AscoinedintheCertificationofSustainableefforts
section,RE100isaninitiativepromotingandsupportingcompaniestoconvertenergy
supplyfromnon-renewablesourcesto100%renewable(RE1002017).Changeofthis
characterdoesnothappenovernightandisfollowedbygreatinvestments.Improvingand
optimisingenergysupplyforthemanyfactoriesandoperationsaroundtheworld,
contributestoagreenerimageandisrelevantinthediscussionoftheearliersection.By
workingindepthwiththeenvironmentalchallengesregardinggreenhousegasses,itshows
thatNestléisabletoworkwiththesubjectasastrategicoption.Asarguedinthe
CommitmenttoSustainabilitypassage,companiescanbedividedintothreetypeswitheach
theircharacteristics.Overall,dependingonhowcommittedcompaniesare,andhowthey
recognisesustainabilitychallenge,thesethreetypescanhelpdescribethelevelof
engagementandintegrationofenvironmentalfocus.Nestlé’saccessiontotheenvironmental
issue,fitsbestwithinthethirdandfinalstage.Bystrivingfor0%environmentalimpactin
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
62
operations,Nestléworksproactivelytoengageanddevelopingnewpreventiveactions.
Theseactionshavebecomecentralpartofstrategicopportunities.Furthermore,a
perspectivecanbetakentothesectionWhoistheGreenConsumer.Bycommittingto
reducingenvironmentalimpactasmuchaspossible,NestléisaddressingtheEnvironmental
Herowhoischaracterisedbyacknowledgementoftheclimatechange,sustainable
consumptionandthinksofscienceasaresource.Theenvironmentalheroistaking
responsiblechoicesasproductsofawarenessandskills,asarguedintheprevioussection.
Nestlégroupcomplieswiththeimportanceofincorporatingsustainabilityasapartofthe
corebusiness.ThiscorrespondsverywelltothesectionregardingMckinsey&Company,
andCommitmenttoSustainabilitywhichexpressestheimportanceof“living”thechangein
ordertobenefitfromit(BonininiandGörner2011).ByduringsoNestlésecuresfuture
activities,andavoidspillageofunnecessaryresources.AccordingtoresearchbyMcKinsey&
Company,companiesthatfullyintegratesustainabilityeffortsandstrategiesaspartoftheir
corevaluesandperformancemeasures,ismuchmorelikelytosucceed.Nestlécommitsby
theabove-mentionedactivities,andmore,fullytothechallenge.
ForourCommunities
Goal:“Helptoimprove30millionlivelihoodsincommunitiesdirectlyconnectedtoourbusiness
activities”(Nestlé2017b)
ThelastofthethreepillarsthatNestlé’sambitionsrestonisCommunities.Again,youwill
noticeahighlevelofcommitmentfromthecompany.Thisareadealsprimarywithrural
development,humanrightsandgeneralworkingconditions.
In2005NestléachievedtheFairtradecertification(Nestlé2018b).Thiscertificationallows,
aselaboratedintheCertificationofSustainabilityEfforts,consumerstoassessifthe
companysupportsfarmersintheearlystateofthesupplychain(agriculture).Bydisclosing
this,theconsumercannownavigatethroughalternatives,andchoosetosupportsustainable
agricultureandFairtradeinitsessence.Nestléseemstohaveasinceremotivationtobe
betterandprovideconsumerswithbetterchoices.Itshouldbestatedbesideshelping
consumersnavigateandhelpingfamerswhocultivateandsellcrops,Nestléalsomarketthe
productstotheEnvironmentalHero.Thismaybethefirstandforemostimportantpointto
theFairtradecollaboration.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
63
Nestlé’smantrawithinsocialsustainabilityistheirCSVstrategy.Asmentioned,itiscentred
oncreatingsharedvalue.Theydothisbysecuringfairwages,andpaymentsinalllevelsof
supplychain(Nestlé2017b).Withthisasthefoundation,theyincorporatepartnershipswith
farmersindifferentruraldistricts.Nestléhaveadirectsupplyfrom685.000farmers
worldwideandbyknottingtiestheysecureagreatcooperationwheretheycanpromoteand
supportsmartandsustainablemethods(Nestlé2017b).In2017118.426farmersreceived
technicalsupportandassistanceinthecultivationoftheirland.Thishelpssecurepotential
yields,yetalsoeducatesthefarmer.AsaproductofthiscooperationNestlé’spartnerswork
morefuture-oriented,andbecomesustainableintwoways:sustainableasof“securing”
futurelivelihoodbutalsoregardingtheenvironment.Alongsidewiththiscloserelationship,
Nestléalsopromotesacceptableworkingconditionsandhumanrightsintheruraldistricts
thattheygetintouchwith(Nestlé2017b).Humanrightsviolationscanoccur,andcanbe
veryhardtoidentify,Nestlésays.Thisisduetothatsupplychainsoftenarecomplexand
generallackoftransparency.Thisresultsinanobscurepictureofthereality,which
thereforecanbehardtoacton.Byworkingclosewithnongovernmentalorganisationslike
theDanishInstituteforHumanRights,Nestléconstantlyworkstoimprove.Thegoalisto
continuouslybebetterinspottingviolations(Nestlé2018a).Alongsidewiththeincreasing
awarenessofcreatingsharedvaluethrougheducation,andpromotionofhumanrights,
Nestléhavelaunchedaprogramtomonitorinitiativesandactivities.Partnersofthis
programdeliverinformationandgeneralstatisticsregardingtheirproductionorenterprise.
BythehelpofthisprogramNestléhavegreatercontrolandenlightenmentofeg.afarmers
activities.
Theabovementionedactivitiesare,ofcourse,profitdriventosomeextentbutalsoconstitute
amuchbiggerpurpose,accordingtoUlfMarkSchneider(ChiefExecutiveofficerofNestlé).
AsarguedintheCommitmenttoSustainabilitysection,companiesexertafundamentalrole
inspreadingandpreservingenvironmentalandsocialresponsibility.Inpresenttimeitisnot
enoughforacompanytobeaknownsupplierofquality,ifthecompetitiveleapistobe
secured.Attheendofthedayitisnolongersufficienttobetherespectedqualityprovider.
Asacompanyyouwanttobelikedbyyourconsumers.Thiswillonlyhappenifthecompany
successfullypromotesanddeliversatransparentandtrustworthycompanyprofile.Bythe
researchofNestlégroup,itseemsthatcommitmentstotheirCommunitygoalsare
comprehensive.Deeprootsofthisfundamentalefforttosolveissuesofpresenttime,canbe
tracedintotheverycoreofNestlévaluesandpurpose.Thiscorrespondsverywellwiththe
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
64
twosectionsCommitmenttoSustainabilityandMckinsey&Companyuncoveredearlierin
thepaper.Toexperienceeffectivechange,byinitiativesandactions,basedonawishto
improvesustainableprofile,companiesmustanchortheconceptincorevalues.Again,
NestléGroupissuccessfullychangingtheircompanyimagefromwhateasilycouldbea
targetforcritiquetolackofcareregardingtheirsupply-chainandthecommunities
surroundingit.Instead,Nestléexcelsinworkingtransparentlyandhonest,thereby
providingpartnersthroughoutthesupply-chainwithresourcestoachieveamorepromising
futuredescribedaspartoftheThirdstage,workingproactiveinCommitmentto
Sustainability.ThisstrategicapproachprovidesNestléwiththepossibilitytoutilizethe
strategicopportunitiesofsustainabilityrelatedconcerns.CoinedintheStrategicuseof
ThreatsandWeaknessestoSustainabilityinregardtotendencies,itisvitalforacompanyto
betransparentinitsactionsandinitiatives.Nestlé’slevelofcommitmenttosustainability,
togetherwiththedetailedreportingandinformativenature,isstrongindicatorsofan
authenticwishtobebetter.Atglance,thesocialandcommunityorientedresponsibilityand
promotionofNestléGroupoperationsseemsmorecomplexofnature,thanreducingthe
greenhousegasemissions.Thisisexpressedthroughthecompany’sprofiling.
CommunicationofNestléSustainabilityCommitments
AsmentionedearlierNestléisacompanythatholdsover2000brands(Nestlé2018a).
Naturallythesebrandsvaryalotbothintermsofproduct,markets,costumers,and
competition.ByanalysingNestléGroupandapplyingfindingstomanydiversebrands,it
wouldprovideuswithanobscurepictureofthereality.
Whatcanbeelaborated,isthewayNestléGroupshareinformationoftheiractivities.Allthe
sustainableinitiativesmightnotberelevanttoaparticularbrandorproduct.Asdescribedin
theWhoistheGreenConsumersection,threedifferentclassificationsofgreenconsumersis
illustrated.Dependingonhowmuchtheconsumerengagesinthesustainablebelieve,heor
she,willhavesomedefinedcharacteristics.Duetodifferentconvictionsandconsumer
behaviours,Nestlécannotapplyallthesustainableexperiencetoallbrands.Thiscouldmean
thatsomewillgetscaredoff.Eventhoughwelivein2018andsustainabilityiswidelyspread
andstillincreasinglyaregainingground,someconsumersareoftheconvictionthat
sustainabilityisbadorexpensive.Itisalwayseasyforthesimplemindedtorepelsomething
thatonedoesnotunderstandorcanaffiliateoneselfwith.WiththisinformationNestléhave
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
65
tobecarefulwithwhotheycommunicatewhatto–especiallyinthelineofFastMoving
ConsumerGoods(FMCG).
AlthoughNestléGroupdoesnotsellaproduct,but“only”lookintothebestinterestsofall
theassociatedbrands;theystillneedtotakecareoftheircompanyimageasawhole.Nestlé
GroupispresentandmostlyactiveonInstagram,FacebookandYoutube.
Thepostsandsharing’sofNestlé’sInstagramaccountisverydiverse,andtheycount45.100
followers1.Incontinuationofthecomprehensivesustainabilityefforts,Nestléwasexpected
useitalotinthediscourseonInstagram.Veryfewofthepostsarerelatedtosustainability
(Nestlé2018b).Ofsharedmaterialthatisembossedbysustainabilityitismostlybig
announcements.Besidessustainabilityrelatedpoststhechannelismostlycharacterizedby
themeslikegeneralhealthpromotion,diversityofpeopleandculture,animalrightsand
personalization.Especiallythepersonalizationconstituteabigpart,andisthereforeis
interesting.Inspiteofthegreatresourcesinvestedinsustainability,NestléGroupallocates
mostofthespaceonpersonalizingthebrand.Thisisthroughpersonalnarrativesofallkinds
ofpeople,andsocalled“Employeetake-overs”(Nestlé,n.d.).Thiscanbeinterpretedasa
wishtoembodyorincarnatethecompanyprofileandbythiscontributingtoamorefriendly
andwarmimage.Fromtheimpressionofthisplatform,thepurposeistoworkwiththe
imageofNestléGroup.
NestléGroup’sFacebookismorecomprehensiveinitsfunction,thantheirInstagramprofile.
Itcounts11millionfollowers2,andworksmuchmorelikeacommunicationplatform
(Nestlé2018c).Allnecessarycontactinfoisavailableandpeoplewithissues,questionsand
inquiriesgetresponse.Again,itdoesnotseemlikeNestléisusingtheirsustainable
developmenteffortsaspartofmarketingandcommunicationonthisplatform.Itisvery
limitedtowhatposthavetodowithsustainability.Mostofthesustainabilityrelatedposts
havesomethingtowithrecyclingofwasteandhowconsumersshoulddisposewaste
correctly(Nestlé2018d).Besidesfromthelimitedsustainability,postsexistmostlyof
1Date:22/520182Date:23/52018
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
66
employeebranding,healthytipsandideastoexercisemoreingeneralpromotionof
healthierlifestyles.
Youtube
Youtubeisonebigcollaborationofmoviesandshortfilms.Therearemanydifferent
categoriesandtheirYoutubechannelseemstopromoteeverythingfromkids’healthto
investorrelatedcontent.Lookingintoallthedifferentcategories,itseemslikethisisthe
placetobecomeeducatedintheNestléGroupuniverse(Nestlé2018e).Research&
Development,CreatingSharedValue,HealthyLifestyle,NewsandEvents,NestléAds,
WorkingatNestlé,AskNestléandHealthierKidsareallcategorieswithnumerousmovies
andfilms.CreatingSharedValue(NestléCSVprogram)definitelyhasitsplaceonthe
channel,butdoesnotovershinetheotherchannels(Nestlé2018f).AmongNestléGroupads,
themajorityofmessageshavesomethingtodowithcreatinganiceandfriendlyimageofthe
company.FewdealswiththesustainabledevelopmentthatNestléGroupisinvolvedin
(Nestlé2018f).
Sub-conclusion
AsexperiencedintheanalysisofNestléGroupssustainabilityactions,implementationof
sustainabilityincoreactivitiesandvaluesiskey.Nestléworkscomprehensivewiththeissue
ofsustainability.TheanalysisofNestléGroupshows,thatdependingonthespecificareaof
interest(Environmental,SocialorCommunity),differentlevelsoftheillustratedtheorycan
beproven.ByonestepatatimeNestléisslowlyconvertingthebusinesstomeetpresentand
futureneedsanddemands.Itseemsfairtoconclude,throughtheanalysisofNestléGroup,
thattosucceedwithsustainableimplementationsitisimportanttomakeitpartofcore
values.Furthermore,dependingonthecase,itisofhighvaluetolabeltheproductscorrectly,
regardlessofifitisfornutritionalorenvironmentalpurposes.Securingawell-documented
segmentationwillhelpillustratewhotheconsumeris,andhowimportantitistoapply
sustainableattributestotheproductorservice.InthecaseofNestlé,itdoesnotseemlike
theyusesustainabilityalotintheircommunication,butratheruseittosecurefuture
businessactivities.Therecanbeseveralexplanationstothis,butthemostreasonablewillbe
to“protect”themanybrandsthatthecompanyholds.NestléGroupholdsover2000brands,
whichisverydiverseinmarkets,competitionandtargetgroup.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
67
Toyota
ThecaseofToyotahasbeenchosenduetothecompany’sglobalacknowledgement
regardinggreenmarketingandbecauseitisaworldwidereferenceofcorporate
responsibility(SimãoandLisboa2017)(Interbrand2014).
History
Toyotawasfoundedin1937inJapanandistodaypartoftheToyotaMotorCompanyLtd.of
KiichiroToyoda.KiichiroToyodahadadreamofproducingautomobilesandwasinspiredby
theprinciplesofmassproductionthatemergedinUSAandEuropeinthebeginningofthe
20thcentury.ThedreamcametruethankstoKiichiroToyoda’sfatherwhoearnedhuge
successindevelopingtechnologytofabricweavingmachines.Fromweavingfabricto
producingcars,allthephilosophyisbasedonthe“domorewithless”principle,whichlead
totheacknowledged“justintime”principleofToyota.Thejustintimeprinciplebuildson,
andallieswithreducedstocksandproductiveefficiency,whichismadepossiblethrough
tightandstrictproductionplanningandwastemanagement(Toyota2018b).
AsearlyasthefirstdecadeToyotareached100.000producedvehiclesandeventhough
WorldWar2forcedthecompanytoslowdown,exportwaschosenasgrowthstrategy.
Hence,inthe1950stheLandCruiserwasthefirstToyotamodeltohittheAmericanmarket
(1957)andToyotaopenedthefirstproductionplantonforeignsoilinBrazil(1958).In1966
ToyotalaunchedtheCorolla,whichduetoitspopularitystrengthenedToyota’sinternational
position,inparticularintheUSA.MoreoverToyotabegancommercializationinthe
Europeanmarketandin1998Toyotawaspresentinallsegmentsofpassengercarswitha
wideproductrangeofcarsandmotors.
TodaytheToyotaMotorCompanyisoneoftheleadingautomotivemanufacturersinthe
worldwithapresenceinmorethan160countriesandbesideofbeingundisputedmarkets
leaderintheJapaneseandevenAsianmarkets,Toyotaisthebestsellingnon-Americancar
brandintheUS(Toyota2018b),leadingJapanesebrandinEurope(infrontofHonda,
Nissan,SubaruandMazda)(SimãoandLisboa2017)andisrankedas2017’s7thbestglobal
brandwithanestimatedbrandvalueon50billiondollars(Interbrand2017).Toyota
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
68
employedmorethan364.000peoplein2017(Statista2017a)andhadatotalnetrevenueof
morethanabreath-taking2.517billiondollars3.
OneofthemajormilestonesofToyotawasbeingapioneerinthehybridcarmarketby
launchingtheToyotaPriusinJapanin1997andacoupleofyearslaterintheUSandEurope.
In2011therevolutionaryPriusreachedastunning3millionsoldunits.ThePriuscanbe
viewedasasymbolofwhatbecameamajorchangeinthediscourseandwayofthinkingin
ToyotaMotorCompany.
ToyotaEnvironmentalChallenge2050
In2015ToyotaannouncedtheirToyotaEnvironmentalChallenge2050asameansof
contributingtotherealizationofasustainablesociety(ToyotaMotorCorporation2017).By
thisToyotahaspromotedawiderangeofinitiativestoaddresstheincreasinglyglobal
environmentalissuesasglobalwarming,biodiversitydepletionandshortageinnatural
resourcesduetooverproduction.ThesechallengesaretoobligeToyota’sowncommitment
toreducetheenvironmentalburdenofcarstoasclosetozeroaspossibleandatthesame
timecontributetoapositiveimpactontheearthandthesocieties(ToyotaMotor
Corporation2017).TheToyotaEnvironmentalChallenge2050consistsofsixchallenges
witheachadifferentscope:
Challenge1:NewVehicleZeroCO2EmissionsChallenge
ReduceglobalaverageCO2emissionsfromnewvehiclesby90%fromToyota’s2010global
level.
Actions:Acceleratewidespreaduseofnext-generationvehiclestosaveenergyandutilizea
diverserangeoffuels.
o Accelerateglobalexpansionofhybridvehiclesandplug-inhybridvehicles.
o Acceleratewidespreaduseoffuelcell,electricandotherzero-emissionvehicles
(ToyotaMotorCorporation2017).
3CalculatedfromJapaneseYenexchangerate0,9114/5-18
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
69
Challenge2:LifeCycleZeroCO2EmissionsChallenge
CompletelyeliminateallCO2emissionsfromtheentirevehiclelifecycle.
ReduceCO2emissionsalongtheentirevehiclelifecycle,frommaterialsproduction,parts
andvehiclemanufacturingtodrivinganddisposalstage.
o ReduceCO2emissionsduringmaterialsproductionbydevelopingandexpandinguse
oflow-emissionmaterials.
o Promoteeco-friendlyactionsthroughwideruseofrecycledmaterials(ToyotaMotor
Corporation2017).
Challenge3:PlantZeroCO2EmissionsChallenge
AchievezeroCO2emissionsatallplantsby2050.
Actions:Atallproductionplants,developmentandadoptlow-CO2technologiesand
implementdailykaizen4,whilepromotingtheuseofrenewableenergyandhydrogen.
o Reduceenergyconsumptiontoonethirdorlessbysimplifyingandstreamlining
productionprocessesandtakinginnovativeenergy-savingmeasures.
o Adoptrenewableenergiesatplants,includingtheuseofwindpowerproducedon-
siteatourTaharaPlantbyaround2020(ToyotaMotorCorporation2017).
Challenge4:ChallengeofMinimizingandOptimizingWaterUsage
Minimizewaterconsumptionandimplementwastewatermanagementbasedonindividual
localconditions.
Actions:Reducewaterconsumptioninexistingproductionprocessesaswellasintroducing
technologiesthatreduceindustrialwaterconsumptionthroughrainwateruseand
improvingwaterrecyclingrates.4Continuousimprovements.OneoffivecorevaluesofToyotaintroducedin1937
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
70
o Managewastewaterqualitybycomplyingwithstrictstandards,improvingthelocal
environmentbyreturningcleanwater.
Challenge5:ChallengeofEstablishingaRecycling-basedSocietyandSystem
PromoteglobaldeploymentofEnd-of-lifevehicletreatmentandrecyclingtechnologiesand
systemsdevelopedinJapan.
Actions:Establisharecycle-basedsocietywithfourkeyfeatures:useeco-friendlymaterials:
useautopartslonger;developrecyclingtechnologies;andmanufacturevehiclesfromEnd-
of-lifevehicles.
Twoglobalprojectsstartedin2016:
o ToyotaGlobal100DismantlersProject
o ToyotaGlobalCar-to-CarRecycleProject(ToyotaMotorCorporation2017)
Challenge6:ChallengeofEstablishingaFutureSocietyinHarmonywithNature
ConnectnatureconservationactivitiesbeyondtheToyotaGroupanditsbusinesspartners
amongcommunities,withtheworld,tothefuture.
Actions:EnhanceToyota’slong-standingnatureconservationactivitiesintheareasofnature
fostering,environmentalgrants,andenvironmentaleducation.Developingthree
“connecting”projectsstartedin2016,sharingourknow-howandenvironmental
experiences.
o Connectingcommunities:ToyotaGreenWaveProject
o Connectingwiththeworld:ToyotaTodayforTomorrowProject
o Connectingwiththefuture:ToyotaESDProject
Beinganautomotivemanufacturermightnotbethemostforgivinglineofbusiness
regardingpublicrelationrelatedtosustainabilityandenvironment.Thefirstsmalland
visionarystepswasasmentionedearliertakenin1997whenlaunchingtheToyotaPrius
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
71
anditcanbestatedthatToyotaalreadyatthattimewasawareofwhatweaknessesthey
werecarryingandwhatthreatstheywerefacingintheirsector.Eventhoughtheconceptof
CO2emissionfirstseriouslygainedmainstreamattentionafterAlGore’s‘AnInconvenient
Truth’,CO2emissionsandpollutingexhaustfromautomotivewasatopicmuchearlier.Even
thoughtheKyotoProtocolisarguedtobeafailure,itcausedalotofattentiontowardsthe
topic,andmaybebyacoincidence,ToyotamanagedtolaunchthePriusalmost
simultaneouslyinlate1997.Thislaunchandtheassociatedactivities(asinvestmentsin
developinghybridmotorsforexample)canbeviewedasthefoundationforwhatbecame
thebuildingofToyota’sgreenmarketing.
Thechallenge1notonlycomplieswiththeParisAgreement,whichmakesToyotaplace
stage2commitment,butmoreoveritexceedsthescopeofitmakingToyotaproactivein
stage3inrelationtothecommitmenttheory(Chabowski,Mena,andGonzalez-Padron
2011).NotonlyisChallenge1ambitiousbyitself,butmaybemoreimportantitsupports
theirgreenmarketing,makingToyotaapotentialgo-tooptioninmindsofmoreconcerned
consumersastheEnvironmentalHerooreventheAnarchist.Asidefromapproaching
customersegmentsthatmightnothavebeenaccessiblewithoutthegreenactivities,Toyota
alsoavoidednegativeimpacttowardsthebrandingeneralwhichmighthaveoccurred
followingmainstreamfocusontheenvironmentalissuesifthecompanyhadcontinuedthe
traditionalcarmanufacturingdiscourse.ByexercisingcareanddiligenceToyotawillbeable
deliverproductsthatontheonehandservestosatisfycostumerneedsandontheother
handtakingenvironmentalsustainabilityintoaccount,whichconstructsgreenmarketing
(Polonsky1994).
Challenge2intendstoeliminateCO2emissionsinthecompleteproductlifecycle,including
materials,partsandthegeneralmanufacturingofaToyotavehicle.Besideoftheimmediate
benefitstotheenvironmentaswellassupportingthepointsstatedabove,thischallenge
respondstotheissueregardingconsumers’challengesevaluatingifproductsareinfact
environmentallyfriendly.Asdiscussedearlier,theconsumermustengageinrational
considerationsandanalysisofinformationtobeabletoinfactcarryoutthedesired
environmentallyfriendlybehaviourtosupporttheprimarymotivesoftheindividual
(Moisander2007).Itcantakespecialistknowledgetoseethroughandevaluatethetrade-
offs,butbyremovingallCO2emissionsfromthevehiclelifecyclemoreadvantagesemerges
towardsconsumers;A)Toyotacouldpositionitselfasago-tobrandamongtheAnarchist
personalitytypes.ItisstatedthattheAnarchistasfaraspossibleavoidsmultinational
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
72
corporations,butthistypeseemsatthesametimequitewellinformedonproductsand
environmentalconsequences,whichwouldbeanadvantagestoToyotainthiscase.B)The
EnvironmentalHerowouldbeattractedbytheenvironmentallyfriendlyperformanceand
propertiesofToyotaandwiththerightcommunication,Toyotashouldbeabletoreachthe
consumerswithgoodintentionsbutlackofpersonalresourcestotakethe“right”decision.
C)TheenvironmentwillbenefitfromToyotaaccomplishingthischallenge.Notonlywillit
contributetotheawarenesstowardsenvironmentallyfriendlycommercialactivities,but
consumersastheAntiherocouldbuyaToyotabecauseofanyothergivenproductattribute
andbythatengaginginsustainableconsumptionactivities.
Challenge3ismuchincorrespondencewiththepointsofchallenge1and2.Byacomplete
depletionofCO2emissionsToyotawillfurtherremovehiddenenvironmentalimpactfrom
theoperationmakingiteasiertoconsumerstomakethemostenvironmentallyfriendly
decision.Asarguedearlier,stepstowardssustainabledevelopmentcanrequiresignificant
investments,butmightbeinggoodandprofitableinvestmentsinthelongrun.Thispointis
backedbySteveHope,GeneralManagerofEnvironmentalAffairsandCorporateCitizenship
atToyota:
“WeapproachtheEnvironmentalChallengeswiththesamerigoraswewouldanyothergoal,
becausewearecertainofthebenefitsthatmeetingthemcanbringandbecauseweviewthem
asmakinggoodbusinesssense.”(HopeandSinger2017).
BythisSteveHopenotonlyunderlinesthemoralissuesconcerningenvironmental
challengesas“makinggoodsense”butheacknowledgethatToyotapotentiallycanmake
goodbusinessfromthesekindsofinitiativesandinvestments.Especiallypromoting
renewableenergyandbecomingself-sufficientwithelectricityfromon-sitewindmills
shouldnotonlysupport/providegoodpublicrelation,butshouldremoveasignificantcost
ofpurchasingelectricityfromthirdpartysuppliers.
AnotherpotentialpositiveoffspringbenefitofazeroCO2emissionproductionisafurther
costreduction.Ithasbeenawidelyusedpractiseforlongtimethatcompaniesoreven
individualscanbuyCO2offsetstocompensateforharmfulbehaviourandnegative
environmentalimpact(Clark2011).ByachievingzeroCO2emissiontherewillbeno
negativeimpacttocompensateinthisregard.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
73
WhendealingwithreducingandoptimizingwaterusageitisverycloselinkedtoToyota’s
holisticaccessiontowardstheglobalenvironmentalissues.Byreducingwaterconsumption
inexistingproductionprocessesaswellasintroducingtechnologiesthatreduceindustrial
waterconsumptionthroughrainwateruseandimprovingwaterrecyclingrates,Toyota
respondstopoint3onlistonebyElkingtonetal.concerningenvironmentallyresponsible
productsdonotconsumeadisproportionateamountofenergyandotherresourcesduring
manufacture,use,ordisposal(Elkington,Hailes,andMakower1990).Thesameofcourse
appliestotheinitiativesregardingrenewableenergysupplysourcesontheplantsfor
example.MoreovertheseinitiativesarenotonlyimplementedinternallyinToyotabutin
theirsupplychainaswell.SteveHopeestablishthisholisticengagement:
“Wetrytoworkcreativelywithoperationalsitesinourdirectnetworkandthoseofwilling
partners,toharvestnaturalresources(suchasenergyandwater)inasustainableway…”
(HopeandSinger2017).
ItisnotonlyregardingdirectresourceconsumptionasforexampleenergyToyotaengagein
theholisticaccession.Toyotahavechallengeditselftoestablisharecycling-basedsociety
throughtheuseofeco-friendlymaterials,prolongthelifecycleofautoparts,developing
recyclingtechnologiesandmanufacturingvehiclesfromend-of-life(ELV)vehicles.Tothe
commonconsumeritmightbeimpossibletoevaluatetheconsequencesoftheimpactofauto
partswithashortlifespanorwhatinfacthappentovehicleswhenwediscardthem.Infact,
everyyearELVgeneratebetween7-8milliontonnesofwastethroughouttheEuropean
Union(EuropeanCommission2016).ThroughthesechallengesToyotaundertakesagreat
responsibility,which,asarguedpreviousinthispaper,maybeatoolargeorcomplexissue
justtoevaluateandseethroughbythecommonconsumer.ButeventhoughToyotathrough
themassivesizeofthecorporationcanmakeamajorpositiveimpact,Toyotaisalsoaware
thattheworldingeneralmustbereadytocorporateandinvestifthegoalsregardinggood
environmentalqualityshallbemet.SteveHopeargues:
“ThecomplexityofourChallengesmeansthatonesector,oronecompany,cannotsolvethemin
isolation–weneednotonlybusinesspartners,butalsomulti-company/sectorcollaborations
betweenindustry,governmentsandsociety.Forexample,thetransformationofsocietyto
includehydrogenasapotentialenergycarrierandstoragesolutionforexcessrenewable
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
74
energywillincludecollaborationsbetweenenergyproviders,distributors,governments,
municipalitiesandusers.Tothisend,Toyotahasalreadymadeover5,600hydrogen-related
patentsavailableforotherpartnerstouse,royalty-free”(HopeandSinger2017).
NaturallystatementslikethisplacesToyotaasaforerunnerforsustainabledevelopment,
butitisstillimportanttorememberthatToyotastillisamultinationalcorporationthat
marketed86.810.000vehiclesin2016(SimãoandLisboa2017).Stillitisveryinteresting
whatresponsibilityToyotaistryingtotakebynotonlymakinginitiativesthemselves,but
alsotriestopromotesustainabledevelopmentinothersectorsthroughinnovationfor
example.
Thechallenge6isverymuchcentredonpromotingsoundenvironmentalbehaviourand
preservationofnatureandwildlife.Someoftheinitiativeshaveenvironmentaleducation
ascoreactivities,whichisingoodcorrespondencewithearlierfindingsthatinformationis
oneofthemainkeypointsregardingsustainableconsumption.Asseveraloftheother
challengesandinitiatives,thischallengeisquitehiddenforeverybodyelsethanthe
directlyaffected,asforexamplethosewhoparticipateinsomeoftheeducativeinitiatives.
Communication
EventhoughToyota’sEnvironmentalChallenge2050isveryambitiousandhasamajor
potentialtowardspositiveenvironmentalimpacts,itisnotusedinlargescaleintheir
publicrelationormarketingactivities.Whenlookingspecificallyfortheinformation,itis
quiteeasytofindreportonreportexplainingdifferentinitiativesandprojectsfromToyota
(Toyota2016)(ToyotaMotorCorporation2017)(SimãoandLisboa2017)(Kates,Parris,
andLeiserowitz2016)butingeneralsalescommunicationitisabitdifferent.When
visitingwww.toyota-global.comthefirstoptionthevisitorispresented,is“Showroom”to
guidethevisitortothedifferentnationalToyotasites.Justunderthisbuttonthevisitor
willfind“sustainability”wheretheconsumercanfindavastselectionofallToyota’s
initiativesregardingsustainability(SeeappendixE).Ifthevisitorisinfactapotential
buyerlookingforproductinformation,s/hewillbeguidedtothenationalwebsiteof
his/hercountry.Thenationalwebsitesaremoresalesorientedandpromotesalescontent
suchasprices,specificationsandotherproductattributes,valuepropositionsandof
coursethelegalrequirements(withinEU)astheenergylabellingandCO2-emissionrates.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
75
Theconsumerispresentedforsomedifferentfilteroptionssuchasprice,sizeetc.
Regardingsustainabilitytheonlyaspectsthepotentialbuyerisimmediatelypresentedare
thefilteroptions“CO2Emission(g/km)”and“Km/l”(Toyota2018a)andanemblem
informingonhybrid-availabilityonthedifferentmodels(SeeappendixF).Thiscanbe
arguedtobesurprisinglylittleinformationseeninrelationtowhateffortsToyotaare
puttingintheToyotaEnvironmentalChallenge2050.Thesellingpropositionsonthe
websiteseemsmostlyinfluencedbytraditionalvaluepropositionsregardingcarpurchase
suchaspracticaluse,economyoraesthetics.
InsearchofwhatToyotaisgivingpriorityregardingtheircommunicationtheirsocialmedia
platformshavebeeninvestigated.OnYoutube,theGlobal,EuropeanandDanishsitesofToyota
donothaveexactlythesamefocus,butregardingsustainabilitytheonlyfocusoneachofthem
issomepromotionalvideosregardingtheirhybrid-solutions,butthesearemostlypresented
asvaluepropositionsasatoolofsavingcostonfuel(ToyotaMotorCorporation2018i)
(ToyotaMotorCorporation2018f)(ToyotaMotorCorporation2018c).Thesamegoesforthe
company’sdifferentFacebooksites.Thesearefilledwithalotofdifferentcontentsuchas
promotion,eventsandimage/brandingactivitiesrelatedtotheirpartnershipwiththe
Olympics.(ToyotaMotorCorporation2018g)(ToyotaMotorCorporation2018d)(Toyota
MotorCorporation2018a).ThesamegoesforthethreeToyotaInstagrampagesToyotaglobal,
Toyota.europeandToyotadk(ToyotaMotorCorporation2018h;ToyotaMotorCorporation
2018e;ToyotaMotorCorporation2018b).
Sub-conclusion
OnonehandToyotahasmanagedtoturnathreatintoanopportunity,whenlookingatthe
caseinaSWOT-pointofview,regardingdepletingoilresources,increasingpricesonsaidand
badpublicityregardingnegativeenvironmentalimpact.AtthesametimeToyotahasengaged
inambitioussustainabilitydevelopmentactivitiesbytheirEnvironmentalChallengesandhave
committedthecompanyevenmoretothecausebystatingthesechallengespublicly.Thissaid,
itseemslikeToyotaisnotusingallthesedifferentgreeninitiativesandsustainable
developmentinthegeneralsellingandbrandingactivities.Theinformationregardingthe
challengesisnowayhidden,butitisargueditismainlypresentedforthoseofinterestorwho
arelookingspecificallyforthecompany’sgreenprofile–e.g.theAnarchistorsome
EnvironmentalHeroes.Ontheotherhand,whatitisbasicallyallaboutistheenvironmentand
asustainabledevelopment,whicharenotmakingsmallerimpactsbynotbeingadvertisedon
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
76
Facebook.ByremovingallCO2emissionfromcarsandproduction,Toyotawillremovethis
emissions,evenfromconsumerswhodonotdirectlywantstoengageinenvironmentally
friendlyconsumption.Eventhoughthisisagoodthing,itishardtobelievethatToyotacould
notbenefitevenmorefromtheirsustainabledevelopmentbothinrelationtobrandandimage,
butpossiblyregardingsalesactivitiesaswell.
Conclusion
Firstly,itisfairtoconcludethatsustainableconsumerism,developmentandgreenpractices
areverycomprehensivetopics,andareasofacademicinterest.Intheperspectiveofutilizing
thesedimensionsincommercialactivities,severalareasandtopicshavebeenuncoveredas
essentialinestablishingthenecessaryunderstandingonthetopics.Thesedifferent
dimensionsarefoundtoberestingonthreemainpillars:Theconsumer,thesocietyand
whatweliketocallthecorporatepointofview.
Firstofallitisimportanttorealizehowcomplexthesetopicsareandtounderstandhow
consumersengagethem.Differentpersonalitytypeshaveahugeimpactonhowconsumers
areengaginginmoreorlesssustainablebehaviourandconsumption.Itisofnoquestion
thatourcreationofidentityandevolutionaryqualifiedinstinctsplaysomeroleinhowour
behaviourandconsumptionexpressitselfeventhoughourlargestenvironmentalimpacts
comesfrominconspicuousconsumption.Moreover,itisimportanttounderstand,thatnot
onlyinterestinthesubjectplaysaroleregardingtheconsumer’scommitment,butalsoa
factorasintellectskillsetmightbeasimportant,duetotoday’sinformationalcomplexities.
Itisherebyestablishedthatasolidunderstandingontheconsumersuchasmotivations,is
crucialtocarryoutavalidandusefulsegmentation.Anothercrucialthingtounderstand
whentryingtoutilizesustainableconsumptioncommerciallyisthatmanyconsumersmight
needhelpintakingtherightchoices.Helpthatcanbegainedfromsociallearningand
education,aswellasinformativelabellingschemes.
Oursocietyisgraduallyrealizingthedifficultchallengeswearefacingregarding
environmentalchangesandsustainablefoodproduction,andtheconsumersinourpartof
theworldisincreasingpositiveattitudestowardsgreenandsustainableproductattributes,
aswellofmoreinformationonthetopic.
Eventhoughitisconcludedthatthefoodproduction,andtransportationsectorsaremajor
sinners,itisalsoconcludedgreeninitiativesanddevelopmentarenotlimitedtospecific
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
77
countries,sectorsorbrandswhichindicatesthatageneralchangeisoccurringandnew
discoursesareimplementedglobally.Buteventhoughsomeactorsareperformingfirst
moverinitiatives,institutionsandcountriesmustfacilitateregulationtoensureproper
development.
Tocompaniesthatwanttosupport,orevengobeyondthegreenregulations,green
marketingseemstobebeneficial.Itbalancestheinterestofagoodproduct,servinganeed
withtheideasofprocurementwithleastnegativeimpactontheenvironment.Thisthinking
embracesbothresponsiblebehaviourandthefactthatacompanyneedstodeliveragood
product,toearnmoney,andhopefullyinvestmoreinresponsibleoperations.Besideof
managingsustainableprocurement,evenmoreemphasisshouldbeputonfundamental
elementsofmarketingactivitiessuchassegmentation,productdevelopment,positioning,
pricingetc.onlybygainingsuccesswithinthesefields,thecompanywillgainsustainable
successwithinenvironmentalresponsibility.
Itisfairtostatethatthetwocasecompanies,NestléandToyotahavebothimplemented
theirgreenmarketingandsustainabilityactionswithintheircorevaluesandactivities.Both
companiesareatthesametimeadaptingtorespondtobothpresentandfutureneedsand
threats.Bothcompaniesareperforminggreendevelopmentbothtocollectivegoodofthe
world,butatthesametimesecuringthefutureoperationofthecompaniesinregardof
ensuringfutureresourcesandcroplandandavoidingbadpublicityandpotentiallegal
proceedings.
ItisfairtosaythatneitherNestlénorToyotaareutilizingtheirresponsiblebehaviouras
muchastheycoulddo,butdespiteofthisfact,theacademicevidencearguesthat
informationandeducationtowardstheconsumersiscrucialtogreendevelopment.Hereby
itisconcludedthatinformationalcomplexitiesshouldberemovedandavoidedbut
companiesshouldatthesametimeprioritizefundamentalmarketingactivitiestoensure
solidandsustainableoperationandherebyensuringthefoundationofsustainable
development.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
78
Discussion
Itseemsrelevant,accordingtotheproblemformulation,toshedlightonthefindingsofthis
paper,anddiscusstheresults.AsarguedinthesectionsregardingTheCorporatepointof
view,companiescanutilizetheirsustainableefforttoincreasegrowth,opennewmarketsor
asastrategictooltoenhancetheirbranddependingonhowtheyaccessthesustainable
challengesoftoday’sworld.SomeindustriesareaccordingtothestatisticsfromFAO(seeA
growingdemandforfoodandthesustainablechallenge),lesssustainablethanothers.This
naturallyputsthebig“sinners”inaspotlightofcritiqueandbadpublicity.Toyota,who
operatesasacarmanufacturer,isconstantlyexposedtoscandalandlikewisebadpublicity,
asseenwithVolkswagen.In2015thepresscouldrevealthatVolkswagensystematically
havebeencommittingfraud.Thecompanyhadplacedsoftwareinthevehiclestomanipulate
indicatorsofgreenhousegasemissions,tobefarbetterthattheywere.Thisaffected
Volkswagenandtheirbrand,whichwasmetwithcritiquefrompublicinstitutionsand
nationsfromallovertheworld.TothesizeofToyota,andtheindustrytheyoperatewithin,
theyarejustasVolkswagen,exposedtoanaturalthreat.Thisisofcoursebesidesthe
environmentalimpactofproductionandmanufacturingactivities.Thebigquestionisnow
whyToyotadonotutilizetheirsustainableeffortsandpromoteitmore,alongwiththe
existingmarketingandcommunication?Lookingattheirassessmentofsustainability,and
theassumedresourcesallocatedtothis,theyseemrelativelypassiveregardinghowthey
communicatethis.
Astotheothercasestudy,Nestlé,thetendenciesarethesame.Despitebiginvestmentsin
sustainableactivitiesandcontinuousnewinitiativestoimprovesustainableperformanceof
thecompany,littlesignsofusageshowintheirmarketingacrossdifferentchannels.There
couldbenumerousexplanationsonthis,andthisasaresearchtopiccouldbeinterestingto
investigateinafuturecase.
Itispossiblethatthetwocompaniesareafraidtogoall”green”,potentiallyscaring
consumerswhodiscardsustainabilityoff.Thiscouldbeconsumerscharacterizedinthe
sectionWhoistheGreenConsumerastheAntihero.Thistypeofconsumerdirectlyopposes
ecologicalconsumption,anddiscardsenvironmentalorientedproducts.Thispersonaisof
theconvictionthathisorherseffortshasnoeffectontheenvironmentandtherefordeclines
andrefusestopayforproductsthathavewithstrongsustainableattributes.Thesame
theorycanbeexplainedinthecaseofNestlé.Asmentionedintheconclusion,both
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
79
companieshaveinformationrichwebsites,withdetailedandelaboratinginformationand
reportingoftheirsustainableactivities.
Thiscanbeinterpretindifferentways,buttheonethatseemsmostobvioustous,as
researchersisthatthesecompaniesareworkingwithsustainabledevelopmenttominimize
threats.Thisisanassumption,aqualifiedreasoningofwhythesetwobigmultinational
companieswithstrongfinancialpositionsdonotgo“all-in”onthegreenconsumerwave.By
doingthisthey“secure”businessinafutureaspectand,ofcourse,dotherightthing.In
termsofsustainabledevelopment,bothcompaniesperformgood,comparedtootheractors
intheirgivenindustry,butlookingahead,minimizingtheimpactonourenvironmentmight
beagoodinvestment.Bydoingthis,brandsofthissize,becomemoretransparent,which
makesiteasierforconsumerstoidentifywiththem.
Ajzen,Icek,andMartinFishbein.1980.“UnderstandingAttitudesandPredictingSocial
Behavior.”InUnderstandingAttitudesandPredictingSocialBehavior.Pearson
Education.
ArvidNordquist.2018.“Ariel.”ArvidNordquist.AccessedMay4.
https://www.arvidnordquist.dk/non-food/varumarken/ariel/.
Autio,Minna,andVisaHeinonen.2004.“ToConsumeorNottoConsume?”Young12(2):
137–53.doi:10.1177/1103308804042104.
Autio,Minna,andTerhi-AnnaWilska.2005.“YoungPeopleinKnowledgeSociety:
PossibilitiestoFulfilEcologicalGoals.”ProgressinIndustrialEcology,anInternational
Journal2:403–26.
BBC.2018.“PalmOil:WhatAretheIssues?-CBBCNewsround.”BBC.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/39492207.
Belk,RussellW.,GülizGer,andSørenAskegaard.2003.“TheFireofDesire:AMultisited
InquiryintoConsumerPassion.”JournalofConsumerResearch30(3):326–51.
doi:10.1086/378613.
Bhaskar,Roy,AndrewCollier,andAlanNorrie.1998.CriticalRealism.Taylor&FrancisLtd.
BMW.2016.“Bæredygtighed-BMWPasserPåMiljøet.”
BMWGroup.2016a.“BMWGroup-Company.”
https://www.bmwgroup.com/en/company.html.
———.2016b.“BMWGroup-Company.”
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
80
Boninini,Sheila,andStephanGörner.2011.“TheBusinessofSustainability:McKinseyGlobal
SurveyResults|McKinsey&Company.”2011.
https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability-and-resource-
productivity/our-insights/the-business-of-sustainability-mckinsey-global-survey-
results.
Brundtland,GroH.1987.“OurCommonFuture:ReportoftheWorldCommissionon
EnvironmentandDevelopment.”UnitedNationsCommission4(1):300.
doi:10.1080/07488008808408783.
Bryman,Alan.2008.“SocialResearchMethods.”
Bryman,Alan,andRoyBhaskar.2008.“SocialResearchMethods.”
Chabowski,BrianR.,JeannetteA.Mena,andTracyL.Gonzalez-Padron.2011.“TheStructure
ofSustainabilityResearchinMarketing,1958-2008:ABasisforFutureResearch
Opportunities.”JournaloftheAcademyofMarketingScience39(1):55–70.
doi:10.1007/s11747-010-0212-7.
Clark,Duncan.2011.“ACompleteGuidetoCarbonOffsetting.”TheGuardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/sep/16/carbon-offset-projects-
carbon-emissions.
Connelly,BrianL.,DavidJ.Ketchen,andStanleyF.Slater.2011.“TowardA‘theoretical
Toolbox’forSustainabilityResearchinMarketing.”JournaloftheAcademyofMarketing
Science39(1):86–100.doi:10.1007/s11747-010-0199-0.
CushmanJR,JohnH.1997.“IntenseLobbyingAgainstGlobalWarmingTreaty.”TheNewYork
Times.https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/07/us/intense-lobbying-against-global-
warming-treaty.html.
DanishWindIndustryAssociation.2018.“WindEnergy-TheOfficialWebsiteofDenmark.”
2015.AccessedApril23.http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/wind-energy/.
Dawes,RobynM.1980.“SocialDilemmas.”AnnualReviewofPsychology31:169–93.
deBakker,FrankG.A.2009.“BookReview:JenniferHoward-Grenville.CorporateCulture
andEnvironmentalPractice:MakingChangeataHigh-TechnologyManufacturer.
Cheltenham,UK:EdwardElgar,2007.”Organization&Environment22(2):257–60.
doi:10.1177/1086026609338170.
Delmas,Magali.2016.“Research:Who’sLobbyingCongressonClimateChange.”Harward
BusinessReview.https://hbr.org/2016/10/research-whos-lobbying-congress-on-
climate-change.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
81
Dietz,Thomas,PaulC.Stern,andJohnThøgersen.2002.“PromotingGreenConsumer
BehaviorwithEco-Labels.”InNewToolsforEnvironmentalProtection,83–104.
WashingtonDC:NationalAcademicPress.
“EcolabelIndex.”2018.EcolabelIndex.AccessedMay4.http://www.ecolabelindex.com/.
Elkington,John.1994.“TowardstheSustainableCorporation:Win-Win-WinBusiness
StrategiesforSustainableDevelopment.”CaliforniaManagementReview36(2):90–100.
doi:10.2307/41165746.
Elkington,John,JuliaHailes,andJoelMakower.1990.TheGreenConsumer.NewYork:Guild
Publishing.
“EnergyEfficientProducts-EuropeanCommission.”2018.EuropeanCommission.Accessed
May4.https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-efficiency/energy-efficient-
products.
Euromonitor.2018.“GlobalMarketValueofEthicallyLabeledFoodProducts2015/2020|
Statistic.”2015.AccessedMay4.https://www-statista-
com.zorac.aub.aau.dk/statistics/562878/market-value-of-ethically-labeled-food-
products-worldwide/.
EuropeanCommission.2007.“YouControlClimateChangeCampain,”no.February.
http://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/campaign/pdf/gases_da.pdf.
———.2016.“EndofLifeVehicles.”EuropeanCommissionEnvironment.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/elv/index.htm.
Eurostat.2017.“ConsumptionofEnergy.”Eurostat.http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php/Consumption_of_energy.
FAO.2018.“FAOSTAT.”2018.AccessedApril23.
http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize.
Friedrich,Johannes,MengpinGe,andPickensAndrew.2018.“ThisInteractiveChartExplains
World’sTop10Emitters|WorldResourcesInstitute.”2017.AccessedApril23.
http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/04/interactive-chart-explains-worlds-top-10-
emitters-and-how-theyve-changed.
From,Lars.2001.“MiljøvenligtVaskepulverOgsåUdenMiljømærke.”JyllandsPosten,
September.
Gabriel,Y.,andT.Lang.2006.“GabrielandLangTheConsumerasIdentity-Seeker.pdf.”Sage
Publications.
Ginsberg,JillMeredith,andPaulNBloom.2004.“ChoosingtheRightGreenMarketing
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
82
Strategy.”MITSloanManagementReview46(1):79–84.doi:Article.
Globescan.2015.“SustainabilityLeaders.”https://globescan.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/07/GlobeScan-SustainAbility-Survey-Sustainability-Leaders-
2015.pdf.
Harland,Paul,Staats,Henk,Wilke,A.,M.,Henk.1999.“Explainingpro-Environmental
IntentionandBehaviorbythe...”JournalofAppliedSocialPsychology29(12):2505–28.
Heinberg,Richard.2018.“ThePostCarbonReaderSeries:FoundationConceptsWhatIs
Sustainability?”AccessedMay16.http://www.fusbp.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/07/What-is-Sustianbility.pdf.
Henion,Karl,andThomasKinnear.1976.EcologicalMarketing.Chicago:AmericanMarketing
Association.
Hope,Steve,andKellySinger.2017.“LearningaboutEnvironmentalConcernsandStrategy
atToyota.”PlanetLean.http://planet-lean.com/learning-about-environmental-
concerns-and-strategy-at-toyota.
Hovland,CarlIver,IrvingLesterJanis,andHaroldH.Kelley.1953.Communicationand
Persuasion:PsychologicalStudiesofOpinionChange.GreenwoodPress.
Hunter,David.2015.“GlobalEnvironmentalProtectioninthe21stCentury-FPIF.”FPIF.
http://fpif.org/global_environmental_protection_in_the_21st_century/.
InfluenceMap.2017.“TheCarbonPolicyFootprint.”
https://influencemap.org/site/data/000/299/CPF_Report_Aug_2017.pdf.
Interbrand.2014.“BestGlobalGreenBrands2014.”http://interbrand.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/08/Interbrand-Best-Global-Green-Brands-2014-Overview-
8.pdf.
———.2017.“Toyota-Rankings-2017-BestGlobalBrands-BestBrands-Interbrand.”
Interbrand.http://interbrand.com/best-brands/best-global-
brands/2017/ranking/toyota/.
Jackson,Tim.2005.“MotivatingSustainableConsumption.”AReviewofEvidenceon
ConsumerBehaviourandBehaviouralChangeInAReporttotheSustainableDevelopment
ResearchNetworkasPartoftheESRCSustainableTechnologiesProgrammeCentrefor
EnvironmentalStrategyUniversityofSurreyGuildford15(January):1027–51.
doi:10.1260/0958305043026573.
Jakuboski,Samantha.2018.“TheDangersofPesticides|GreenScience.”2011.AccessedApril
23.https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/green-science/the_dangers_of_pesticides.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
83
Johansen,Hans.2017.“DenIndustrielleRevolution|GyldendalLeksikon.”
http://denstoredanske.dk/Geografi_og_historie/Økonomisk_historie/den_industrielle_r
evolution.
Kasser,Tim.2002.TheHighPriceofMaterialism.1st.MITPress.
Kates,RobertW,ThomasMParris,andAnthonyALeiserowitz.2016.“WhatIsSustainable
Development?”Environment47(3):8.doi:10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.
Kramer,Mark.2018.“CSRvs.CSV-FSG.”2011.AccessedApril20.
https://www.fsg.org/blog/csr-vs-csv-what’s-difference.
Kuada,John.2012.ResearchMethodology-AProjectGuideforUniversityStudents.1stEditio.
FrederiksbergDenmark.
Maslow,AbrahamH.1982.TheJournalsofAbrahamMaslow.EditedbyLJ.andOwryR.Vol.
1.Brattleboro.
Mebratu,Desta.1998.“SustainabilityandSustainableDevelopment:Historicaland
ConceptualReview.”EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentReview18(6):493–520.
doi:10.1016/S0195-9255(98)00019-5.
Moisander,Johanna.2000.“GroupIdentity,PersonalEthics,andSustainableDevelopment:
SuggestingNewDirectionsforSocialMarketingResearch.”InSociety,Behaviour,and
ClimateChangeMitigation,8thed.,127–56.Springer,Dordrecht.
———.2001.RepresentationofGreenConsumerism:AConstructionistCritique.VDMVerlag
Dr.Müller.
———.2007.“MotivationalComplexityofGreenConsumerism.”InternationalJournalof
ConsumerStudies31(4):404–9.doi:10.1111/j.1470-6431.2007.00586.x.
Naturli’Foods.2018.“Naturli’HakketNærringsindhold,400g|Naturli’Foods.”Naturli-
Foods.dk.http://naturli-foods.dk/sortiment/naturli-hakket-400g.aspx.
Neslen,Arthur.2018.“WindPowerGenerates140%ofDenmark’sElectricityDemand|
Environment|TheGuardian.”2015.AccessedApril23.
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/10/denmark-wind-windfarm-
power-exceed-electricity-demand.
Nestlé.2018a.“CreatingSharedValue|NestléGlobal.”2018.AccessedApril20.
https://www.nestle.com/csv/what-is-csv.
———.2018b.“Nestlé(@nestle)•Instagram-BillederOg-Videoer.”AccessedMay23.
https://www.instagram.com/nestle/?hl=da.
———.n.d.“Nestlé(@nestle)•Instagram-BillederOg-Videoer.”
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
84
———.2018c.“PurposeAnfValues|NestléGlobal.”AccessedMay17.
https://www.nestle.com/aboutus.
———.2017a.“History|NestléGlobal.”https://www.nestle.com/aboutus/history.
———.2017b.“NestléinSocietyCreatingSharedValueandMeetingOurCommitments
2017.”GlobalReportingInitiativeVol.1:1.doi:10.1111/acfi.12243.
———.2017c.“NestléSeenas‘globalLeader’inTacklingClimateChange|NestléGlobal.”
https://www.nestle.com/media/news/nestle-global-leader-tackling-climate-change-
cdp-2017.
———.2017d.“OurRawMaterials|NestléGlobal.”https://www.nestle.com/csv/raw-
materials.
———.2018a.“Brands|NestléGlobal.”https://www.nestle.com/brands.
———.2018b.“Fairtrade|Nestlé.”https://www.nestle.dk/spoerg-nestle/varemaerker-
produkter/svar/fairtrade.
———.2018c.“Nestlé-Startside.”https://www.facebook.com/nestle.DK/.
———.2018d.“Nestlé-Startside.”
———.2018e.“Nestlé-YouTube-YouTube.”
https://www.youtube.com/user/NestleCorporate.
———.2018f.“Nestlé-YouTube-YouTube.”
Nygaard,Anders.2018.“AlGore|Gyldendal-DenStoreDanske.”2017.AccessedApril28.
http://denstoredanske.dk/Geografi_og_historie/USA_og_Nordamerika/USA_efter_1945
/Albert_Gore.
OECDEnvironmentDirectorate.2001.“ExpertsWorkshoponInformationandConsumer
Decision-MakingforSustainableConsumption.”ProgrammeonSustainable
Consumption,no.January:1–26.
OxfordDictionaries.2018.“Sustainability|DefinitionofSustainabilityinEnglishbyOxford
Dictionaries.”AccessedMay16.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sustainability.
Paul,WachtelL.1983.PovertyofAffluence:APsychologicalPortraitoftheAmericanWayof
Life.1st.FreePress.
Petty,RichardE.,andJohnT.Cacioppo.1981.AttitudesandPersuasion:Classicand
ContemporaryApproaches.Routledge.
Polonsky,MichaelJay.1994.“AnIntroductiontoGreenMarketing.”ElectronicGreenJournal
1(2).
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
85
Raffensperger,Carolyn,andMyersMyers.2004.“ABriefHistoryofSustainableAgriculture:
Mar04.”Science&EnvironmentalHealthNetwork.http://www.sehn.org/Volume_9-
2.html.
RE100.2017.“Companies-RE100.”http://there100.org/companies.
Scheffer,VictorB.1991.TheShapingofEnvironmentalisminAmerica.1st.Universityof
WashingtonPress.
Shove,Elizabeth.2003.“ConvergingConventionsofComfort,CleanlinessandConvenience.”
JournalofConsumerPolicy26(4):395–418.doi:10.1023/A:1026362829781.
Simão,Lídia,andAnaLisboa.2017.“GreenMarketingandGreenBrand–TheToyotaCase.”
ProcediaManufacturing12(December2016).TheAuthor(s):183–94.
doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2017.08.023.
Sneider,Mark.2017.“NestléAnnualReport-OurPurpose.”
http://www.roche.com/about/our_purpose.htm.
Statista.2018a.“•FairTradeProductsU.S.2016|Statistic.”2016.AccessedMay4.
https://www-statista-com.zorac.aub.aau.dk/statistics/633956/fair-trade-products-us/.
———.2018b.“•ViewonEco-FriendlyProductsandServicesamongU.S.Adults2016|
Statistic.”2016.AccessedMay4.https://www-statista-
com.zorac.aub.aau.dk/statistics/551205/opinion-on-sustainable-goods-and-services-
among-americans/.
———.2017a.“NumberofEmployees2017.”Statista.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/294192/number-of-toyota-employees/.
———.2017b.“SustainableFood”20117(18April).http://corporate.walmart.com/global-
responsibility/environment-sustainability/sustainable-agriculture.
Thøgersen,John.1994.“AModelofRecyclingBehaviour,withEvidencefromDanishSource
SeparationProgrammes.”InternationalJournalofResearchinMarketing11(2):145–63.
doi:10.1016/0167-8116(94)90025-6.
———.2005.“HowMayConsumerPolicyEmpowerConsumersforSustainableLifestyles?”
JournalofConsumerPolicy28(2):143–77.doi:10.1007/s10603-005-2982-8.
Torjusen,Hanne,LotteSangstad,K.JensenO’Doherty,andUnniKjaernes.2004.European
Consumers’ConceptionsofOrganicFood:AReviewofAvailableResearch.European
Commission,FifthFrameworkProgramme,QualityofLifeandManagementofLiving
Resources.http://orgprints.org/2490/.
Toyota.2016.“AllToyotaGreenWaveProject.”http://www.toyota-
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
86
global.com/sustainability/environment/challenge6/green_wave/pdf/all_toyota_green_
wave_project_2016_en.pdf.
———.2018a.“ToyotaDanmark|FindDinIdeelleToyota-Model.”ToyotaDanmark.
https://www.toyota.dk/new-cars/index.json.
———.2018b.“ToyotaGlobalSite|HistoryofToyota.”http://www.toyota-
global.com/company/history_of_toyota/.
ToyotaMotorCorporation.2017.“SustainabilityDataBook2017.”ToyotaMotor
Corporation.http://www.toyota-
global.com/sustainability/report/er/%0Ahttp://www.toyota-
global.com/sustainability/report/sr/%0Ahttp://www.toyota-
global.com/investors/ir_library/annual/%0Ahttp://www.toyota.co.jp/jpn/investors/li
brary/negotiable/%0Ahttp://www.toyota-glo.
———.2018a.“ToyotaDanmark-Facebook.”Facebook.
https://www.facebook.com/ToyotaDK/.
———.2018b.“ToyotaDanmark-Instagram.”Instagram.
https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.instagram.com%2Ftoyotadk&
h=ATN0C4XKYrrOgMJmgrSIRnVXXL42XQOsqeTdoy8wPwqOhn34zW98L6Yh5jM8K50T
Rv2xKuAblY_xDOL_9pBUU-6-uuVLDvF-REBEYekLnh1dKNKTjCNPnnvN.
———.2018c.“ToyotaDanmark-YouTube.”Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/user/ToyotaDKas.
———.2018d.“ToyotaEurope-Facebook.”Facebook.
https://www.facebook.com/pages/Toyota-Motor-Europe-NVSA/125872054144914.
———.2018e.“ToyotaEurope-Instagram.”Instagram.
https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.instagram.com%2Ftoyota.eur
ope&h=ATN0C4XKYrrOgMJmgrSIRnVXXL42XQOsqeTdoy8wPwqOhn34zW98L6Yh5jM8
K50TRv2xKuAblY_xDOL_9pBUU-6-uuVLDvF-REBEYekLnh1dKNKTjCNPnnvN.
———.2018f.“ToyotaEurope-YouTube.”Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/user/ToyotaEurope.
———.2018g.“ToyotaGlobal-Facebook.”Facebook.
https://www.facebook.com/ToyotaSpecialShowroom/.
———.2018h.“ToyotaGlobal-Instagram.”Instagram.
https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.instagram.com%2Ftoyotaglo
bal&h=ATN0C4XKYrrOgMJmgrSIRnVXXL42XQOsqeTdoy8wPwqOhn34zW98L6Yh5jM8
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
87
K50TRv2xKuAblY_xDOL_9pBUU-6-uuVLDvF-REBEYekLnh1dKNKTjCNPnnvN.
———.2018i.“ToyotaGlobal-YouTube.”Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/user/TOYOTAglobal.
Turula,Tom.2018.“TeslatheMostPopularCarinNorwayinDecember-BusinessInsider
Nordic.”2017.AccessedApril23.https://nordic.businessinsider.com/tesla-is-the-most-
popular-carmaker-in-norway-this-month--/.
UN.2018.“SustainableDevelopmentGoals-UnitedNations.”2015.AccessedApril20.
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/.
UnionofConcernedScientists.2015.“EnvironmentalImpactsofHydroelectricPower.”
https://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-
energy/environmental-impacts-hydroelectric-power.html#.Wt2nRy862L4.
UnitedNations.2018a.“Principle8-Environment|UNGlobalCompact.”AccessedMay2.
https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/mission/principles/principle-8.
———.2018b.“TheParisAgreement|UNFCCC.”2018.AccessedMay7.
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement.
———.2017.“GlobalIssuesOverview|UnitedNations.”UnitedNations.
http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/global-issues-overview/.
———.2018.“GeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNations.”UnitedNations.
http://www.un.org/en/ga/president/65/issues/sustdev.shtml.
UnitedNationsGlobalCompact.2017.“2017UnitedNationsGlobalCompactProgress
Report:BusinessSolutionstoSustainableDevelopment,”99.
https://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/publications/UNImpactBrochure_Concept-
FINAL.pdf.
USEPA.2018.“GlobalGreenhouseGasEmissionsData|GreenhouseGas(GHG)Emissions|
USEPA.”2017.AccessedApril20.https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-
greenhouse-gas-emissions-data.
Vaughan,Christopher,JulieGack,HumbertoSolorazano,RobertRay,andPublicMuseum
JulieGack.2010.“TheEffectofEnvironmentalEducationonSchoolchildren,Their
Parents.andCommunitvMembers:AStudvofLnteraenerationalandIntercommunity
Learning.”TheJournalofEnvironmentalEducation34(3):12–21.
doi:10.1080/00958960309603489.
Wang,Chih-Chien,Shao-KangLo,andWenchangFang.2009.“Narrativesof‘Green’
Consumers-theAntihero,theEnvironmentalHeroandtheAnarchist.”Journalof
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
88
ConsumerBehaviour8:40–53.doi:10.1002/cb.272.
Wilkie,L.William.1990.ConsumerBehaviour.2ndEditio.Wiley.
Willesen,Rasmus.2018.“DLG:KinesiskStraftoldKanSendeStoreMængderSojabønnerUdI
Verden.”Landbrugsavisen.https://landbrugsavisen.dk/dlg-kinesisk-straftold-kan-
sende-store-mængder-sojabønner-ud-i-verden.
William,James.1890.ThePrinciblesofPsychology.Vol.1.NewYork:HenryHolt.
Williams,Casey.2016.“OilGiantsSpend$115MillionAYearToOpposeClimatePolicy.”
HuffingtonPost.https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/oil-companies-climate-
policy_us_570bb841e4b0142232496d97.
WorldMeters.2018.“WorldPopulation:7.6BillionPeople(2018)-Worldometers.”
AccessedApril20.http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/.
TimRukjær20160571 MasterThesis 31/5-2018AdamDue20160584 AAUCCG Supervisor:JohnHird
89
AppendicesAppendixA