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Aristotle

For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation).

Aristotle   (/ˈærɪˌstɒtəl/;[1] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης[aristotélɛːs],   Aristotélēs; 384 – 322 BC)[2] was aGreek philosopher and scientist born in the Macedoniancity of Stagira,   Chalkidice, on the northern peripheryof   Classical Greece. His father,   Nicomachus, diedwhen Aristotle was a child, whereafter  Proxenus ofAtarneus became his guardian.[3] At eighteen, he joinedPlato’s Academy  in Athens and remained there until

the age of thirty-seven (c.  347 BC). His writings covermany subjects – including   physics,   biology,   zoology,metaphysics,   logic, ethics,   aesthetics,   poetry, theater,music,   rhetoric,   linguistics, politics and government –and constitute the first comprehensive system of Westernphilosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle leftAthens and, at the request of Philip of Macedon, tutoredAlexander the Great starting from 343 BC.[4] Accordingto the Encyclopædia Britannica, “Aristotle was the firstgenuine scientist in history ... [and] every scientist is inhis debt.”[5]

Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many op-

portunities and an abundance of supplies. He establisheda library in the Lyceum which aided in the productionof many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristo-tle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former viewsof Platonism, but, following Plato’s death, Aristotle im-mersed himself in empirical studies and shifted fromPla-tonism to empiricism.[6] He believed all peoples’ con-cepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based onperception. Aristotle’s views on natural sciences repre-sent the groundwork underlying many of his works.

Aristotle’s views on physical science profoundly shapedmedieval scholarship. Their influence extended into the

Renaissance  and were not replaced systematically untilthe Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechan-ics. Some of Aristotle’s zoological observations, suchas on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus,were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. Hisworks contain the earliest known formal study of logic,which was incorporatedin the late 19th century into mod-ern formal logic.

In metaphysics,   Aristotelianism profoundly influencedJudeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought dur-ing the Middle Ages and continues to influence Christiantheology, especially the   scholastic   tradition of the

Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among me-dieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as “The First

Teacher” (Arabic:  .(علم أو

His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed in-terest with the modernadvent ofvirtue ethics. All aspectsof Aristotle’s philosophy continue to be the object of ac-tive academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote manyelegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his lit-erary style as “a river of gold”[7] – it is thought that onlyaround a third of his original output has survived.[8]

1 Life

School of Aristotle in Mieza , Macedonia, Greece

Aristotle, whose name means “the best purpose”,[9] wasborn in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34miles) east of modern-day  Thessaloniki.[10] His fatherNicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntasof Macedon. Although there is little information on Aris-

totle’s childhood, he probably spent some time within theMacedonian palace, making his first connections with theMacedonian monarchy.[11]

At about the age of eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athensto continue his education at  Plato’s Academy. Heremained there for nearly twenty years before leav-ing Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional story abouthis departure records that he was disappointed withthe Academy’s direction after control passed to Plato’snephew   Speusippus, although it is possible that hefeared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Platodied.[12]

Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court ofhis friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. There,he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos,

1

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“Aristotle” by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)

where together they researched the botany and zoologyof the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias’sadoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter,whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias’

death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon tobecome the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC.[4]

Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academyof Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only toAlexander, but also to two other future kings:  Ptolemyand Cassander.[13] Aristotle encouraged Alexander to-ward eastern conquest and his attitude towards Persia wasunabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, hecounsels Alexander to be “a leader to the Greeks and adespot to the barbarians, to look after the former as afterfriends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as withbeasts or plants”.[13]

By 335 BC, Artistotle had returned to Athens, estab-lishing his own school there known as the  Lyceum.Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the nexttwelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias diedand Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira,who bore him a son whom he named after his father,Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had aneromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[14]

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, iswhen Aristotle is believed to have composed many of hisworks.[4] He wrote many dialogues of which only frag-ments have survived. Those works that have survived are

in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intendedfor widespread publication; they are generally thought tobe lecture aids for his students. His most important trea-

tises include Physics,   Metaphysics,  Nicomachean Ethics,Politics, De Anima (On the Soul ) and Poetics.

Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possibleat the time, but made significant contributions to most ofthem. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, as-

tronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology,physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthet-ics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics,psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied edu-cation, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His com-bined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greekknowledge.

Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle becameestranged over Alexander’s relationship with Persia andPersians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspectedAristotle of playing a role in Alexander’s death, but thereis little evidence.[15]

Following Alexander’s death, anti-Macedonian sentimentin Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Eurymedon the Hi-erophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods inhonor, prompting him to flee to his mother’s family es-tate in Chalcis, explaining: “I will not allow the Atheni-ans to sin twice against philosophy”[16][17] – a referenceto Athens’s prior trial and execution of Socrates. He diedin Euboea of natural causes later that same year, hav-ing named his student Antipater as his chief executor andleaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to hiswife.[18]

Charles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is lo-

cated on the sacred way between Chalcis and Eretria andto have contained two styluses, a pen, a signet-ring andsome terra-cottas as well as what is supposed to be theearthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skullfragments.[19]

In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in an-cient times are often speculative and historians only agreeon a few salient points.[20]

2 Thought

2.1 Logic

Main article: Term logicFor more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic.

With the  Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with theearliest study of formal logic,[21] and his conception of itwas the dominant form of Western logic until 19th cen-

tury advances in mathematical logic.[22] Kant stated in theCritique of Pure Reason that Aristotle’s theory of logiccompletely accounted for thecore ofdeductive inference.

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2.2 Aristotle’s epistemology   3

Aristotle portrayed in the 1493  Nuremberg Chronicle   as ascholar of the 15th century AD.

2.1.1 History

Aristotle “says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'hadnothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".[23] How-ever, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, byProdicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct useof words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics;the earlier philosophers made frequent use of conceptslike reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but nevertruly understood the logical implications. Even Plato haddifficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable con-ception of a deductive system, he could never actuallyconstruct one, thus he relied instead on his dialectic.[24]

Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from

premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premisesso that the conclusion would logically follow. Conse-quently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining con-clusions would be most beneficial. He never succeededin devising such a method, but his best attempt was pub-lished in his book Sophist , where he introduced his divi-sion method.[25]

2.1.2 Analytics and the Organon

Main article: Organon

What we today call  Aristotelian logic , Aristotle himselfwould have labeled “analytics”. The term “logic” he re-

served to mean  dialectics. Most of Aristotle’s work isprobably not in its original form, because it was mostlikely edited by students and later lecturers. The logicalworks of Aristotle were compiled into six books in aboutthe early 1st century CE:

1.   Categories

2.  On Interpretation

3.   Prior Analytics

4.   Posterior Analytics

5.   Topics

6.  On Sophistical Refutations

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they

are composed) is not certain, but this list was derivedfrom analysis of Aristotle’s writings. It goes from the ba-sics, the analysis of simple terms in the  Categories, theanalysis of propositions and their elementary relations inOn Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms,namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) anddialectics (in theTopics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three trea-tises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: thegrammar of the language of logic and the correct rules ofreasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle’s concerninglogic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth bookof Metaphysics.[24]

2.2 Aristotle’s epistemology

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle’s philosophy aims at theuniversal. Aristotle’s ontology, however, finds the uni-versal in  particular things, which he calls the essenceof things, while in Plato’s ontology, the universal existsapart from particular things, and is related to them astheir prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore,epistemology is based on the study of particular phenom-ena and rises to the knowledge of essences, while forPlato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal

Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particu-lar imitations of these. For Aristotle, “form” still refersto the unconditional basis of phenomena but is “instanti-ated” in a particular substance (see  Universals and par-ticulars, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle’s method isboth inductive and deductive, while Plato’s is essentiallydeductive from a priori  principles.[26]

In Aristotle’s terminology, “natural philosophy” is abranch of philosophy examining the phenomena of thenatural world, and includes fields that would be regardedtoday as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Inmodern times, the scope of philosophy has become lim-

ited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethicsand metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. To-day’s philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the

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Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of  The School ofAthens , a fresco by Raphael . Aristotle gestures to the earth, rep-resenting his belief in knowledge through empirical observationand experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethicsin his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing hisbelief in The Forms , while holding a copy of  Timaeus

natural world by means of the scientific method. In con-trast, Aristotle’s philosophical endeavors encompassedvirtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.

In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philoso-phy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would de-scribe as “science”. Note, however, that his use of theterm  science carries a different meaning than that cov-ered by the term “scientific method”. For Aristotle, “allscience (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoret-ical” (Metaphysics  1025b25). By practical science, hemeans ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means

the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoreticalscience, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics.

If logic (or “analytics”) is regarded as a study prelimi-nary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philoso-phy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philos-ophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics;(3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.

In the period between his two stays in Athens, betweenhis times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle con-ducted most of the scientific thinking and research forwhich he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristo-tle’s life was devoted to the study of the objects of nat-

ural science. Aristotle’s metaphysics contains observa-tions on the nature of numbers but he made no originalcontributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform

original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zo-ology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, andseveral other sciences.

Aristotle’s writings on science are largely qualitative, asopposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century,

scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sci-ences, and Aristotle’s work in this area was deemed hope-lessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the ab-sence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and tempera-ture. He had a conception of speed and temperature, butno quantitative understanding of them, which was partlydue to the absence of basic experimental devices, likeclocks and thermometers.

His writings provide an account of many scientific ob-servations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curiouserrors. For example, inhis History of Animals he claimedthat human males have more teeth than females.[27] In a

similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showedby simple experiments that Aristotle’s theory that a heav-ier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[28]

On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claimthat the Milky Way was made up of “those stars whichare shaded by the earth from the sun’s rays,” pointing out(correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dis-missed for a long time) that, given “current astronomicaldemonstrations” that “the size of the sun is greater thanthat of the earth and the distance of the stars from theearth many times greater than that of the sun, then ... thesun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none ofthem.”[29]

In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws ofthe universe' from simple observation and over-stretchedreason. Today’s scientific method assumes that suchthinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and thatdiscerning the validity of one’s hypothesis requires farmore rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotleused to support his laws.

Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He positeda geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selectionsof the Metaphysics, which was widely accepted up untilthe 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th cen-

tury, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rota-tional center of the universe.

Because he was perhaps the philosopher most respectedby European thinkers during and after the Renaissance,these thinkers often took Aristotle’s erroneous positionsas given, which held back science in this epoch.[30] How-ever, Aristotle’s scientific shortcomings should not mis-lead one into forgetting his great advances in the manyscientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formalscience and created foundations to biology that were notsuperseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introducedthe fundamental notion that nature is composed of thingsthat change and that studying such changes can provideuseful knowledge of underlying constants.

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2.4 Physics   5

2.3 Geology

As quoted from Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology:

He [Aristotle] refers to many examples ofchanges now constantly going on, and insistsemphatically on the great results which theymust produce in the lapse of ages. He instancesparticular cases of lakes that had dried up, anddeserts that had at length become watered byrivers and fertilized. He points to the growthof the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer,to the shallowing of the Palus Maeotis withinsixty years from his own time ... He alludes ...to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands,previous to a volcanic eruption. The changesof the earth, he says, are so slow in compari-son to the duration of our lives, that they are

overlooked; and the migrations of people aftergreat catastrophes, and their removal to otherregions, cause the event to be forgotten.

He says [12th chapter of his Meteorics] 'thedistribution of land and sea in particular re-gions does not endure throughout all time, butit becomes sea in those parts where it was land,andagain it becomes land where it was sea, andthere is reason for thinking that these changestake place according to a certain system, andwithin a certain period.' The concluding ob-servation is as follows: 'As timenever fails, and

the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, northe Nile, can have flowed for ever. The placeswhere they rise were once dry, and there is alimit to their operations, but there is none totime. So also of all other rivers; they springup and they perish; and the sea also contin-ually deserts some lands and invades othersThe same tracts, therefore, of the earth arenot some always sea, and others always con-tinents, but every thing changes in the courseof time.'[31]

2.4 Physics

Main article: Aristotelian physics

2.4.1 Five elements

Main article: Classical element

Aristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition tothe four proposed earlier by Empedocles.

•  Earth, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to themodern idea of a solid.

•   Water, which is cold andwet; this corresponds to themodern idea of a liquid.

•  Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to themodern idea of a gas.

•

  Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to themodern ideas of plasma and heat.

•  Aether, which is the divine substance that makes upthe heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars andplanets).

Each of the fourearthly elements has its natural place. Allthat is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e.,the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere sur-rounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surround-ing the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere(in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved

out of their natural place, they naturally move back to-wards it. This is “natural motion”—motion requiring noextrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodiessink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flamerises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth el-ement, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in theperfection of circles.

2.4.2 Motion

Main article: potentiality and actuality

Aristotle defined motion as the actuality of a potentialityas such.[32] Aquinas suggested that the passage be under-stood literally; that motion can indeed be understood asthe active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition towarda potentially possible state. Because actuality and poten-tiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commen-tators either suggest that the wording which has comedown to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the “assuch” to the definition is critical to understanding it.[33]

2.4.3 Causality, the four causes

Main article: Four causes

Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything comingabout can be attributed to four different types of simul-taneously active causal factors:

•  Material cause describes the material out of whichsomething is composed. Thus the material cause ofa table is wood, and the material cause of a car isrubber and steel. It is not about action. It does notmean one domino knocks over another domino.

•  The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangementof that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any

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thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern,essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embracesthe account of causes in terms of fundamental prin-ciplesor general laws,as thewhole (i.e., macrostruc-ture) is the cause of its parts, a relationship knownas the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal

cause is the idea existing in the first place as exem-plar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the secondplace as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied inthe matter. Formal cause could only refer to the es-sentialqualityof causation. A simple example of theformal cause is the mental image or idea that allowsan artist, architect, or engineer to create his draw-ings.

•  The efficient cause is “the primary source”, or thatfrom which the change under consideration pro-ceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and

what causes change of what is changed' and so sug-gests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting asthe sources of change or movement or rest. Repre-senting the current understanding of causality as therelation of cause and effect, this covers the moderndefinitions of “cause” as either the agent or agencyor particular events or states of affairs. So, take thetwo dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the firstis knocked over causing the second also to fall over.

•  The final cause is its purpose, or that for the sake ofwhich a thing exists or is done, including both pur-poseful and instrumental actions and activities. The

final cause or teleos is the purpose or function thatsomething is supposed to serve. This covers modernideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need,desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.

Additionally, things can be causes of one another, caus-ing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitnessand vice versa, although not in the same way or function,the one is as the beginning of change, the other as thegoal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circu-lar causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influ-ence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated

that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects;itspresence and absence mayresult in different outcomes.Simplyit is the goal or purpose that bringsabout an event.Our two dominoes require someone or something to in-tentionally knock over the first domino, because it cannotfall of its own accord.

Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior)causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes,proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or asactual, particular or generic. The same language refersto the effects of causes, so that generic effects assignedto generic causes, particular effects to particular causes,

operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causalitydoes not suggest a temporal relation between the causeand the effect.

2.4.4 Optics

Aristotle held more accurate theories on some opticalconcepts than other philosophers of his day. The secondoldest written evidence of a camera obscura (after Mozic. 400 BC) can be found in Aristotle’s documentation of

such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle’s ap-paratus contained a dark chamber that had a single smallhole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotleused the device to make observationsof the sun andnotedthat no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would stillbe correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cam-eras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle alsomade the observation that when the distance between theaperture and the surface with the image increased, theimage was magnified.[34]

2.4.5 Chance and spontaneity

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chanceare causesof some things, distinguishable from other types ofcause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realmof accidental things. It is “from what is spontaneous”(but note that what is spontaneous does not come fromchance). For a better understanding of Aristotle’s con-ception of “chance” it might be better to think of “coin-cidence": Something takes place by chance if a personsets out with the intent of having one thing take place,but with the result of another thing (not intended) takingplace.

For example: A person seeks donations. Thatperson mayfind another person willing to donate a substantial sum.However, if the personseeking thedonations met the per-son donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations,but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the col-lecting of the donation by that particular donator a resultof chance. It must be unusual that something happens bychance. In other words, if something happens all or mostof the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.

There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aris-totle names “luck”, that can only apply to human beings,

because it is in the sphere of moral actions. Accordingto Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliber-ation), and only humans are capable of deliberation andchoice. “What is not capable of action cannotdo anythingby chance”.[35]

2.5 Metaphysics

Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

Aristotle defines metaphysics as “the knowledge of

immaterial being,” or of “being in the highest degree ofabstraction.” He refers to metaphysics as “first philoso-phy”, as well as “the theologic science.”

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2.6 Biology and medicine   7

2.5.1 Substance, potentiality and actuality

See also: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)

Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence

(ousia

) in his Metaphysics

 (Book VII), and he concludesthat a particular substance is a combination of both matterand form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter ofthe substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which itis composed. For example, the matter of a house is thebricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential  house, while the form of the substance is theactual  house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels’or any other differentia (see also predicables) that let usdefine something as a house. The formula that gives thecomponents is the account of the matter, and the formulathat gives the differentia is the account of the form.[36]

With regard to the change (kinesis

) and its causes now, ashe defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corrup-tion 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:

1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;

2. locomotion, which is change in space; and

3. alteration, which is change in quality.

The coming to be is a change where nothing persists ofwhich theresultant is a property. In that particularchangehe introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and

actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter andthe form.

Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capableof doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are rightand it is not prevented by something else. For example,the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei )plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will be-come a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' ( poiein)or 'be acted upon' ( paschein), which can be either innateor learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentialityof sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capabilityof playing theflute can be possessed by learning (exercise

– acting).Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality.Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change,and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, thereforeactuality is the end. Referring then to our previous ex-ample, we could say that an actuality is when a plant doesone of the activities that plants do.

“For that for the sake of which a thing is, isits principle, and the becoming is for the sakeof the end; and the actuality is the end, and itis for the sake of this that the potentiality is ac-

quired. For animals do not see in order thatthey may have sight, but they have sight thatthey may see.”[37]

In summary, the matter used to make a house has poten-tiality to be a house and both the activity of building andthe form of the final house are actualities, which is also afinalcause or end. ThenAristotle proceedsand concludesthat theactuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in timeand in substantiality.

With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., mat-ter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of theunity of the beings, for example, “what is it that makes aman one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas:animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, ac-cording to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and theactual one (form) are one and the same thing.[38]

2.5.2 Universals and particulars

Main article: Aristotle’s theory of universals

Aristotle’s predecessor, Plato, argued that all things havea universal form, which could be either a property, or arelation to other things. When we look at an apple, forexample, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a formof an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular appleand a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can placean apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both thebook and apple as being next to each other.

Plato argued that there are some universal forms that arenot a part of particular things. For example, it is possiblethat there is no particular good in existence, but “good” is

still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a 20th-century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the exis-tence of “uninstantiated universals”.

Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing thatall universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that thereare no universals that are unattached to existing things.According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as aparticular or a relation, then there must have been, mustbe currently, or must be in the future, something on whichthe universal can be predicated. Consequently, accordingto Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal canbe predicated to an object that exists at some period of

time, then it does not exist.

In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the lo-cation of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of theforms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aris-totle maintained that universals exist within each thing onwhich each universal is predicated. So, according to Aris-totle, the form of apple exists within each apple, ratherthan in the world of the forms.

2.6 Biology and medicine

In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things hesaw himself have stood the test of time better than hisretelling of the reports of others, which contain error and

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superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; hisideas on how the human body works have been almostentirely superseded.

2.6.1 Empirical research program

Octopus swimming

Torpedo fuscomaculata

Leopard shark 

Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work hassurvived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did researchon the natural history of Lesbos, and thesurroundingseasand neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this re-search, such as  History of Animals,  Generation of Ani-

mals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observationsand interpretations, along with sundry myths and mis-takes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life

visible from observation on Lesbos and available from thecatches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electricfish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writ-ing on cephalopods, namely,  Octopus,  Sepia (cuttlefish)and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His descriptionof the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was

widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th cen-tury. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, andknewthat sharks and rays were part of the group hecalledSelachē (selachians).[39]

Another good example of his methods comes fromthe Generation of Animals in which Aristotle describesbreaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to ob-serve when visible organs were generated.

He gave accurate descriptions of   ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous em-bryological development of the hound shark   Mustelusmustelus

.

[40]

2.6.2 Classification of living things

Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mam-mals and fishes.[41][42] His classification of living thingscontains some elements which still existed in the 19thcentury. What the modern zoologist would call verte-brates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals withblood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know thatcomplex invertebrates do make useof hemoglobin, but ofa different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood

were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals withoutblood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled –cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). Insomerespects, this incomplete classification is better thanthat of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata togetherinto two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).

For Charles Singer, “Nothing is more remarkable than[Aristotle’s] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of liv-ing things as a   scala naturae"[39] Aristotle’s History of Animals classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical"Ladder of Life" (scala naturae or Great Chain of Be-

ing), placing them according to complexity of structureand function so that higher organisms showed greater vi-tality and ability to move.[43]

Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e.,   finalcauses, guided all natural processes. Such a teleologicalview gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed dataas an expression of formal design. Noting that “no an-imal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns,” and “asingle-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen,”Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal bothhorns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving crea-tures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary.

Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weakteeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the lat-ter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.[44]

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2.7 Psychology   9

In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures werearranged in a gradedscale of perfection rising from plantson up to man, the scala naturae.[45] His systemhad elevengrades, arranged according “to the degree to which theyare infected with potentiality”, expressed in their form atbirth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures

alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs.

Aristotle also held that the level of a creature’s perfectionwas reflectedin its form, butnot preordainedby that form.Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regardedas science at all in modern times.

He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organismpossessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul,responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a veg-etative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility andsensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a ra-tional soul, capable of thought and reflection.[46]

Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in ac-cordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul inthe heart, rather than the brain.[47] Notable is Aristo-tle’s division of sensation and thought, which generallywent against previous philosophers, with the exception ofAlcmaeon.[48]

2.6.3 Successor: Theophrastus

Main articles:   Theophrastus   and   Historia Plantarum(Theophrastus)

Aristotle’s successor at theLyceum, Theophrastus, wrotea series of books on botany—the  History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of an-tiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many ofTheophrastus’ names survive into modern times, such ascarpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel.

Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did,Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, draw-ing analogies between natural and artificial processes,and relying on Aristotle’s concept of the efficient cause.Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the repro-duction of some higher plants, though this last discovery

was lost in later ages.

[49]

2.6.4 Influence on Hellenistic medicine

For more details on this topic, see Medicine in ancientGreece.

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce anyoriginal work. Though interest in Aristotle’s ideas sur-vived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[50] It isnot until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that

advances in biology can be again found.The first medical teacher at Alexandria,  Herophilus ofChalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in

The frontispiece to a 1644 version ofthe expandedand illustrated edition of  Historia Plantarum (ca. 1200), which was originallywritten around 300 BC.

the brain, and connected the nervous system to motionand sensation. Herophilus also distinguished betweenveins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while theformer do not.[51] Though a few ancient atomists such asLucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aris-totelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise ofChristianity, natural theology) would remain central to bi-ological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th cen-turies.  Ernst Mayr claimed that there was “nothing ofanyrealconsequence in biologyafter Lucretius and Galenuntil the Renaissance.”[52] Aristotle’s ideas of natural his-

tory and medicinesurvived, but they were generally takenunquestioningly.[53]

2.7 Psychology

Aristotle’s psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul( peri psyche, often known by its Latin title  De Anima),posits three kinds of soul (“psyches”): the vegetative soul,the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have arational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the samepowers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it cangrow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can ex-

perience sensations and move locally. The unique part ofthe human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms ofother things and compare them.

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For Aristotle, the soul ( psyche) was a simpler conceptthan it is for us today. By soul he simply meant theform of a living being. Because all beings are compos-ites of form and matter, the form of living beings is thatwhich endows them with what is specific to living beings,e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of

plants, growth and chemical transformations, whichAris-totle considers types of movement).[54]

2.7.1 Memory

According to Aristotle, memory is the ability to hold aperceived experience in your mind and to have the abilityto distinguish between the internal “appearance” and anoccurrence in the past.[55] In other words, a memory isa mental picture (phantasm) in which Aristotle definesin De Anima, as an appearance which is imprinted onthe part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle be-lieved an “imprint” becomes impressed on a semi-fluidbodily organ that undergoes several changes in order tomake a memory. A memory occurs when a stimuli istoo complex that the nervous system (semi-fluid bodilyorgan) cannot receive all the impressions at once. Thesechanges are the same as those involved in the operationsof sensation, common sense, and thinking .[56] The men-tal picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the final prod-uct of the entire process of sense perception. It does notmatter if the experience was seen or heard, every experi-ence ends up as a mental image in memory [57]

Aristotle uses the word “memory” for two basic abili-ties. First, the actual retaining of the experience in themnemonic  “imprint” that can develop from sensation.Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with the “im-print”dueto being impressed at a particular time andpro-cessingspecificcontents. Theseabilities can be explainedas memory is neither sensation nor thinking because isarises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory isof the past,  [58] prediction is of the future, and sensationis of the present. The retrieval of our “imprints” cannotbe performed suddenly. A transitional channel is neededand located in our past experiences, both for our previousexperience and present experience.

Aristotle proposed that slow-witted people have goodmemory because the fluids in their brain do notwashawaytheir memory organ used to imprint experiences and sothe “imprint” can easily continue. However, they cannotbe too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will notreceive new “imprints”. He believed the young and theold do not properly develop an “imprint”. Young peo-ple undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the el-derly’s organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new“imprints”. Likewise, people who are too quick-wittedare similar to the young and the image cannot be fixedbecause of the rapid changes of their organ. Because in-

tellectual functions are not involved in memory, memo-ries belong to some animals too, but only those in whichhave perception of time.

Recollection   Because Aristotle believes people receiveallkinds of sense perceptionsand people perceive themasimages or “imprints”, people are continually weaving to-gether new “imprints” of things they experience. In orderto search for these “imprints”, people search the mem-ory itself.[59] Within the memory, if one experience is

offered instead of a specific memory, that person will re-ject this experience until they find what they are lookingfor.   Recollection occurs when one experience naturallyfollows another. If the chain of “images” is needed, onememory will stimulate the other. If the chain of “images”is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulatethe other memory in most instances. When people recallexperiences, they stimulate certain previous experiencesuntil they have stimulated the one that was needed.[60]

Recollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving theinformation stored in a memory “imprint” after sometime has passed. Retrieval of stored information is de-

pendent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being(human or animal) and the abilities the human or animalpossesses .[61] Only humans will remember “imprints” ofintellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Ani-mals that have perception of time will be able to retrievememories of their past observations. Remembering in-volves only perception of the things remembered and ofthe time passed. Recollection of an “imprint” is when thepresent experiences a person remembers are similar withelements corresponding in character and arrangement ofpast sensory experiences. When an “imprint” is recalled,it may bring forth a large group of related “imprints”.[62]

Aristotle believed thechainof thought, whichends in rec-ollection of certain “imprints”, was connected systemat-ically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast,and contiguity. These three laws make up his Laws ofAssociation. Aristotle believed that past experiences arehidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken thehidden material to bring up the actual experience. Ac-cording to Aristotle, association is the power innate ina mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed re-mains of former experiences, allowing them to rise andbe recalled.[63]

2.7.2 Dreams

Sleep   Before understanding Aristotle’s take on dreams,first his idea of sleep must be examined. Aristotle givesan account of his explanation of sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness.[64] Sleep takes place as a result of overuseof the senses[65] or of digestion,[64] so it is vital to thebody, including the senses, so it can be revitalized.[65]

While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which in-clude thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, donot function as they do during wakefulness.[65] Since aperson cannot sense during sleep they can also not have a

desire, which is the result of a sensation.[65] However, thesenses are able to work during sleep,[65] albeit differentlythan when a person is awake because during sleep a per-

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2.8 Practical philosophy   11

son can still have sensory experiences.[64] Also, all of thesenses are not inactive during sleep, only the ones that areweary.[65]

Theory of dreams   Dreams do not involve actuallysensing a stimulus because, as discussed, the senses donot work as they normally do during sleep.[65] In dreams,sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner thanwhen awake.[65] Aristotle explains the phenomenon thatoccurs when a person stares at a moving stimulus such asthe waves in a body of water.[64] When they look awayfrom that stimulus, the next thing they look at appears tobe moving in a wave like motion. When a person per-ceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focusof their attention, it leaves an impression.[64] When thebody is awake and the senses are functioning properly,a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and

so the impressions left from previously perceived stimulibecome irrelevant.[65] However, during sleep the impres-sions stimuli made throughout the day become noticedbecause there are not new sensory experiences to distractfrom these impressions that were made.[64] So, dreamsresult from these lasting impressions. Since impressionsare all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams willnot resemble the actual experience that occurred whenawake.[66]

During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind.[64]

Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who isovertaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus.[64] For ex-

ample, a person who has a strong infatuation with some-one may begin to think they see that person everywherebecause they are so overtaken by their feelings.[64] Whena person is asleep, their senses are not acting as they dowhen they are awake and this results in them thinking likea person who is influenced by strong feelings.[64] Since aperson sleeping is in this suggestible state, they becomeeasily deceived by what appears in their dreams.[64]

When asleep, a person is unable to make judgments asthey do when they are awake[64] Due to the senses notfunctioning normally during sleep, they are unable to helpa person judge what is happening in their dream. [64] This

in turn leads the person to believe the dream is real.[64]

Dreams may be absurd in nature but the senses are notable to discern whether they are real or not.[64] So, thedreamer is left to accept the dream because they lack thechoice to judge it.

One component of Aristotle’s theory of dreams intro-duces ideas that are contradictory to previously heldbeliefs.[67] He claimed that dreams are not foretelling andthat they are not sent by a divine being.[67] Aristotle rea-soned that instances in which dreams do resemble fu-ture events are happenstances not divinations.[67] Theseideas were contradictory to what had been believed about

dreams, butat the time in which he introduced these ideasmore thinkers were beginning to give naturalistic as op-posed to supernatural explanations to phenomena.[67]

Aristotle also includes in his theory of dreams what con-stitutes a dream and what does not. He claimed that adream is first established by the fact that the person isasleep when they experience it.[66] If a person had an im-age appear for a moment after waking up or if they seesomething in the dark it is not considered a dream be-

cause they were awake when it occurred.[66] Secondly,any sensory experience that actually occurs while a per-son is asleep and is perceived by the person while asleepdoes not qualify as part of a dream.[66] For example, if,while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dreamthey hear a door is shut, Aristotle argues that this sensoryexperience is not part of the dream.[66] The actual sen-sory experience is perceived by the senses, the fact thatit occurred while the person was asleep does not make itpart of the dream.[66] Lastly, the images of dreams mustbe a result of lasting impressions of sensory experienceshad when awake.[66]

2.8 Practical philosophy

2.8.1 Ethics

Main article: Aristotelian ethics

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than

theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good anddoing good rather than knowing for its own sake. Hewrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably,the Nicomachean Ethics.

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the properfunc-tion (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in somuch as it can see, because the proper function of an eyeis sight. Aristotle reasoned that humansmust havea func-tion specific to humans, and that this function must be anactivity of the psuchē  (normally translated as soul ) in ac-cordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such anoptimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human de-

liberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as “hap-piness” or sometimes “well being”. To have the poten-tial of ever being happy in this way necessarily requiresa good character (ēthikē  aretē ), often translated as moral(or ethical) virtue (or excellence).[68]

Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentiallyhappycharacter requires a first stage of having thefortuneto be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and ex-perience, leading to a later stage in which one consciouslychooses to do thebest things. When thebest people cometo live life this way their practical wisdom ( phronesis) andtheir intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards

the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an ac-complished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in otherwords, a philosopher.[69]

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2.8.2 Politics

Main article: Politics (Aristotle)In addition to his works on ethics, which address the in-

Aristotle’s classification of  constitutions

dividual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titledPolitics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural com-munity. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior inimportance to the family which in turn is prior to the in-dividual, “for the whole must of necessity be prior to thepart”.[70] He also famously stated that “man is by nature

a political animal”. Aristotle conceived of politics as be-ing like an organism rather than like a machine, and asa collection of parts none of which can exist without theothers. Aristotle’s conception of the city is organic, andhe is considered one of the first to conceive of the city inthis manner.[71]

The common modern understanding of a political com-munity as a modern state is quite different from Aristo-tle’s understanding. Although he was aware of the exis-tence and potential of larger empires, the natural commu-nity according to Aristotle was the city ( polis) which func-tions as a political “community” or “partnership” (koinō-

nia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice orfor economic stability, but rather to allow at least somecitizens the possibility to live a good life, and to per-

form beautiful acts: “The political partnership must beregarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble ac-tions, not for the sake of living together.” This is distin-guished from modern approaches, beginning with socialcontract theory, according to which individuals leave thestate of nature because of “fear of violent death” or its

“inconveniences.”[72]

Excerpt from a speech by the character ‘Aristotle’ inthe book Protrepticus (Hutchinson and Johnson, 2015 p.22)[73]

For we all agree that the most excellent manshould rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a dis-course based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And sinceeverybody chooses most of all what conforms totheir own proper dispositions (a just man choos-ing to live justly, a man with bravery to livebravely, likewise a self-controlled man to livewith self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it’sevident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.

2.8.3 Rhetoric and poetics

Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle)and Poetics (Aristotle)

Aristotle considered   epic poetry, tragedy, comedy,dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each vary-ing in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[74] Forexample, music imitates with the media of rhythm andharmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, andpoetry with language. The forms also differ in their ob-

ject of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic im-itation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imi-tates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the formsdiffer in their manner of imitation – through narrativeor character, through change or no change, and throughdrama or no drama.[75] Aristotle believed that imitationis natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind’sadvantages over animals.[76]

While it is believed that Aristotle’s Poetics comprised twobooks – one oncomedyand one on tragedy – onlythe por-tion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taughtthat tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure,

character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[77]

The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driv-ing the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief

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focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arous-ing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis ofthose same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with adiscussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragicmimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses allthe attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional at-

tributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, andachieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can beconsidered superior to epic.[78]

Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folk-lore, and proverbs; he andhis school hada special interestin the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fablesof Aesop.[79]

2.9 Views on women

Main article: Aristotle’s views on women

Aristotle’s analysis of procreation describes an active,ensouling masculine element bringing life to an in-ert, passive female element. On this ground, feministmetaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny[80] andsexism.[81] However, Aristotle gave equal weight towomen’s happiness as he did to men’s, and commentedin his Rhetoric  that the things that lead to happiness needto be in women as well as men.[82]

3 Loss and preservation of hisworks

See also: Corpus Aristotelicum and Recovery of Aristo-tleModern scholarship reveals that Aristotle’s “lost” works

stray considerably in characterization[83] from the surviv-ing Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appearto have been originally written with an intent for subse-quent publication, the surviving works do not appear tohave been so.[83] Rather the surviving works mostly re-semble lecture notes unintended for publication.[83] The

authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as orig-inally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with somebooks duplicating or summarizing each other, the author-ship of onebook questioned andanother book consideredto be unlikely Aristotle’s at all.[83]

Some of the individual works within the corpus, includ-ing the Constitution ofAthens , areregarded bymost schol-ars as products of Aristotle’s “school,” perhaps compiledunder his direction or supervision. Others, such as OnColors ,  may have been produced by Aristotle’s succes-sors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Stillothers acquired Aristotle’s name through similarities in

doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly byNicolaus of Damascus. Other works in the corpus in-clude medieval palmistries and astrological and magical

First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin

texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful

and self-promotional.[84]

According to a distinction that originates with Aristotlehimself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the"exoteric" and the "esoteric".[85] Most scholars have un-derstood this as a distinction between works Aristotle in-tended for the public (exoteric), and the more technicalworks intendedfor use within the Lyceum course / school(esoteric).[86] Modern scholars commonly assume theselatter to be Aristotle’s own (unpolished) lecture notes (orin some cases possible notes by his students).[87] How-ever, one classic scholar offers an alternative interpre-tation. The 5th century neoplatonist Ammonius Her-

miae writes that Aristotle’s writing style is deliberatelyobscurantist  so that “good people may for that reasonstretch their mind even more, whereas empty minds thatare lost through carelessness will be put to flight by theobscurity when they encounter sentences like these.”[88]

Another common assumption is that none of the exo-teric works is extant – that all of Aristotle’s extant writ-ings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge ofwhat exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant anddubious, though many of them may have been in dia-logue form. (Fragments of some of Aristotle’s dialogueshave survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers

when he characterized Aristotle’s writing style as “a riverof gold";[89] it is hard for many modern readers to ac-cept that one could seriously so admire the style of those

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works currently available to us.[87] However, some mod-ern scholars have warned that we cannot know for cer-tain that Cicero’s praise was reserved specifically for theexoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually ad-mired the concise writing style found in Aristotle’s extantworks.[90]

One major question in the history of Aristotle’s works,then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and howdid the ones we now possess come to us[91] The story ofthe original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is de-scribed by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in hisParallel Lives.[92] The manuscripts were left from Aristo-tle to hissuccessorTheophrastus, who in turn willed themto Neleusof Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took thewritingsfrom Athens to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languishin a cellar until the 1st century BC, when Apellicon ofTeos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringingthem back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon

tried to repair some of the damage that was done duringthe manuscripts’ stay in the basement, introducing a num-ber of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sullaoccupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library ofApellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then bythe philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.[93][94]

Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this storyto the fact that it provides “the most plausible explana-tion for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school af-ter the middle of the third century, and for the absenceof widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of

Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as forthe sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianismduring the first century B.C.”[95] Lord voices a numberof reservations concerning this story, however. First, thecondition of the texts is far too good for them to have suf-fered considerable damage followed by Apellicon’s inex-pert attempt at repair.

Second, there is “incontrovertible evidence,” Lord says,that the treatises were in circulation during the time inwhich Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confinedwithin the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive editionof Aristotle’s texts seems to have been made in Athens

some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiledhis. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating An-dronicus’ intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quitesimilar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees anumber of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the Politics,for example, but is generally confident that the work hascome down to us relatively intact.

On the one hand, the surviving texts of Aristotle do notderive from finished literary texts, but rather from work-ing drafts used within Aristotle’s school, as opposed, onthe other hand, to the dialogues and other “exoteric” textswhich Aristotle published more widely during his life-

time. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes col-lected the esoteric works of Aristotle’s school which ex-

isted in theformof smaller, separate works, distinguishedthem from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics,edited them, and finally compiled them into the more co-hesive, larger works as they are known today.[96]

4 Legacy

“Aristotle” by Jusepe de Ribera

“Aristotle with a bust of  Homer " by Rembrandt .

More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remainsoneof the most influential people who ever lived. He con-tributed to almost everyfield of human knowledge then in

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4.2 Influence on Byzantine scholars   15

An thirteenth-century Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right).

existence, andhe was the founder of many new fields. Ac-

cording to the philosopher Bryan Magee, “it is doubtfulwhether any human being has ever known as much as hedid”.[97] Among countless other achievements, Aristotlewas the founder of formal logic,[98] pioneered the studyof zoology, and left every future scientist and philoso-pher in his debt through his contributions to the scientificmethod.[99][100]

Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle’serrors is considered by some to have held back scienceconsiderably.  Bertrand Russell notes that “almost everyserious intellectual advance has had to begin with an at-tack on some Aristotelian doctrine”. Russell also refers

to Aristotle’s ethics as “repulsive”, and calls his logic “asdefinitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy”. Russellnotes that these errors make it difficult to do historicaljustice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of anadvance he made upon all of his predecessors.[4]

4.1 Later Greek philosophers

The immediate influence of Aristotle’s work was felt asthe Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristo-tle’s notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus,Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus,

Hephaestion, Meno, Mnasonof Phocis, Nicomachus,andTheophrastus. Aristotle’s influence over Alexander theGreat is seen in the latter’s bringing with him on his expe-

Statue by Cipri Adolf Bermann (1915) at the   University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau

dition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. Hehad also learned a great deal about Persian customs andtraditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aris-totle was diminished as his travels made it clear that muchof Aristotle’s geography was clearly wrong, when the oldphilosopher released his works to the public, Alexandercomplained“Thou hast notdonewell to publish thy acroa-matic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men ifthose doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be allmen’s common property?"[101]

4.2 Influence on Byzantine scholars

GreekChristian scribesplayed a crucial role in the preser-vation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek lan-guage manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Chris-tians to comment extensively on Aristotle were  JohnPhiloponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, andStephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[102]

John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fun-damental critique of Aristotle’s views on the eternity ofthe world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelianthought.[103] After a hiatus of several centuries, formal

commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reap-pears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, ap-parently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[104]

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16   6 EPONYMS 

4.3 Influence on Islamic theologians

Aristotle was oneof the most revered Western thinkers inearly Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works ofAristotle,[105] as well as a number of the original Greekcommentaries, were translated intoArabic and studied by

Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars.  Averroes,Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle ingreat depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and otherWestern Christian scholastic philosophers.   Alkindusconsidered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique repre-sentative of philosophy[106] and Averroes spokeof Aristo-tle as the “exemplar” for all future philosophers.[107] Me-dieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle asthe “First Teacher”.[108] The title “teacher” was first givento Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used byWestern philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante)who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philoso-

phy.[109]

In accordance with the Greek theorists, the Muslims con-sideredAristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the authorof a closed system, andbelieved that Aristotle shared withPlato essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as tocredit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysicalideas.[105]

4.4 Influence on Western Christian theolo-

gians

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the earlymedieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknownthere from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through theLatin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. Inthe twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotlerevived and Latin Christians had translations made, bothfrom Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cre-mona,[110] and from the original Greek, such as those byJames of Venice and William of Moerbeke.

After Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working fromMoerbeke’s translations, the demand for Aristotle’s writ-ings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the

West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europethat continued into the Renaissance.[111] Aristotle is re-ferred to as “The Philosopher” by Scholastic  thinkerssuch as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, PartI, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelianphilosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of An-cient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudi-ation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences andthe arts to free themselves for the discovery of modernscientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval En-glish poet Chaucer describes his student as being happyby having

at his beddes heed 

Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,

Of aristotle and his philosophie,[112]

The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circlesof hell,

I saw the Master there of those who know,

Amid the philosophic family,

By all admired, and by all reverenced; 

There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,

Who stood beside him closer than the rest.[113]

4.5 Post-Enlightenment thinkers

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has beensaid to have taken nearly all of his political philosophyfrom Aristotle.[114] However debatable this is, Aristotlerigid separated actionfrom production,and argued for thedeserved subservience of some people (“natural slaves"),and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It isMartin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a newinterpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his decon-struction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.  AynRand accredited Aristotle as “the greatest philosopher inhistory” and cited him as a major influence on her think-ing. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted toreform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a waythat is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims ofboth liberals and Nietzscheans.[115]

5 List of works

Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum

The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiq-uity through medieval manuscript transmission are col-lected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as op-posed to Aristotle’s lost works, are technical philosophi-cal treatises from within Aristotle’s school. Reference tothem is made according to the organization of Immanuel

Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis

Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classificationsof these works.

6 Eponyms

The Aristotle Mountains  along the Oscar II Coast  ofGraham Land, Antarctica, are named after Aristotle. Hewas the first person known to conjecture, in his bookMeteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern

high-latitude region and call it “Antarctica”.

[116]

Aristoteles (crater) is a crater on the Moon bearing theclassical form of Aristotle’s name.

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“ARISTOTLE” near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the  Libraryof Congress.

7 See also

•  Aristotelian physics

•  Aristotelian society

•  Aristotelian theology

•   Conimbricenses

•  List of writers influenced by Aristotle

•   Otium

•   Philia

•   Pseudo-Aristotle

8 Notes and references

[1]  “Aristotle” entry in  Collins English Dictionary, Harper-Collins Publishers, 1998.

[2] That these undisputed dates (the first half of theOlympiadyear 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of

Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by AugustBoeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion,see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist  244 F 38. Ingemar Düring,Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg,1957, p. 253.

[3]   “Biography of Aristotle”. Biography.com. Retrieved 12March 2014.

[4] Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, Simon& Schuster, 1972.

[5] Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). The Britannica Guide tothe 100 Most Influential Scientists. Running Press. p. 12.

ISBN 9780762434213.

[6]  Barnes 2007, p. 6.

[7] Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106–43 BC). “Academica Pri-ora”. Book II, chapter XXXVIII, §119. Retrieved 25 Jan-uary 2007.  veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aris-toteles Check date values in: |date= (help)

[8]   Jonathan Barnes, “Life and Work” in   The CambridgeCompanion to Aristotle (1995), p. 9.

[9] Campbell, Michael.  “Behind the Name: Meaning, Ori-gin and History of the Name “Aristotle"".   Behind theName: The Etymology and History of First Names. www.behindthename.com. Retrieved 6 April 2012.

[10] McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999).   Aristotle: The Great Philosophers. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0-415-92392-1.

[11] Anagnostopoulos, G., “Aristotle’s Life” in A Companionto Aristotle (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 4.

[12] Carnes Lord, introduction to   The Politics   by Aristotle(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).

[13] Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, University of Cali-fornia Press Ltd. (Oxford, England) 1991, pp. 58–59

[14] William George Smith,Dictionary of Greek and RomanBiography and Mythology, vol. 3, p. 88

[15] Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, University of Cali-fornia Press Ltd. (Oxford, England), 1991, p. 379 and459.

[16] Jones, W. T. (1980).   The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 216.ISBN 0155383124.

[17]  Vita Marciana 41, cf.  Aelian Varia historica 3.36, Inge-mar Düring,  Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradi-tion, Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.

[18]  Aristotle’s Will,  Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischenWelt  by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase.

[19] See The Politics of Aristotle translated by Ernest Barker,Oxford: Clarendom Press, 1946, p. xxiii, note 2, whorefers to Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, vol. xii, fasc.ix, s.v. Eretria.

[20] See Shields, C., “Aristotle’s Philosophical Life and Writ-ings” in The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle  (Oxford Uni-

versity Press, 2012), pp. 3–16. Düring, I.,  Aristotle in theAncient Biographical Tradition (Göteborg, 1957) is a col-lection of [an overview of?] ancient biographies of Aris-totle.

[21] MICHAEL DEGNAN, 1994. Recent Work in Aristotle’sLogic.  Philosophical Books 35.2 (April 1994): 81–89.

[22] Corcoran, John (2009). “Aristotle’s DemonstrativeLogic”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.

[23] Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic . Amster-dam: North-Holland Publishing Company.

[24] Bocheński, 1951.

[25] Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle’s Syllogistic . Springfield:Charles C Thomas Publisher.

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18   8 NOTES AND REFERENCES 

[26] Jori, Alberto (2003).   Aristotele. Milano: Bruno Mon-dadori Editore.

[27] Aristotle, History of Animals, 2.3.

[28]   “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy”.Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 26 April 2009.

[29] Aristotle,  Meteorology 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J.Barnes.

[30]  Burent, John.   1928.   Platonism, Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, pp. 61, 103–104.

[31]  Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, 1832, p.17

[32]   Physics 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5

[33] Sachs, Joe (2005), “Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Na-ture”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[34] Michael Lahanas.   “Optics and ancient Greeks”. Mla-

hanas.de.  Archived from the original on 11 April 2009.Retrieved 26 April 2009.

[35] Aristotle, Physics 2.6

[36] Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1043a 10–30

[37] Aristotle, Metaphysics IX 1050a 5–10

[38] Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1045a–b

[39] Singer, Charles. A short history of biology. Oxford 1931.

[40] Emily Kearns, “Animals, knowledge about,” in  Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92.

[41] Carl T. Bergstrom; Lee Alan Dugatkin (2012). Evolution.Norton. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-393-92592-0.

[42] Frank Harold TrevorRhodes (1 January 1974). Evolution.Golden Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-307-64360-5.

[43] Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later usemade of this idea by clerics.

[44] Mason, A History of the Sciences pp. 43–44

[45] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought , pp. 201–202;see also: Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being

[46] Aristotle, De Anima II 3

[47] Mason, A History of the Sciences pp. 45

[48] Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 pp. 348

[49] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought , pp. 90–91; Ma-son, A History of the Sciences, p 46

[50] Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp. 252

[51] Mason, A History of the Sciences pp. 56

[52] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought , pp. 90–94; quo-tation from p 91

[53] Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy, p 252

[54] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article“Psychology”.

[55] Bloch, David (2007).  Aristotle on Memory and Recollec-tion. p. 12. ISBN 9004160469.

[56]  Bloch 2007, p. 61.

[57] Carruthers, Mary (2007).   The Book of Memory: AStudy of Memory in Medieval Culture. p. 16.   ISBN

9780521429733.

[58]  Bloch 2007, p. 25.

[59] Warren, Howard (1921). A History ofthe Association Psy-chology. p. 30.

[60]  Warren 1921, p. 25.

[61]  Carruthers 2007, p. 19.

[62]  Warren 1921, p. 296.

[63]  Warren 1921, p. 259.

[64] Holowchak, Mark (1996). “Aristotle on Dreaming: WhatGoes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out”.   An-cient Philosophy 16 (2): 405–423. Retrieved 7 November2014.

[65] Shute, Clarence (1941).  The Psychology of Aristotle: AnAnalysis of the Living Being. Morningsdie Heights: NewYork: Columbia University Press. pp. 115–118.

[66] Modrak, Deborah (2009). “Dreams and Method in Aris-totle”.  Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisci-

 plinary Research 20: 169–181.

[67] Webb, Wilse (1990). Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decod-

ing the language ofthe night. New consciousness reader se-ries. Los Angeles, CA, England: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.pp. 174–184. ISBN 0-87477-594-9.

[68]   Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 71098a.

[69]  Nicomachean Ethics Book VI.

[70] Politics 1253a19–24

[71]  Ebenstein, Alan; William Ebenstein (2002).  Introductionto Political Thinkers. Wadsworth Group. p. 59.

[72] For a different reading of social and economic processesin the  Nicomachean Ethics  and  Politics see Polanyi, K.(1957) “Aristotle Discovers the Economy” in   Primitive,Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115

[73] D. S. Hutchinson and Monte Ransome Johnson (25 Jan-uary 2015). “New Reconstruction, includes Greek text”.

[74] Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a

[75] Aristotle, Poetics III

[76] Aristotle, Poetics IV

[77] Aristotle, Poetics VI

[78] Aristotle, Poetics XXVI

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[79] Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), TheCompleteFables By Aesop Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.

[80] Freeland, Cynthia A. (1998).  Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle. Penn State University Press.   ISBN 0-271-01730-9.

[81] Morsink, Johannes (Spring 1979).  “Was Aristotle’s Bi-ology Sexist?".  Journal of the History of Biology  12  (1):83–112. doi:10.1007/bf00128136.

[82] Aristotle; Roberts, W. Rhys (translator). Honeycutt, Lee,ed.  Rhetoric . pp. Book I, Chapter 5. Where, as amongthe Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almosthalf of human life is spoilt.

[83] Terence Irwin and Gail Fine, Cornell University, Aristo-tle: Introductory Readings. Indianapolis, Indiana: HackettPublishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi–xii.

[84] Lynn Thorndike, “Chiromancy in Medieval LatinManuscripts,”   Speculum   40 (1965), pp. 674–706;Roger A. Pack, “Pseudo-Arisoteles: Chiromantia,”Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge39 (1972), pp. 289–320; Pack, “A Pseudo-AristotelianChiromancy,” Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire duMoyen Âge 36 (1969), pp. 189–241.

[85]   Jonathan Barnes, “Life and Work” in   The CambridgeCompanion to Aristotle (1995), p. 12; Aristotle himself:Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotlehimself neveruses the term “esoteric” or “acroamatic”. For other pas-sages where Aristotle speaks of  exōterikoi logoi , see W.

D. Ross, Aristotle’s Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to whichthe phrase, at least in Aristotle’s own works, usually refersgenerally to “discussions not peculiar to the Peripateticschool", rather than to specific works of Aristotle’s own.

[86] Humphry House (1956). Aristotles Poetics. p. 35.

[87] Barnes, “Life and Work”, p. 12.

[88] Ammonius (1991). On Aristotle’s Categories. Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X. p. 15

[89] Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106 BC – 43 BC). " flumen oratio-

nis aureum fundens Aristoteles".  Academica Priora. Re-trieved 25 January 2007. Check date values in: |date=(help)

[90] Barnes, “Roman Aristotle”, in Gregory Nagy, Greek Lit-erature, Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240.

[91] .The definitive, English study of these questions is Barnes,“Roman Aristotle”.

[92] “Sulla.”

[93] Ancient Rome: from the early Republic to the assassina-tion of Julius Caesar – Page 513, Matthew Dillon, LyndaGarland

[94] The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 22 – Page 131,Grolier Incorporated – Juvenile Nonfiction

[95] Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to the Politics, by Aris-totle. Chicago: Chicago University Press. p. 11.

[96] Anagnostopoulos, G., “Aristotle’s Works and Thoughts”,A Companion to Aristotle  (Blackwell Publishing, 2009),p. 16. See also, Barnes, J., “Life and Work”,   TheCambridge Companion to Aristotle (Cambridge University

Press, 1995), pp. 10–15.

[97]  Magee, Bryan (2010).  The Story of Philosophy. DorlingKindersley. p. 34.

[98] W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter ".   Cambridge University Press.p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4

[99]   “Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Ency-clopedia”. Britannica.com. Archived from the original on22 April 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2009.

[100]   Durant, Will  (2006) [1926].   The Story of Philosophy.United States: Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 92.  ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4.

[101] Plutarch, Life of Alexander 

[102] RichardSorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed  London, 1990,20, 28, 35–36.

[103] Richard Sorabji, ed.   Aristotle Transformed   (London,1990) 233–274.

[104] Richard Sorabji, ed.   Aristotle Transformed   (London,1990) 20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408.

[105]  Encyclopedia of Islam, Aristutalis

[106]   Rasa'il  I, 103, 17, Abu Rida[107]  Comm. Magnum in Aristotle , De Anima , III, 2, 43 Craw-

 ford 

[108]  al-mua'llim al-thani , Aristutalis

[109] Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1996).   The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Curzon Press. pp. 59–60.  ISBN 0-7007-0314-4.

[110]   Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the LatinWest entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[111]  Aristotelianism in the Renaissance entry in the  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[112] Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Prologue, lines295–295

[113]   vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia.Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platoneche 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno; Dante, L'Inferno (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135

[114] Durant, p. 86

[115] KelvinKnight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007, passim.

[116]   Aristotle Mountains. SCAR Composite AntarcticGazetteer.

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20   9 FURTHER READING 

9 Further reading

The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The follow-ing references are only a small selection.

•  Ackrill J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle,Oxford University Press, USA.

•  Ackrill, J. L. (1981).  Aristotle the Philosopher . Ox-ford and New York: Oxford University Press.

•  Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody.NewYork: Macmillan. A popular exposition for thegeneral reader.

•   Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews,Gareth B, eds. On Aristotle’s Categories. Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X.

•   Aristotle (1908–1952).   The Works of AristotleTranslated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Thesetranslations are available in severalplaces online; seeExternal links.

•  Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of GreekPhilosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysisand Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5

•  Barnes J. (1995). The Cambridge Companion toAristotle, Cambridge University Press.

•

 Bocheński, I. M. (1951).   Ancient Formal Logic .Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.

•  Bolotin, David (1998).   An Approach to Aristotle’sPhysics: With Particular Attention to the Role of HisManner of Writing.  Albany: SUNY Press. A con-tribution to our understanding of how to read Aris-totle’s scientific works.

•  Burnyeat, M. F. et al.  (1979). Notes on Book Zetaof Aristotle’s Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty ofPhilosophy.

•  Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969).

Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monumentsof Western Thought 1. Waltham, Mass: BlaisdellPublishing Co.

•  Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle’s Conception of Mat-ter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696.

•  Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle’s Sci-ence and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quar-terly 76.

•  Ferguson, John (1972).   Aristotle. New York:Twayne Publishers.

•  De Groot, Jean (2014).   Aristotle’s Empiricism: Ex- perience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC , Par-menides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4

•  Frede, Michael. (1987).  Essays in Ancient Philoso- phy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

•  Fuller, B.A.G. (1923).  Aristotle. History of GreekPhilosophy 3. London: Cape.

•  Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012).  Line by Line Commen-tary on Aristotle’s De Anima, Volume 1: Books I ⅈ Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York:The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF.

•  Gill, Mary Louise. (1989).  Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton Uni-versity Press.

•  Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981).  A History of Greek Phi-losophy, Vol. 6 . Cambridge University Press.

•  Halper, Edward C. (2009).  One and Many in Aris-totle’s Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta,

Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6.•  Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristo-

tle’s Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books, Par-menides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6.

•   Irwin, T. H. (1988). Aristotle’sFirst Principles. Ox-ford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-824290-5.

•   Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard, ed.Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Devel-opment  (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.

•   Jori, Alberto. (2003).   Aristotele, Milano: Bruno

MondadoriEditore(Prize 2003 of the "InternationalAcademy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1.

•  Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962).   Aristotle Dictio-nary. New York: Philosophical Library.

•   Knight, Kelvin. (2007).   Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politicsfrom Aristotle to MacIntyre, PolityPress.

•  Lewis, Frank A. (1991).   Substance and Predica-tion in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

•  Lloyd, G. E. R. (1968).  Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought . Cambridge: CambridgeUniv. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9.

•  Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to The Politics,by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

•  Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Es-say on Aristotle’s Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press.

•  Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Ger-hard (Ed.). (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII.3:

What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing.ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5

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•  McKeon, Richard (1973).   Introduction to Aristotle(2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

•  Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). “The Platonism of Aristo-tle”.  Proceedings of the British Academy  50: 125–150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.

R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975).  Articles on Aristotle Vol1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]

•  Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003).   Aristotle and thePhilosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Aristotle’s conceptionof the deep-est human relationship viewed in the light of the his-tory of philosophic thought on friendship.

•  Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, JamesB, eds.  The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Buffalo:Prometheus Books.

•  Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge:Aristotle’s Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.

•  Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle’s Syllogistic . Spring-field: Charles C Thomas Publisher.

•  Ross, Sir David (1995).   Aristotle  (6th ed.). Lon-don: Routledge. A classic overview by one of Aris-totle’s most prominent English translators, in printsince 1923.

•  Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals inAristotle’s Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell UniversityPress.

•  Strauss, Leo (1964). “On Aristotle’s Politics",in TheCity and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally.

•   Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Privatein Aristotle’s Political Philosophy. Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press.

•  Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922).   “Chapter 3: Aris-totle’s Biology”.   Greek Biology and Medicine.Archived from the original on 11 February 2006.

•  Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A ContemporaryAppreciation. Bloomington: Indiana U. Press. For

the general reader.

•  Woods, M. J. (1991b). “Universals and ParticularForms in Aristotle’s Metaphysics”. Aristotle and theLater Tradition.  Oxford Studies in Ancient Philos-ophy. Suppl. pp. 41–56.

10 External links

•   Aristotle at DMOZ

•   Aristotle at PhilPapers.

•   Aristotle   at the   Indiana Philosophy OntologyProject.

•  At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

•  Aristotle (general article)

•   Biology

•  Ethics

•   Logic

•  Metaphysics

•  Motion and its Place in Nature

•  Poetics

•  Politics

•  From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

•  Aristotle (general article)

•  Aristotle in the Renaissance

•   Biology

•   Causality

•  Commentators on Aristotle

•  Ethics

•   Logic

•  Mathematics

•  Metaphysics

•  Natural philosophy

•   Non-contradiction

•  Political theory

•  Psychology

•   Rhetoric

•  General article at The Catholic Encyclopedia

•  Diogenes Laërtius,  Life of Aristotle, translated byRobert Drew Hicks (1925).

•  Works by Aristotle at Open Library.

•  Timeline of Aristotle’s life

•   Aristotle at PlanetMath.org..

Collections of works

•  At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (pri-

marily in English).•  Works by Aristotle at Project Gutenberg

•  Works by or about Aristotle at Internet Archive

•  Works by Aristotle at LibriVox (public domain au-

diobooks)

•  (English) (Greek) Perseus Project at Tufts Univer-sity.

•   At the University of Adelaide (primarily in English).

•   (Greek) (French) P. Remacle

•  The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of  Aristotle’sWorks in Greek (PDF · DJVU)

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22   10 EXTERNAL LINKS 

•  Bekker’s Prussian Academy of Sciences edition ofthe complete works of Aristotle at Archive.org:

•  vol. 1

•  vol. 2

•  vol. 3

•  vol. 4

•  vol. 5

•   (English) Aristotle Collection (translation).

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23

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

•   Aristotle Source:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle?oldid=689504714  Contributors:  Magnus Manske, Kpjas, General Wesc, VickiRosenzweig, Mav, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Berek, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi, Malcolm Farmer, DanKeshet, RK, Andre En-gels, Eclecticology, Danny, XJaM, Deb, SimonP, Shii, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Glshadbolt, Camembert, Hirzel, Fonzy, Ezubaric, Hephaestos,Leandrod, Stevertigo, Spiff~enwiki, Infrogmation, Pamplemousse, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Fred Bauder, Owl, Aezram, BoNoMoJo(old), MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Shoaler, GTBacchus, Nine Tail Fox, Paul A, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa,Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Notheruser, Jniemenmaa, Angela, Darkwind, Александър, Cyan, Uri~enwiki, BenKovitz, LouI, Poor Yorick,Kwekubo, Andres, Evercat, John K, Ghewgill, Skyfaller, Schneelocke, Adam Conover, MichaelInskeep, Johs~enwiki, Renamed user 4,Alex S, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, EALacey, RickK, Jitse Niesen, Radgeek, Dandrake, The Anomebot, WhisperToMe, Wik, Dtgm,Zoicon5, Markhurd, Tpbradbury, Kaare, Hyacinth, Neiwai, Morwen, Itai, Populus, Mir Harven, Omegatron, Buridan, Phoebe, Joy, Pris-onblues, Dpbsmith, Wetman, Pakaran, Johnleemk, Banno, Dimadick, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Jakohn, Fredrik, Alrasheedan, Goethean,Peak, Sam Spade, Lowellian, Mirv, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Markewilliams, Flauto Dolce, Rursus, Paradox2, Rasmus Faber,Sunray, Rebrane, Hadal, Wikibot, Alba, Mushroom, Xanzzibar, Dina, Alan Liefting, Marc Venot, Sobelk, Giftlite, MPF, Awolf002,Andries, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Aphaia, MSGJ, Obli, Rj, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Anville, Zmaj~enwiki, Carlo.Ierna, Larry-Gilbert, Beardo, Maarten van Vliet, Joshuapaquin, Node ue, Eequor, Rynelm, Solipsist, Matt Crypto, Chameleon, SWAdair, Deus Ex,Tagishsimon, Golbez, Gyrofrog, Utcursch, Gdr, Quadell, Antandrus, Williamb, Beland, OverlordQ, Cevlakohn, Anthony Mohen, Jossi,EuropracBHIT, 1297, Phil Sandifer, Rdsmith4, APH, Mikko Paananen, JimWae, Dmaftei, Tomruen, M.e, Pmanderson, Icairns, Tdom-bos, Kmweber, Daniel Staal, WpZurp, Joyous!, Herschelkrustofsky, Ukexpat, Trilobite, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, ELApro, Lacrimosus,Esperant, Zro, Hbmartin, Rfl, Simonides, Freakofnurture, Heegoop, Venu62, Poccil, Adambondy, Haiduc, DanielCD, Lectiodifficilior, Eu-

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11.2 Images   25

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11.2 Images

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•   File:Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?

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•   File:Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Djembayz

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•  photographed by Zambonia 2011-10-28 Original artist:  José de Ribera

•   File:Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?

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•   File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg   License: Public domain Contributors:  The Yorck Project:  10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed byDIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist:  Francesco Hayez

•   File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png License:  Public domain Contributors:  Scanned from The Naturalist on the River Amazons by HenryWalter Bates, University of California Press version, published 1962.  Original artist:  Unknown

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•

  File:Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Rembrandt_-_Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer_-_WGA19232.jpg  License:    Public domain   Contributors:    UnknownOriginal artist:  Rembrandt

•   File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpgLicense:  Public domain  Contributors:  Web Gallery of Art: <a href='https://reader009.{domain}/reader009/html5/0318/5aade4c59d33f/5aade4d4c799f.jpg'data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x'data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a>   Image   <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.html'data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist:  Raphael

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26   11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 

• File:The_School_of_Aristotle_(The_Lyceum)_(7263536048).jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/The_School_of_Aristotle_%28The_Lyceum%29_%287263536048%29.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:  The School of Aristo-tle (The Lyceum) Original artist:  Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany

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•  File:Triakis_semifasciata.jpg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Triakis_semifasciata.jpg License:  Public

domain Contributors: 

 ? Original artist: 

 ?•  File:Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Uni_Freiburg_-_

Philosophen_4.jpg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  Own work (eigenes Bild) Original artist:  Cipri Adolf Bermann

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11.3 Content license

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