aridoamerica nabhan
TRANSCRIPT
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Native Crop Diversity in Aridoamerica: Conservation of Regional Gene PoolsAuthor(s): Gary Paul NabhanSource: Economic Botany, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1985), pp. 387-399Published by: Springeron behalf of New York Botanical Garden PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4254790.
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2/14
Native
Crop
Diversity
in
Aridoamerica:
Conservationof
Regional
Gene
Pools'
GARY PAUL NABHAN
2
Scholars have
seldom considered
he native
crop
diversity
n northwest
Mexico
and the U.S. Southwestas resourcesof thesame cohesiveecologicaland cultural
region.
The term Aridoamericas introduced
o
describe his overlooked enter
of
plant
domestication
and
diversification,
which
is distinct
rom
centers
of
Meso-
america and the
Mississippi
Valley.
To
understand
why
certain
of
its
landraces
are
unique,
the
systematicrelationships
and
gene-pool
relations
of crops
ound
prehistorically
nd
protohitorically
n Aridoamerica re
reviewed.
ignifcant
crop/
weed
ntrogression
ontinues
where
ndigenousagriculture
ersists,
butnative
ields
are
being
rapidly
abandonedor converted. n
planning
in
situandex situ
conser-
vation
efforts
o maintain this
diversity,
both cultural
actors
and
plant
population
genetics
must
be considered.
Native
crops
are definedhere
as
domesticated
plants
cultivated
prehistorically
or
protohistorically
within a
regionby
its
indigenous
culturessince
prehistoric
or
protohistoric
imes.
Although
they
need
not
be endemic to the
region
of
concern,
their
landraces should have
been
grown
long
enough
in
the
region
to
exhibit
morphological
or
physiological
adaptations
to the soils and
climatesfound
there.
The landraces
may
in
fact be
key ecological
components
of the distinctive
agroeco-
systems
that
native farmershave
developed,
given
the
climatic
and
edaphic
con-
straints
in their
area
(HernandezX.,
198
1).
Native
crops
are
directly
dependent
upon managementby humans; therefore,they have evolved in part under the
influenceof
farming
practices
of
particular
ultures.
As
such,
native
crop
diversity
directly
reflects
a
region's
cultural
diversity.
It is awkward to view
these
resources
merely
as
a
set
of
genes
that
can
be
conserved
simply
by depositing
them in
a
gene
bank. If
isolated from the
folk
science and
traditional
uses
of
the
culturesthat
have nurtured
them,
they
lose
their
historical
cultural
context.
If
isolated
from cultural
selection
and
natural
selection
exerted in
their endemic
agroecosystems
where
they
have
long
evolved,
their
subsequent
evolution
may change
n
direction.If removed
from
native
fields
whereintrogressionwith wild relativeshas continuedfor centuries,othergenetic
changes
will
occur.
Therefore,
n situ and
ex situ
conservation
of native
crops
are
much more
complex
than conservation
of wild
genetic
resources.
In
the U.S. Southwest
and northwestern
Mexico,
much of
the land
is
arid.
Indigenous agriculture
persists
there,
in
some
places
beyond
where
conventional
modern
agriculture
s successful.In
addition
to
the reason
usuallygiven
for
genetic
conservation
-to
preserve
orfuture
generations
genes
that
may
make
commercial
IReceived7 January1985;accepted17 May 1985. Presentedat the Symposiumon Ethnobotany
of the Greater
Southwestat the
Twenty-fifth
Annual
Meeting
of the
Society
for
Economic
Botany,
Texas
A&M
University,College Station,
TX,
11-13
June
1984;
symposium
organized
and
chaired
by
Dr. Robert A.
Bye,
Jr.
2
Office
of
Arid Lands
Studies,
University
of
Arizona,
845 N. Park
Ave.,
Tucson,
AZ
85721;
and
Native
Seeds/SEARCH,
3950
W. New York
Dr.,
Tucson,
AZ
85745.
Economic
otany, 9(4), 1985,
pp.
387-399
1985,
by
the
New York
Botanical
Garden,
Bronx,
NY
10458
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ECONOMIC
BOTANY
crop
varieties less vulnerable to stresses
and
maladies-there are others
worth
considering
with
regard
to native
crops
of
this
binational
region:
1.
Native
crops may
be critical to
continued food
production
by
indigenous
cultures. This is particularly true for the most marginal lands, where such crops
have
superior
adaptations
to local
peculiarities
of climate
and soil
(Toledo
et
al.,
1981).
Within
southwestern North
America,
certain
crop
landraces
oftepary
beans
and cushaw
squash
outproduce
commercial
cultivars of
related
species.
These
ecotypes
tolerate low soil moisture in
areas
receiving
less than
70
mm
seasonal
rainfall,
air
temperatures
reaching
49C and
soils with
high
pH,
and/or
soluble
salts content as
high
as
1,800
ppm
(Nabhan,
1983;
Nabhan et
al.,
1985).
2. Certain
crops,
though
not
necessarily
high yielders,
may
be
important
in
efficient utilization
and conservation
of
chronically
scarce
resources
such as
water
and
nitrogen (Romney
et
al., 1978). Water,
in
particular, is in such short supply
that it
is
subject
to
profound
intra- and
intercultural
conflicts
(US
OTA,
1984).
3.
Even
if
introduced and
improved
varieties
yield better,
there
may
be
non-
economic motives
for
honoring
an
"obsolete" native
crop's
right
to exist
(Ehren-
feld,
1977).
For
example,
native
crops
and
special
foods
derived
from them
may
be
symbols
of cultural
identity,
and,
as
such,
may
reinforce
an
indigenous
com-
munity's
pride
and
persistence
(Spicer,
1971).
4.
Native
crops may
cumulatively
provide
a
different
and
perhaps
superior
set
of
nutritional
resources to
indigenous
communities
than
may
be
obtained
through
government
food welfare
programs
or
through
trading posts
(Calloway
et
al., 1974;
Nabhan et
al.,
1985).
Native
Americans
and
"Mexican-Americans"
currently
suffer from
high
incidences of
diabetes
and other
nutrition-related
diseases
(West,
1974).
It
may
be
that fiber-rich
foods
formerly
more
prevalent
in
their
diets-a
diversity
of
beans
(Phaseolus),
mucilaginous
seeds such
as chia
(Salvia),
conivari
(Hyptis)
and cacti
(Opuntia)-served
to flatten
postprandial
blood
sucrose
curves
in
the
same
manner that
artificial
insulin is
used
today,
thereby
reducing
the
side
effects of the
adult-onset
diabetes
syndrome
(Ramos,
1980; Leeds,
1981).
Given
these
reasons for
conserving
native
crop
resources
in
southwestern
North
America,
several
questions
must be
raised.
What
native
crops
were
once
found
in
the
region?
How
are
they
geographically
and
culturally
distributed?
Which
gene
pools
are
diminished
and
in
need of
intervention
before
further
depletion?
What
combination of in
situ and
ex situ
measures will
best
maintain
remaining genetic
variation?
ARIDOAMERICA:
AN
OVERLOOKED
CENTER
OF
DIVERSITY
Table
1
lists the
native
crops
found in
indigenous
communities in
just
4
states
in
the
U.S./Mexico
borderlands:
Arizona,
New
Mexico,
Sonora,
and
Chihuahua.
As can be seen, at least 25 plant species in advanced stages of domestication have
been
cultivated
in
these
states
prehistorically
or
protohistorically.
There is in-
triguing
evidence
that
a
number
of
additional
species
were
cultivated
and/or
genetically
selected
within
the
area
of
these
states
(Table
2),
but
the
degree
of
their
domestication
remains
unclear.
The
point
is
not
that
we
should
inventory
domesticates
state-by-state.
On
the
contrary,
it
can be
demonstrated
that
most
of
these
crops'
distributions
ignore
such
political
boundaries
and
are
shared
by
cultures on
both
sides of
the
current
388
[VOL.
39
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NABHAN: NATIVE
CROP
DIVERSITY
TABLE 1.
DOMESTICATED
PLANT SPECIES
OF ARIDOAMERICA:
PREHISTORIC
AND
HISTORIC
GEOGRAPHY.a
Meso-
Miss.
Crop species AZ
NM CHIH.
SON. amer.
Valley
Amaranthus
cruentus*
0 0
x
x
0
A.
hypochondriacus*
0
x
x
x
0
Canavalia
ensiformis*
0
Capsicum
annuum*
x
x
x
x
0
Chenopodium
berlandieri*
x?
x
x
0 0
Cucurbita
ficifolia
x
x
x
C. mixta*
0
0
x
x
0
C. moschata*
0
0
x
x
0
x
C.
pepo
0
0 0
x
0 0
Gossypium
hirsutum
0
0 0
0 0
x
Helianthus annuus* x x x 0
Hordeum
pusillum*
Indigofera
suffruticosa
x x
x
Lagenaria
siceraria
00
0 0
Nicotiana
rustica 0
x x
x
0 0
N.
tabacum
x
x x
x
0
Panicum
sonorum* 0
x
0
Phaseolus
acutifolius*
0
0
x
0
0
P.
coccineus*
x
x
0
P.
lunatus*
0
0
x
x
0
P.
polyanthus*
x
0
P.
vulgaris*
0 0 x 0 0
Physalis
philadelphica*
x
x
0
Proboscidea
parviflora*
x
Zea mays*
0
0 0
0 0
0
a
Data derived
from numerous
published
and
unpublished
records,
available on
request.
Prehistoric
period,
indicated
by
a
circle,
refers to
archaeological
records
predating
1492.
Protohistoric
period,
indicated
by
an
x,
refers to
archaeological
and contact-time
written
documents, primarily
from
Jesuits
or
early
explorers
in
Aridoamerica,
postdating
1492. An asterisk behind
the
crop
species
binomial
indicates that
conspecific
or
cross-compatible congeneric
wild
plants
are
found within Aridoamerica.
international border. Of course, no such border existed prehistorically. Its recent
presence
has
hardly
affected
the distribution
of
native
crops
or
of
vegetation types
within
which their
wild
relatives
are found
(Fig.
1-3,
based
on
vegetation types
of
Rzedowski,
1978).
This
point
is
belabored
because
most treatments
of
crop
geography
have in fact
stopped
at or
near
this
border
At
best,
they
consider
the
U.S.
Southwest's
farming
traditions
to be a
crop
and
technology
complex
that invaded
this
"marginal
agricultural
area"
as a
package
from Mesoamerica
(Woodbury
and
Zubrow,
1979).
George
Carter's
(1945)
classic Plant
Geography
and Culture
History
in the
Amer-
ican Southwest dealt only with the U.S. Southwest, plus some 250 km2 of the
Colorado
River Delta
in
northwestern
Mexico.
Subsequent updates
or
summaries
of distributions of
native
crop
complexes
by
Winter
(1974)
and Ford
(1981)
have
again
dealt
only
with those tribes that
are distributed
north of
the
International
Boundary.
Dressler
(1953)
and
others,
in a similar
manner,
have dealt
only
with
pre-Columbian
cultivated
plants
of Mexico.
Such limited
views
obscure the
fact that
this
binational
region
is
the hearth
of
endemic domesticates
such as
Panicum sonorum
that
have been cultivated
in
a
1985]
389
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ECONOMICBOTANY
TABLE 2. ADDITIONAL
PLANT SPECIESTHAT MAY
HAVE BEEN
CULTIVATED AND/OR
CULTURALLY
SELECTED IN
ARIDOAMERICA.a
Meso- Miss.
Incipient
domesticate
AZ NM
CHIH. SON. amer.
Valley
Allium
sp.
x
Agave
angustifolia
x x
x
A.
murpheyi
?
x?
Brassica
campestris
x
x
?
Cleome serrulata
0
x
Dactyloctenium
aegypticum
x
x
Distichlis
palmeri
x
x
Hyptis
suaveolens
x x
Jaltomata
procumbens
x
x
Nicotiana attenuata
0
N. trigonophylla 0 x
Solanum
jamesii
x x
I
ee footnote
for
Table
1.
restricted
area on both
sides of the
border but
not
in
Mesoamerica or in the
Mississippi
Valley
(Nabhan
and
de
Wet,
1984).
Whereas
Ford
(1981)
and
Doebley
(1984)
failed to
recognize
a
truly
domesticated
form
of
this
species
with
prehistoric
and historic
presence
north
of
the
border,
others
(Harlan,
1975)
have
erroneously
assigned
this
plant
to a
Mesoamerican
origin.
Other
crops
such as
tepary
beans
(Phaseolus
acutifolius)
and cushaw
squash
(Cucurbita
mixta)
may
have
noncentric
origins
stretching
from
Guatemala
to
Sonora,
but
have been
considered
strictly
Mesoamerican
in
origin (Harlan,
1975).
Most
delimitations of a
Mesoamerican
center of
crop
origins
extend from
Mexico
City
or
Durango
southward
to Honduras
(Vavilov, 1951;
Harlan,
1975). However,
Zhukovsky (1975)
and Zeven
and de
Wet
(1982)
define
a
Mexican
and Central
American
region
with
northern limits
exactly
where
the
present
day
United
States-Mexico
boundary
is situated
(Fig.
1).
It is
remarkable
that
crop
geographers
would
pretend
that
plants
domesticated
prehistorically
were
wise
enough
to
anticipate
where the
Gadsden
Purchase
would
finally place
a
political
boundary
in 1849
Notably,
the
term
Mesoamerica is
commonly
used in
another manner
by
Latin
American
geographers.
It
refers
to a
region
with
climate and
vegetation
that is
predominantly tropical
and
mesic-intermediate
between xeric
and
hydric
in
its
access to
water-that is
located south
of the
extratropical
dry
lands and
adjacent
semiarid
highlands
of
North
America
(Kirchhoff, 1954;
West
1964).
In
an excellent
but
little-cited
publication
that is
available
in
both
Spanish
and
English,
Dr.
Jorge
Leon
(1979)
details
the
distribution of
Mesoamerican
crop
genetic
resources. Leon
notes that
anthropologists place
the
northern
limits
of
Mesoamerica
near the
watershed divide between the Rio Panuco and Rio Santiago at about 22N, and
the
southern
limits at
about
11N in
northeastern
Costa
Rica. His
map, however,
further
limits the
Mesoamerican
center
of
crop
diversity
around
the southern
boundaries
of the
Sonoran and
Chihuahuan
Deserts
(Fig.
2).
This
natural
geographic
boundary
is
roughly
the
southern limit
of what
Latin
American
geographers
sometimes refer
to
as
Aridoamerica,
or as
Norteamerica
Arida
(for
those
not
wishing
to
infer that it
includes
the
only
arid
zones in
the
Americas)
(Kirchhoff,
1954).
Actually,
Kirchhoffs
(1954)
cultural
regions
of Ar-
390
[VOL.
39
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NABHAN:NATIVE CROP
DIVERSITY
Fig.
1.
Delimitation
of
North
American
versus Central
American and
Mexican centers of
crop
origins
as
defined
by
Zeven
and de
Wet
(1982).
Base
map
follows
Rzedowski's 1978
map
of the
vegetation
of
Mexico,
extended into
the southern
U.S.
idoamerica
and
Oasis
Americaare
combined in
my
revised
concept
of
Aridoamer-
ica,
since
I
see
a
gradual
ransition in
genetic
resources
available
within
the
two.
Kirchhoffs
Oasis
America
roughly
coincides
with
what was
recently
discussed as
the
Sonoran
Desert
Agricultural
Region
and
its
native
crop
complex
(Nabhan
and
de
Wet,
1984).
However,
a
broader
binational
region
of
Aridoamerica
may
be
more geographically ohesive as a proposedcenterof diversityfor the following
reasons:
1. It
encompasses
the
major
North
American
deserts
within
which
indigenous
agriculture
hared
many
of
the same
crops.
2. Certain
crops
that
were
previously
assigned
to the
Sonoran
Desert
Agricul-
tural
Region
also
extend
beyond
desert
environments
nto
adjacent
semiarid
and
subtropical
sierras.
Though
not arid
in
the
true
sense,
these
upland
areas
share
the same
pattern
of
evapotranspiration
ar
exceeding
precipitation,
and
their
climates are
controlled
by
the
same air
current
patterns.
3. Certainculturalsubfamilies, orexample,the Sonoranbranchof the southern
Uto-Aztecan
languages,
nclude
tribes
that
historicallyoccupied
lands
in
the
So-
noran
Desert,
Chihuahuan
Desert
fringe,
and Sierra
Madre
Occidental
(Miller,
1983). Apaches,
the
southernmost
Athapaskans,
also had
a
binational
distribution
that
extends
from
Great Basin
to
Sonoranand
Chihuahuan
Desert
areas,
and
they
formerly
ranged
nto
the
Sierra
Madres
as well.
Yuman
tribal
distributions
extend
from
the
Mohave
Desert,
into
the
Sonoran
Desert and
adjacentuplands
of
Baja
California,
again
on
both
sides of
the
international
boundary.
1985]
391
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ECONOMIC
BOTANY
Fig.
2. Northern delimitation
of Mesoamerican center
of
crop diversity
and
of
Mesoamerican
cultures
as defined
by
Leon
(1979).
His
Mesoamerica
extends southward
to northeastern Costa
Rica,
and
in
his written
description,
Mexico's Rios Panuco and
Santiago
are
northern borders.
In
short,
an Aridoamerican
enter
of
crop diversity
is
binational,
ncluding
both
deserts and
adjacent
semiarid
uplands,
as do culturaldistributions
n
this
region.
It extends from
roughly
he
southern
GreatBasin
n
Utah,
around
38N,
southward
at least
as faras the
Tropic
of
Cancer,
and
perhaps
arther outh
in
the Chihuahuan
Desert,
to around
23N.
Its farthest
westward reaches
prehistorically
were the
SaltonBasin andCoachellaValleyin California. t extendedeast to theRio Grande
(Rio Bravo)drainage,
but
farther
south,
I
am not sure
of
its eastern
imits.
I
hope
that
the
provisional
boundaries
of an
Aridoamericancenter of native
crop
di-
versity,
as illustrated
in
Fig.
3,
can be refined
on
the basis of criticism from
archaeologists
and
plant geographers.
Until more archaeobotanicalwork is ac-
complished
n
northern
Mexico,
the
geographic
imits of this
region'scrop
heritage
will
remain
imprecise.
GENE POOLS OF ARIDOAMERICAN
CROPS
The genetic diversity of crops within any regionmay be related to a number
of
factors,
such as:
(1)
the
antiquity
and
continuity
of
agriculture; 2)
ecological
(habitat)diversity; (3)
cultural
diversity;
and
(4)
introgression
of
crops
with their
wild or
weedy
relatives
(Harlan, 1975).
Evidence
for
agriculture
n
Aridoamerica
dates back
to between
2000 and 1500 B.C.
(Woodbury
and
Zubrow,
1979).
After
crops
and
farming
technology
emerged
or were
introduced,
they
were
refinedto
fit a
diversity
of local
environments
(Woosley, 1980).
The
diverse cultures
n
the
region
also
applied
distinct
folk
scientific and aesthetic criteria to
crop
varietal
392
[VOL.
39
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NABHAN:NATIVE CROP DIVERSITY
Fig.
3. Delimitation of Aridoamerica as defined
by
geographical
and
cultural-agricultural
factors.
I
have followed the
vegetational
limits of arid and semiarid
zones to some
extent,
further
limiting
this
center
by excluding
arid areas where there is
no
known
prehistoric
or
protohistoric
evidence of
native
agriculture.
Southern and eastern boundaries
will
require
further
refinement.
selection
for
color, taste,
etc.,
such that
Navajo
blue flour
corn looks
remarkably
different
rom
Hopi
blue flour corn
grown
just
a few
miles
away
from it.
Intraspecificgenetic
variation
within
each
crop
species
in
Aridoamerica can
also be evaluated
from
the
species'
geographic
origins
and
interbreeding
with
species or varieties found within the region. Some crops were introduced after
being
domesticated elsewhere and have had no
gene
exchange
with
wild
species
in
the
region.
These
culturally
allochthonous
crops
include:
Lagenaria
siceraria,
the
bottlegourd;
Gossypium
hirsutumvar.
punctatum,
cotton;
and the
tobaccos,
Nicotiana
rustica,
and
later,
Nicotiana tabacum.
There are additional allochthonous
crops
that have wild
relatives
that
barely
enter
this
region.
Limited
gene exchange
s
theoretically
possible
between the wild
and
domesticated
taxa,
but
it
has not been
documented. Canavalia
ensiformis,
the
jack
bean,
has
a
close wild
relative,
C.
brasiliensis,
n
Sinaloa. The
degree
of
cross-compatibilityanddistributionsof these taxa arepoorlyknown.Pennington's
(1982) ethnohistory
of Eudeve
agriculture
argues
that
the
nearly
extinct
Sonoran
tribe once cultivated a
Chenopodium
species.
If
subsequent
work
confirms the
presence
of C.
berlandieri ar. nuttalliae n this
region,
as
in
the
Mississippi
Valley
and
Mesoamerica
(Wilson,
1981), gene exchange
with
common,
weedy
C.
ber-
landieri varieties
may
have once been
possible
in
Sonora.
The
interrelationships
f Cucurbita
pepo
are
also
not as
simple
as
many
would
think.
Remains of Cucurbita
pepo
in
the
Ocampo
Caves
of
Tamaulipas dating
1985]
393
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ECONOMICBOTANY
from
7000-5000
B.C.
may
represent
he texana
variety,
now known to be
more
widespread
than
formerly
assumed. Whether this
variety
was
native to north-
easternMexico
and
the
adjacent
United States s
currently
unresolved.After
other
C.
pepo
cultivated varieties were
introduced,
it
may
have
exchanged
genes
with
them. Until HughWilson and his colleagueshavereevaluated elationshipsamong
these
taxa,
it
will
remain difficult o
interpret
early
C.
pepo
records
on the
north-
eastern
fringes
of Aridoamerica.
In
published
distributions
of wild
Phaseolus,
no
evidence
is
cited
for
either
P.
vulgaris
or
P.
coccineus
growing
n
arid
northernMexico.
Wild
varieties
of
both
species
have now
been collected on the
fringes
of the
Sierra
Tarahumara
n
Chi-
huahua.
Together
with
my
colleagues
Jose
Muruaga,
Barney
Burns,
and Amadeo
Rea,
I
have
located
populations
of wild
P.
vulgaris
near
Yepachic
and
Balleza,
and wild
P.
coccineusnear
Balleza and
Laguna
de Babicora.
These
newly
located
northernpopulationshave the potentialto hybridizewith cultivatedpopulations
of
domesticates,
and the
2
species
are
cross-compatible.
In
contrast,
Phaseolus lunatus var.
silvester
presently
reaches
Sinaloa,
but
no
farther
north.
Introgression
of
wild
genes
from
this
taxon into
domesticated
imas
or sievas is
hardly
a feasible
explanation
for the
great
varietal
diversity
of lima
bean
landraces found
among
the
Pima,
Hopi,
and Pueblo
Indians
hundreds
of
kilometers to the
north
(Mackie,
1943).
The
Puebloan
cultures
of the
Colorado
Plateau
may
have
harboreda
secondary
center
of
diversity
for
cultivated
Phaseolus
lunatus,
far from
its center of
origin.
Physalisphiladelphica, he tomatillo or miltomate,may be the "tomato"men-
tioned
in
early
accounts of
Eudeve
agriculture
Pennington,
1982).
Its wild
variety
has been
undergoing
selection
and its seeds
are saved
at
Zuni,
far
removed
from
other
wild
populations.
The
cultural
geography
of
Physalis
deserves further
n-
vestigation
in
Aridoamerica.
For another
set
of
allochthonous
crops,
continued
introgression
with wild
rel-
atives is
more
likely,
and this
process
has
probably
contributed
to
landrace
di-
versity
in
the
region.
For
example,
Wilkes
(1970)
documented
Nobogame
teosinte
introgression
nto
maize varieties
in
the
northern
Tepehuan
region
of
Chihuahua.
Thisteosinteintrogressionhaslongbeenconsideredasakeyfactor orthepresence
of
certain
morphological
raits
found
in
prehistoric
maize
elsewhere
n
Aridoam-
erica,
but such
influence is now
subject
to
debate
by
corn
geneticists.
The
bewildering
diversity
of
morphological
forms of
Amaranthus
hypochon-
driacus and
A.
cruentus
from the
Warihio
Indians
may
be due
to
introgression
with
A.
hybridus
Sauer,
n
Nabhan,
1979a).
Near the
Sonora-Chihuahua
order
a
few
Warihio,
Mayo,
and
Mountain
Pima
farmers
still
plant
amaranths.
Ama-
ranthus
hybridus
s
found
in
these
fields
in
high
densities
(Nabhan,
1979a).
More
recently,
I
have
encountered
possible
evidence of
A.
powellii introgression
with
A.
cruentus
grownby
the
Hopi
at Lower
Moenkopi, Arizona. Work in progress
may
confirm
whether
gene
exchange
is
actually
occurring
in
Hopi
fields.
It
is
intriguing
hat
Jonathan
Sauer
(1977)
has
proposed
a
North
American
domesti-
cation of
A.
hypochondriacus
rom A.
powellii,
on the
basis
of
geographic
as
well
as
ethnohistoric data from
Aridoamerica.
LauraMerrick
and
I
have
also
begun
documenting
ntrogression
between
wild
Cucurbita
and
Pima landracesof
squashes
(C.
mixta
and
possibly
C.
moschata)
at
Onavas,
Sonora
(Nabhan,
1984).
This
work will
complement
Merrick's
more
extensive
biosystematic
study
of
the
Cucurbita
sororia
complex
(Merrick
and
394
[VOL.
39
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NABHAN: NATIVE
CROPDIVERSITY
Nabhan, 1984; Merrick,
n
prep.).
It
may
be that this
introgression
s
responsible
for the rich varietal
diversity
of C.
mixta
cushaw
squashes
n
Sonoraand
adjacent
Sinaloaand
Chihuahua,
where
silver-seeded,
Taos-type,
and
marginless
seed
seg-
regatesappear
together
in
populations
that evolved within Indian
fields.
In addition, farmersfrom Onavas, Sonora,insist that wild chiltepinesare con-
tributinggenes
to
their local cultivated
chiles,
some of which
thereby
become
too
hot to
market
Cindy
Bakerand
I
have submitted
samples
of
wild and cultivated
Capsicum
annuum from such
settings
to
Dr.
Steve
Tanksley
and FernandoLoasa
of New Mexico State
University. They
hope
to
use
electrophoresis
as a tool
to
resolve whether
chiltepine
genes
indeed have
introgressed
nto
chiles
(Tanksley,
1983).
Dr. Giles Waines
of
the
University
of Californiaat Riverside is
studying
a
similar
story
of
potential
introgression
of wild and
domesticated
tepary
beans
(Phaseolus
acutifolius),
both
of
which
occur
on
the same
floodplains
in
Sonora,
Chihuahua,and Arizona(Nabhan, 1979b).
The
role of
introgression
n
the
diversification
of
sunflower andracesafter nitial
domestication also deserves
further
field
study.
Hopi
dye
sunflowers
Helianthus
annuus)
have
long
been
grown
in
the same
fields where Helianthus
anomalus,
a
cross-compatiblespecies
(Rogers
et
al.,
1982)
is
protected
by
the
Hopi (Nabhan
and
Reichhardt,
1983).
Wild Helianthus
annuus is not common
in
Hopi fields,
although
t is
abundant
n
those
of
other
tribes,
where t could
potentially"swamp"
the domesticate.
Most
important
in
defining
Aridoamericaas a
distinct center of
diversity
are
its endemic domesticates. Panicum sonorum was domesticatedentirely within
this
region,
but its
relationships
with other taxa
in
the
Panicum
hirticaule
omplex
are
not
clear
(Nabhan
and de
Wet,
1984).
Today,
this
domesticate is
extremely
rare.
In
the area inhabited
by
the
prehistoric
Hohokam,
Hordeum
pusillum
ap-
pears
to have
been
culturally
selected. Karen
Adams,
with the aid
of Vorsila
Bohrer,
Robert
Gasser,
and Charles
Miksicek,
is
in
the
process
of
studying
this
little-known
prehistoric
domesticate.
Also,
the
basketry
fiber
plant,
Proboscidea
parviflora
ar.
hohokamiana
appears
o
have been
domesticated
n
the
last
century
in
the
northernSonoran
Desert,
from
which it was
rapidly
diffused
o
the Mohave
Desert and Great Basin (Nabhanand Rea, in press).PeterBretting(1982) and a
teamof
Arizona
scientists
(Nabhan
et
al.,
198
la)
have
published
on the
dynamics
of this
domestication and
continue
to
study
it.
This
domesticate no
doubt ex-
changesgenes
with
wild
P.
parviflora
var.
parviflora hroughout
much of
its
range
of
cultivation.
Although
I
will
not review them
here,
incipient
domesticates
such
as Jaltomata
in
Mesoamerica
andsouthern
Aridoamerica
Davis
and
Bye, 1982),
and an
Allium
cultivated
by
the
Papago
open
many
new
questions.
At the
same
time,
we
must
reconsiderwhether
or not
early
historic
cultivation of
Agave
(Robertson,
1972)
andof a turniporrutabaga-like ativeroot (Pennington,1982)resulted n distinct
genotypes.
There
is
intriguing
archaeological
videncethat
southern
Arizona
Ho-
hokam
may
have
cultivated an
undetermined
Agave
n
Classic
andLate
Sedentary
times,
in
habitats
where wild
agaves
are
not now
found
(Fish
et
al.,
in
prep.).
DRAINING OF
GENE
POOLS
Of
the
above-mentioned
native
crops,
Hordeum,
Chenopodium,
nd
Canavalia
regional
gene pools
have
dried
up
completely, i.e.,
these
crops
are
extinct in
indigenous
communities of
Aridoamerica.
Locally
adapted Panicum,
Amaran-
1985]
395
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ECONOMIC
BOTANY
thus,
Gossypium,
and several
species
of the cultivated
but
perhaps
not
necessarily
domesticated
plants
(e.g.,
Hyptis)
are near extinction
within
the
region.
Regional
ecotypes
of
chiles, maize,
and sunflowersare
being
rapidlyreplaced
by
introduced,
improved varieties. Other native crops are not threatened,but have certainly
decreased
in
abundance as modem
cash-crop
monoculture has
replaced
indige-
nous mixed
cropping.
Modem
agricultural
management practices
are
likely
de-
creasing
he
potential
for
introgression
of
crops
with
weeds,
since more
intensive
tillage
and
herbicide
use
are
commonplace
in
certain
subregions.
Let
me
emphasize
that the oft-cited
example
of
Green Revolution
hybrids
replacing
ocal
landraces
hardly
accounts for much of
the
genetic
erosion of
in-
digenous
cultivated
plants
in
Aridoamerica.
Most,
but
not
all,
of
this
erosion has
occurredwithin
the last
century,
and is
the
result of several
interacting
actors:
1.
Acculturation/abandonment f
farming raditionsbyindigenouspopulations.
2.
Economic
change/rural
migration
to cities.
3. Destruction of
indigenous
agricultural
"habitats"via
man-inducedenviron-
mental
change.
4.
Usurpation
of traditional
farming
areas or
irrigation
water
by
others.
5.
Replacement
of
small-scalemixed
cropping
by
mechanized
farming
of
single
(often
exotic) crops.
On the
scale
of
villages
and
fields,
there has
been
a
decrease
in
the
genetic
variation found within
certain
crop
species
due
to:
1. Fewer
neighboring
armers
growing
a
particular
crop,
resulting
n
a
smaller
population/gene
pool
overall.
2.
Smaller
populations
of
crops
per
field.
3. Less
frequent
planting
of a
crop
or
landrace.
4. Loss
of the
skills
of
seed
selection and
storage.
5.
Change
in
exposure
to
cross-compatible
weedy
species.
6.
Change
n
vulnerability
to
competition
by
weeds
and
consumption
by
pests
(including
ntroduced
species).
7.
Collapse
of
several
landraces
nto one
multiline
gene
pool.
CONSERVATION OF EXTANT NATIVE-CROP DIVERSITY
A
number of
ex situ
and
in
situ
conservation
strategies
for
conserving
extant
genetic
diversity
have
been
proposed.
One
might pursue
emergency
funding
for
plant
collecting
in
localities
where
rapid
cultural
or
environmental
change
is
occurring,hoping
to
salvage
as
many
varieties as
possible
for
placement
in
seed
banks or
botanical
gardens.
At
the
other
extreme,
perhaps,
is
the
Iltis
(1974)
suggestion
hat we
"freeze he
genetic
andscape."
ltis
argues
hat
scientists
should
urge
politicans
to
negotiate
the
"deliberate
exclusion
of
agricultural
mprove-
ments"
into
"selected
specific
ocal
genetic
landscapes"
where
primitive
landraces
continue to exchange genes with adjoining
weedy
and wild
populations.
He
sug-
gests
that
genetic
erosion
and
environmental
destruction
caused
by
"economic
development"
projects
be
controlled
by
creating
biosphere
reserves
where
indig-
enous
farmers
would be
subsidized
to continue
with their
traditional
agriculture.
Wilkes
(1971) proposed
that
"world
genetic
resource
areas"
be
established
where
native
agriculturalists
would
become
curatorsof
living
collectionsof
crossbreeding
crops
and
weedy
relatives.
To
preserve
areas of
maize-teosinte
introgression,
or
396
[VOL.
39
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NABHAN:
NATIVE CROP
DIVERSITY
example,
Wilkes
suggests
that
only
5
carefully
chosen 5
x
20
km
strips
would
be
needed.
While bothof
these
strategies
are
motivated
by
a trueconcernabout
the
alarming
rate of genetic erosion, they have been criticized for being somewhatinoperable
and ethnocentric.
By relying
solely
on ex situ conservation
measures,
we
make
the
collected
materialvulnerable o
(1)
decreased
population
variation
and
genetic
shifts due to
inbreeding,
2)
the
effectsof seed
storage,
occasional,
recurrent
row-
outs,
and
(3)
human errors
in
sampling
and
handling (Roos,
1980, 1984).
Even
with better
handling
of
germplasm
n
seed
banks,
we
cannot
duplicate
the
"dy-
namic
evolutionary
potential"
of
crops
still found
in
their cradles of
origin(Iltis,
1974).
But
by relyingsolely
on
in situ
conservation
measures,
we would
be
fighting
the
tide of
acculturation,
assimilation,
and economic
change
that affect
virtually
every human population on the planet. Today, it is inevitable that a sizeable
portion
of
any indigenous
community
will
want
to
seek
opportunities
other
than
those
traditionally
open
to
them
in
their
village,
even
if
it
means
foresakingpart
or all of their
agricultural
heritage. "Freezing"
an
agroecosystem
may
not even
be
possible,given
that culturaland environmental
changes
will
continue
regardless
of intentional
efforts
to
stop
or
slow them.
Instead,
it
may
be
possible
to
combine
selected in
situ
and
ex situ
conservation
measures
in a
dynamic way.
Each
crop
or landrace
may
be
suffering
rom a differentrate of
genetic
erosion. The rarer
a
landrace
or
crop
complex
has become
in
a
village,
the
more
important
it
is
to
consider "rescue"
techniques
to
assure
that
some seeds
are conserved
ex situ.
Whena
landrace
s still
grownby
a numberof families
in different
villages,
greater
effortshould
be
exerted
to
encourage
at
least
a few
growers
o
conserve
it in situ.
Various combinations of
in situ
and
ex
situ
crop
conservation are now
being
attempted
by
a number of
organizations,
ncluding
the
nonprofit
Native
Seeds/
SEARCH
organization
basedin Tucson. When Native
Seeds/SEARCH
taff
makes
field
collections,
farmerswho donate seeds are
usually
asked
if
they
have
enough
surplus supply
to
spare
and
if
there are other kinds of
native seeds
that
they
formerlygrew
which
we
might
help
obtain for
them.
In
general,
conservation
measures
will
be
most effectivewhen
communities
of
native farmers
are
cognizant
of,
and involved
in,
their
planning
and
implemen-
tation.
They
should become aware that
reciprocal
exchanges
of seeds with
gene
banks
are
possible
and that other
options
are available as well.
Farmers
who
donate seeds
to
a
gene
bank
or botanical
garden
must
be
informed how
to
gain
access
to
subsamples
of seed increasesheld
in
gene
banks and botanical
gardens,
in
case
they
happen
to
lose their
remaining
seeds.
They
must know
the
reasons
that
others are interested
n
these
seeds,
and their own effortsto
propagate
hem
must
be
reinforced.
In
this
respect,
it
is
heartening
that
agricultural
education
programs
on
Indian reservations
now include
information from tribal
elderson
traditionalplanting echniques,seedsaving,andselection(BinghamandBingham,
1979;
Nabhan et
al.,
1981
b).
In the
future,
indigenous
foods, seeds,
and
farming
practices
should
be
further
encouraged
as
part
of
cultural
revival
movements,
tribal
health,
and
gardening
projects,
and educationaloutreach
programs.
New cultural
and
economic
incen-
tives for
diversified,regionally
adapted
agriculture
must be
considered,particu-
larly
whenextant ncentives
for
growing
certainnative
crops
no
longer
are
effective.
1985]
397
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7/21/2019 aridoamerica nabhan
13/14
ECONOMIC
BOTANY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Research
on native
crop/weed
introgression
n Aridoamericahas
been
supported
by grants
from
the Wenner-GrennFoundationand
the
National
Science
Foundation
Anthropology
and
Linguistics
Sections
BNS-8317190), hrough
he
University
of Arizona.
Researchon the causesof
geneticerosion
and
conservation
trategies
pplicable
n
this
region
has
been
aided
by
C.S. Fund
and Tides
Foundation
support
to Native Seeds/SEARCH.
thank
Mahina
Drees,
Karen
Reichhardt,
Barney
Burns,
Laura
Merrick,
Robert
Bye,
Charles
Miksicek,
and Garrison
Wilkes
for
helpful
discussion.
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